Wikiversity enwikiversity https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page MediaWiki 1.39.0-wmf.23 first-letter Media Special Talk User User talk Wikiversity Wikiversity talk File File talk MediaWiki MediaWiki talk Template Template talk Help Help talk Category Category talk School School talk Portal Portal talk Topic Topic talk Collection Collection talk Draft Draft talk TimedText TimedText talk Module Module talk Gadget Gadget talk Gadget definition Gadget definition talk 4 28 2415561 2415524 2022-08-16T12:27:07Z Sophivorus 85690 /* Template:Notice */ Reply wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikiversity:Colloquium/Header}} <!-- MESSAGES GO BELOW --> == TemplateScripts = Templates + JavaScript == Hi! I'd like to propose enabling [[c:Help:TemplateScripts|TemplateScripts]] on the English Wikiversity. It's not a MediaWiki extension, but a few lines of JavaScript added to [[MediaWiki:Common.js]] that basically allow to run JavaScript from templates, '''as long as the code is on the MediaWiki namespace and with the "TemplateScript-" prefix''', which requires an authorized user and community consensus to get there. The system is enabled on the Spanish Wikipedia where it's used for easy signing of polls and projects (see blue button [[:es:Wikiproyecto:Veganismo/participantes|here]]), for navigating [[Template:Excerpt#Excerpt trees|excerpt trees]] (see box with tree icon [[:es:Discusión:Ciencia|here]]), for injecting interactive widgets on some articles ([[:es:Hormiga de Langton|here]] and [[:es:Juego de la vida|here]]) and more recently for creating interactive forms that inject content into other pages (see template [[:es:Plantilla:Formulario|here]], soon to be used on admin boards). My immediate goal on Wikiversity is to use it to develop a tool to make [[Wikidebate|wikidebates]] more friendly. However I believe some of the existing scripts, particularly the ones for creating forms and signing pages, can be very useful on Wikiversity overall, as well as in some specific projects like [[Automata theory]] and [[Conway's Game of Life]]. So what do you think? [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|talk]]) 21:12, 29 June 2022 (UTC) :Hmm well, there's no support, but no objections either. If no one objects in a week or two, I may implement this since I got the necessary permission (and years of involvement in Wikiversity and other Wikimedia projects, I dare say). Cheers! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 19:23, 1 August 2022 (UTC) ::Well, after a prudent amount of time with no objections, I just enabled TemplateScripts. See [[Template:Game of Life]] and [[Conway's Game of Life#Sandbox]] for a first example of a template using this feature. Cheers! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 21:38, 13 August 2022 (UTC) :::As promised, I developed [[MediaWiki:TemplateScript-Wikidebate.js]] to make [[wikidebates]] more friendly, see for example the [add objection] buttons in [[Should cannabis be legal?]] [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 21:32, 15 August 2022 (UTC) ::::Thanks for doing this and sharing this example {{ping|Sophivorus}} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 08:36, 16 August 2022 (UTC) ==[[Template:Notice]]== The rendering of this template now gives the message: Page Module:Message box/ambox.css has no content. This message shows on some pages that use the template e.g., the [[Template:Notice|template page itself]] and pages such as [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction]] but not when tested on other pages e.g., [[User:Jtneill/sandbox]] or below {{Notice|I've checked the history of this and related templates, but couldn't see any recent changes}}. Anyone know what's happened and how to fix? {{ping|Dave Braunschweig}} Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 08:36, 16 August 2022 (UTC) :@[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] Hi! Not sure what happened but I just created an empty [[Module:Message box/ambox.css]] to at least get rid of the error message. [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 12:27, 16 August 2022 (UTC) fnykp5e276gfxonckki0xrh7rvif31h 2415595 2415561 2022-08-16T15:31:01Z Dave Braunschweig 426084 /* Template:Notice */ Reply wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikiversity:Colloquium/Header}} <!-- MESSAGES GO BELOW --> == TemplateScripts = Templates + JavaScript == Hi! I'd like to propose enabling [[c:Help:TemplateScripts|TemplateScripts]] on the English Wikiversity. It's not a MediaWiki extension, but a few lines of JavaScript added to [[MediaWiki:Common.js]] that basically allow to run JavaScript from templates, '''as long as the code is on the MediaWiki namespace and with the "TemplateScript-" prefix''', which requires an authorized user and community consensus to get there. The system is enabled on the Spanish Wikipedia where it's used for easy signing of polls and projects (see blue button [[:es:Wikiproyecto:Veganismo/participantes|here]]), for navigating [[Template:Excerpt#Excerpt trees|excerpt trees]] (see box with tree icon [[:es:Discusión:Ciencia|here]]), for injecting interactive widgets on some articles ([[:es:Hormiga de Langton|here]] and [[:es:Juego de la vida|here]]) and more recently for creating interactive forms that inject content into other pages (see template [[:es:Plantilla:Formulario|here]], soon to be used on admin boards). My immediate goal on Wikiversity is to use it to develop a tool to make [[Wikidebate|wikidebates]] more friendly. However I believe some of the existing scripts, particularly the ones for creating forms and signing pages, can be very useful on Wikiversity overall, as well as in some specific projects like [[Automata theory]] and [[Conway's Game of Life]]. So what do you think? [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|talk]]) 21:12, 29 June 2022 (UTC) :Hmm well, there's no support, but no objections either. If no one objects in a week or two, I may implement this since I got the necessary permission (and years of involvement in Wikiversity and other Wikimedia projects, I dare say). Cheers! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 19:23, 1 August 2022 (UTC) ::Well, after a prudent amount of time with no objections, I just enabled TemplateScripts. See [[Template:Game of Life]] and [[Conway's Game of Life#Sandbox]] for a first example of a template using this feature. Cheers! [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 21:38, 13 August 2022 (UTC) :::As promised, I developed [[MediaWiki:TemplateScript-Wikidebate.js]] to make [[wikidebates]] more friendly, see for example the [add objection] buttons in [[Should cannabis be legal?]] [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 21:32, 15 August 2022 (UTC) ::::Thanks for doing this and sharing this example {{ping|Sophivorus}} -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 08:36, 16 August 2022 (UTC) ==[[Template:Notice]]== The rendering of this template now gives the message: Page Module:Message box/ambox.css has no content. This message shows on some pages that use the template e.g., the [[Template:Notice|template page itself]] and pages such as [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Introduction]] but not when tested on other pages e.g., [[User:Jtneill/sandbox]] or below {{Notice|I've checked the history of this and related templates, but couldn't see any recent changes}}. Anyone know what's happened and how to fix? {{ping|Dave Braunschweig}} Sincerely, James -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 08:36, 16 August 2022 (UTC) :@[[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] Hi! Not sure what happened but I just created an empty [[Module:Message box/ambox.css]] to at least get rid of the error message. [[User:Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|contribs]]) 12:27, 16 August 2022 (UTC) :I think it's related to a recent Wikimedia update about how CSS pages are managed. I just noticed [[Module:Message box/fmbox.css]] causing similar messages and created that one. If anyone notices similar messages, let us know or create an empty page to (temporarily?) resolve the issue. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 15:31, 16 August 2022 (UTC) m4jwajt3i5ociv4kh29tnudd2dun7nn 0 4032 2415563 2415538 2022-08-16T12:35:32Z 83.137.2.203 /* Challenge 1: Fonts and Colours */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Web design/header}} {{TOC center|limit=2}} These challenges are here to help you flex your CSS skills, and see where you need to practice more! If you're new to CSS, you should go through the [https://www.web4college.com/css-play/index.php list of CSS properties] from web4college. It represents the CSS tutorials from basic to advance with the examples related to every topic and an online code-editor is also available to practice these examples. Go ahead to the next level of CSS and learn new kind of web [https://www.web4college.com/how-to-make/ animations]. == Challenge 1: Fonts and Colours == [[Image:Css challenges 1.png|thumb|right|Challenge 1 ]]This first challenge only involves changing your fonts and colours - no layout or other more advanced CSS here! Copy-n-paste the HTML to get started, and click on the image to see what your page should look like! Hints: * You'll need to link your HTML to a new stylesheet. * You can use the following fonts list for help: http://www.w3.org/Style/Examples/007/fonts * Don't worry if your text doesn't wrap at the same word -- it will depend on the size of your browser window. <!--Notes: * Lines of poetry like this really shouldn't be marked-up as list-items. The current draft of XHTML 2.0 introduces the <code>l</code> element ([http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml2/mod-text.html#sec_9.7.]), which is intended for marking up lines of verse amongst other things. The <code>pre</code> element is normally used to mark up poetry in XHTML 1.0.--> <syntaxhighlight lang="html" line="1"> <!DOCTYPE html> <html> <head> <title>Challenge 1</title> </head> <body> <h1>Shakespeare's Sonnet #18</h1> <p> This is one of the most famous of the sonnets. It is referenced in the film Dead Poets Society and gave names to the band The Darling Buds and the book and television series The Darling Buds of May. Read it and weep! </p> <ul> <li>Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?</li> <li>Thou art more lovely and more temperate:</li> <li>Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,</li> <li>And summer's lease hath all too short a date:</li> <li>Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,</li> <li>And often is his gold complexion dimm'd,</li> <li>And every fair from fair sometime declines,</li> <li>By chance, or nature's changing course untrimm'd:</li> <li>But thy eternal summer shall not fade,</li> <li>Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st,</li> <li>Nor shall death brag thou wander'st in his shade,</li> <li>When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st,</li> <li>So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,</li> <li>So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.</li> </ul> <p class="copyright">See the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Sonnets"> Shakespeare's sonnets</a> Wikipedia article for more information </p> </body> </html> </syntaxhighlight> {{-}} == Challenge 2: Shakespeare's Sonnet == [[Image:Css1_1.png|thumb|right|Challenge 2 ]] [[Image:Cssthingy.png|thumb|right|Challenge 2-A ]] This second challenge will help you to re-cap your CSS text formatting skills, as well as start using margins and padding. Copy-n-paste the HTML to get started, and click on the image to see what your page should look like! You can also try to get your page to look like the page from the image on the right (challenge 2-A), which uses a few more advanced (though not too hard) CSS techniques. If you can improve on the design (shouldn't be too hard!) without increasing the difficulty of this challenge, great! I'll happily replace the image! Hints: * The thumbnails are not very representative, but this challenge requires you to create a '''fixed-width''' layout that is centred in the browser window. Click on an image for a closer view. * To get the wrap division to stay centred, you'll need to set the left and right margins to a_t_ (you've got to fill in the blanks). </br> <syntaxhighlight lang="html" line="1"> <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd"> <html> <head> <title>CSS Challenge 2</title> <style> </style> </head> <body> <div id="wrap"> <h1>Shakespeare's Sonnet #18</h1> <div class="line"></div> <p> This is one of the most famous of the sonnets. It is referenced in the film Dead Poets Society and gave names to the band The Darling Buds and the book and television series The Darling Buds of May. Read it and weep! </p> <ul> <li>Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?</li> <li>Thou art more lovely and more temperate:</li> <li>Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,</li> <li>And summer's lease hath all too short a date:</li> <li>Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,</li> <li>And often is his gold complexion dimm'd,</li> <li>And every fair from fair sometime declines,</li> <li>By chance, or nature's changing course untrimm'd:</li> <li>But thy eternal summer shall not fade,</li> <li>Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st,</li> <li>Nor shall death brag thou wander'st in his shade,</li> <li>When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st,</li> <li>So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,</li> <li>So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.</li> </ul> <p class="copyright"> See the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Sonnets"> Shakespeare's sonnets</a > Wikipedia article for more information </p> </div> </body> </html> </syntaxhighlight> == Challenge 3: 2-column layout== [[Image:Css 3 1.png|thumb|right|Challenge 3 ]] This one will get you fiddling with margins and padding! Hints: * You'll need to set a fixed width for your wrap, and then float the navigation <code>div</code>. * You may also want to fiddle with widths/margins of the navigation and content divisions! * For this and the next few challenges, you may want to first look through MaxDesign's [https://web.archive.org/web/20150117111031/http://www.maxdesign.com.au/articles/two-columns/ Two columns with colour] tutorial. </br> <syntaxhighlight lang="html"> <html> <head> <title>CSS Challenge 3</title> <style> </style> </head> <body> <div id="wrap"> <div id="nav"> <h2>Sonnet Index</h2> <ul> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #1</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #6</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #11</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #15</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #18</a></li> </ul> </div> <div id="content"> <h1>Shakespeare's Sonnet #18</h1> <p>This is one of the most famous of the sonnets. It is referenced in the film Dead Poets Society and gave names to the band The Darling Buds and the book and television series The Darling Buds of May. Read it and weep!</p> <ul> <li>Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?</li> <li>Thou art more lovely and more temperate:</li> <li>Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,</li> <li>And summer's lease hath all too short a date:</li> <li>Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,</li> <li>And often is his gold complexion dimm'd,</li> <li>And every fair from fair sometime declines,</li> <li>By chance, or nature's changing course untrimm'd:</li> <li>But thy eternal summer shall not fade,</li> <li>Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st,</li> <li>Nor shall death brag thou wander'st in his shade,</li> <li>When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st,</li> <li>So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,</li> <li>So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.</li> </ul> </div> </div> <p class="copyright">See the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Sonnets"> Shakespeare's sonnets</a> Wikipedia article for more information </p> </body> </html> </syntaxhighlight> {{-}} == Challenge 4: 2 Columns with a header and footer == [[Image:csschallenge4.png|thumb|right|Challenge 4 ]] This time you've got an extra header and horizontal navigation to worry about! Hints: * For some ideas for styling the horizontal nav bar, see [http://css.maxdesign.com.au/listamatic/ listamatic]. * You'll need to fiddle with paddings/margins to get the divs bumped up against each other. * If you get stuck, try following [http://www.456bereastreet.com/lab/developing_with_web_standards/csslayout/2-col/ 456BereaStreet's 2-column layout tutorial]. </br></br></br> <syntaxhighlight lang="html"> <html lang="en"> <head> <title>CSS Challenge 4</title> </head> <body> <div id="wrap"> <div id="header"> <h1>Shakespear.net</h1> </div> <div id="nav"> <ul> <li><a href="#">Home</a></li> <li><a href="#">Writings</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnets</a></li> <li><a href="#">Life Story</a></li> <li><a href="#">About Shakespear.net</a></li> </ul> </div> <div id="sidebar"> <h2>Sonnet Index</h2> <ul> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #1</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #6</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #11</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #15</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #18</a></li> </ul> </div> <div id="content"> <h1>Shakespeare's Sonnet #18</h1> <p>This is one of the most famous of the sonnets. It is referenced in the film Dead Poets Society and gave names to the band The Darling Buds and the book and television series The Darling Buds of May. Read it and weep!</p> <ul> <li>Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?</li> <li>Thou art more lovely and more temperate:</li> <li>Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,</li> <li>And summer's lease hath all too short a date:</li> <li>Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,</li> <li>And often is his gold complexion dimm'd,</li> <li>And every fair from fair sometime declines,</li> <li>By chance, or nature's changing course untrimm'd:</li> <li>But thy eternal summer shall not fade,</li> <li>Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st,</li> <li>Nor shall death brag thou wander'st in his shade,</li> <li>When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st,</li> <li>So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,</li> <li>So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.</li> </ul> </div> <div id="footer"> <p class="copyright">See the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Sonnets"> Shakespeare's sonnets</a> Wikipedia article for more information </p> </div> </div> </body> </html> </syntaxhighlight> {{-}} == Challenge 5: Gimme some whitespace == [[Image:csschallenge5.png|thumb|left|Challenge 5 ]] [[Image:csschallenge5.jpg|thumb|right|Logo for Challenge 5 ]] This one's inspired by the design of [http://clearleft.com clearleft]. A nice clean look with lots of whitespace. Have fun! Hints: * You'll need to hide the h1 somehow! (for some good tips on the best and most appropriate way to do this, you might like to read through [http://webaim.org/techniques/css/invisiblecontent/ WebAIM's Invisible Content page]). </br></br></br> <syntaxhighlight lang="HTML"> <!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en"> <head> <title>live and let learn</title> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"> </head> <body> <div id="header"> <blockquote> <p>Learning is not a privilege, it's a right.</p> </blockquote> <div id="logo"> <h1>live and let learn</h1> <img src="csschallenge5.jpg" alt="live and let learn"> </div> </div> <div id="content"> <div id="content-side"> <dl> <dt><a href="services/">Services</a></dt> <dd>Learning and facilitation through TAFE WSI</dd> <dt><a href="learning/">Personal Learning</a></dt> <dd>Learning from the network</dd> <dt><a href="resources/">Resources</a></dt> <dd>Browse through resources ...</dd> <dt><a href="about/">About</a></dt> <dd>What am I about? Personal interests and other stuff</dd> </dl> </div> <!-- content-side --> <div id="content-main"> <h2>Please update your links!</h2> <small>Wednesday, October 12th, 2005</small> <p>New blog address: <a href="http://liveandletlearn.net/learning/"> http://liveandletlearn.net/learning/</a> </p> <p>During the last holidays I've been busy moving my blog from <a href="http://www.absoludity.net/blog/">absoludity.net</a> to <a href="http://liveandletlearn.net/learning/">liveandletlearn.net</a> ... why? Good question! Part of the Web Design course that I facilitate is a client project where participants are required to develop a site from start to finish - and i'd been a while since I'd been through that process myself - so what better a project for the holidays (next to my gardening project to get me <em>away</em> from the computer)! </p> <p>You'll notice that the site itself is still in prototype stage, but the blog is all up and running so I'm going to be using liveandletlearn from now on. <strong>Please update your bookmarks/feeds</strong>! And please give me any feedback you've got time for at <a href="http://liveandletlearn.net/learning/">liveandletlearn.net</a>! </p> </div> <!-- content-main --> </div> <!-- content --> </body> </html> </syntaxhighlight> {{-}} == Challenge 6: The Headline Challenge == This time you'll be working with a chunk of HTML similar to a blog post, but now you're in charge of the design. Create a colour scheme and layout that has a look and feel related to one of the following words: * Passion * Love * Funky * Creative * Elegant * Industrial * Gothic Try using a background image that fits the aesthetic of your design, but remember to keep your text readable! If you've started experimenting with [http://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2008/10/embedded-web-fonts.ars CSS Web Fonts], this is a perfect place to use them. [http://www.fontsquirrel.com/ Font Squirrel] and [http://www.google.com/webfonts Google Web Fonts] are excellent resources for finding decorative heading and body text fonts that are free to use. For some inspiration, checkout the collection of [http://www.smileycat.com/miaow/archives/typography-for-headlines-2.html Typography for Headlines] Hints: * You'll need to link your HTML to a new stylesheet. * Add some more content paragraphs if you like. * Try to use the HTML structure as-is, but add some extra &lt;div&gt;s if you really need to. <syntaxhighlight lang="HTML"> <!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en"> <head> <title>Headline Challenge</title> </head> <body> <div id="wrap"> <div class="thepost"> <h1 class="posttitle">CSS Layout</h1> <h2 class="dateheader">Monday, May 29, 2006</h2> <p> Wonder when CSS layout techniques will be less of an art and more of a science. </p> <p class="postfooter"> <em>Posted by Robin.</em> </p> </div> </div> </body> </html> </syntaxhighlight> {{-}} == Challenge 7: Cutting the code == [[Image:RedTie_-_OSWD.png|thumb|350px|A small website design called [http://www.oswd.org/design/preview/id/3699 Red Tie] from OpenSource Web Design]]This challenge is designed to help you build your process for producing a CSS-based layout from scratch. The idea is to choose a design from [http://www.oswd.org/ Open Source Web Design] (or otherwise) that: # you like! # is a little beyond your current skills # is not too far beyond your current skills (so you don't get overwhelmed!) Without looking at the HTML/CSS of the chosen design, you'll then work together or on your own to code the HTML and CSS for the layout using the steps below. This challenge is designed so that you can do it multiple times at different levels of difficulty if you find it helpful! === Steps: === * Choose and print off a design from [http://www.opendesigns.org/view-designs/ Open Designs] (or a website of your choice). Make sure you choose a design that is within your grasp - a little beyond your current skills, but not too far beyond so as to overwhelm you! * Use your printout to decide on your HTML structure (what divs you'll use etc.) * Create your HTML code with a DOCTYPE, head, title, body and your divs that you've decided on and link it to a stylesheet. * At this point, you might want to use a strategy such as [http://www.maxdesign.com.au/presentation/process/ Russ Weakley's coloured boxes] to give your divs some colour so you can see where they are! * Add some content such as headings, navigation etc. If you need paragraphs of text, you might want to try the [http://www.lipsum.com/ Lorum Ipsum generator] * Get started styling your page! As you work, you might choose to just focus on the layout and not worry about the images. On the other hand, you might also choose to use the images for your chosen design and add them to your stylesheet. If you get stuck, chat with the people around you to get ideas rather than looking at a solution. Only look at the solution if you're really really stuck and there's no one to talk with! When you're happy with your design (and only then!), print out your HTML and CSS as well as the HTML and CSS that was used by the original author of your chosen design. Looking at the differences, work out the pro's and con's of your code versus the original. == Challenge 8: A CSS Zen Garden entry == The [http://www.csszengarden.com/ CSS Zen Garden site] is a collection of unique designs that all use exactly the same HTML, with only the CSS changing between them. It's intended to show how powerful CSS can be in changing the site's style and appeal. Your challenge is to create a simple CSS Zen Garden design. You'll find a link to the HTML and a simple starter CSS under the "Participation" heading on the front page. Download these files and work on your local computer to build something beautiful! If you're so inclined, you're welcome to contact the Zen Garden owners to get your design listed! == Challenge 9: CSSBattle targets == [https://cssbattle.dev/ CSSBattle] is an online code-golfing game where players have to visually replicate given targets using HTML/CSS. It's not only limited to code golfing but can also be used by developers starting to learn CSS to practice CSS properties. There are plenty of targets there to practice your CSS skills there. {{Web design}} [[Category:Learning activities]] 1ai6ikhfeb5ihhaw0a6hy94xmm710vo 2415570 2415563 2022-08-16T13:17:53Z Islam2022 2948341 /* Challenge 1: Fonts and Colours */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Web design/header}} {{TOC center|limit=2}} These challenges are here to help you flex your CSS skills, and see where you need to practice more! If you're new to CSS, you should go through the [https://www.web4college.com/css-play/index.php list of CSS properties] from web4college. It represents the CSS tutorials from basic to advance with the examples related to every topic and an online code-editor is also available to practice these examples. Go ahead to the next level of CSS and learn new kind of web [https://www.web4college.com/how-to-make/ animations]. == Challenge 1: Fonts and Colours == [[Image:Css challenges 1.png|thumb|right|Challenge 1 ]]This first challenge only involves changing your fonts and colours - no layout or other more advanced CSS here! Copy-n-paste the HTML to get started, and click on the image to see what your page should look like! Hints: * You'll need to link your HTML to a new stylesheet. * You can use the following fonts list for help: http://www.w3.org/Style/Examples/007/fonts * Don't worry if your text doesn't wrap at the same word -- it will depend on the size of your browser window. <!--Notes: * Lines of poetry like this really shouldn't be marked-up as list-items. The current draft of XHTML 2.0 introduces the <code>l</code> element ([http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml2/mod-text.html#sec_9.7.]), which is intended for marking up lines of verse amongst other things. The <code>pre</code> element is normally used to mark up poetry in XHTML 1.0.--> <syntaxhighlight lang="html" line="1"> <!DOCTYPE html> <html> <head> <title>Challenge 1</title> <!-- css stylesheet --> <style> * { box-sizing: border-box; -webkit-box-sizing: border-box; -moz-box-sizing: border-box; } body { background-color: rgb(178, 215, 216); margin: 0 auto; width: 90%; } h1 { font-size: 22pt; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: 600; color: white; } p { font-family: 'Segoe UI', Tahoma, Geneva, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18pt; line-height: 1.6; } ul { color: darkblue; text-align: center; list-style: circle; width: 40%; font-size: 14pt; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; margin-left: calc(90%/3); } </style> </head> <body> <h1>Shakespeare's Sonnet #18</h1> <p> This is one of the most famous of the sonnets. It is referenced in the film Dead Poets Society and gave names to the band The Darling Buds and the book and television series The Darling Buds of May. Read it and weep! </p> <ul> <li>Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?</li> <li>Thou art more lovely and more temperate:</li> <li>Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,</li> <li>And summer's lease hath all too short a date:</li> <li>Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,</li> <li>And often is his gold complexion dimm'd,</li> <li>And every fair from fair sometime declines,</li> <li>By chance, or nature's changing course untrimm'd:</li> <li>But thy eternal summer shall not fade,</li> <li>Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st,</li> <li>Nor shall death brag thou wander'st in his shade,</li> <li>When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st,</li> <li>So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,</li> <li>So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.</li> </ul> <p class="copyright">See the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Sonnets"> Shakespeare's sonnets</a> Wikipedia article for more information </p> </body> </html> </syntaxhighlight> {{-}} == Challenge 2: Shakespeare's Sonnet == [[Image:Css1_1.png|thumb|right|Challenge 2 ]] [[Image:Cssthingy.png|thumb|right|Challenge 2-A ]] This second challenge will help you to re-cap your CSS text formatting skills, as well as start using margins and padding. Copy-n-paste the HTML to get started, and click on the image to see what your page should look like! You can also try to get your page to look like the page from the image on the right (challenge 2-A), which uses a few more advanced (though not too hard) CSS techniques. If you can improve on the design (shouldn't be too hard!) without increasing the difficulty of this challenge, great! I'll happily replace the image! Hints: * The thumbnails are not very representative, but this challenge requires you to create a '''fixed-width''' layout that is centred in the browser window. Click on an image for a closer view. * To get the wrap division to stay centred, you'll need to set the left and right margins to a_t_ (you've got to fill in the blanks). </br> <syntaxhighlight lang="html" line="1"> <!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd"> <html> <head> <title>CSS Challenge 2</title> <style> </style> </head> <body> <div id="wrap"> <h1>Shakespeare's Sonnet #18</h1> <div class="line"></div> <p> This is one of the most famous of the sonnets. It is referenced in the film Dead Poets Society and gave names to the band The Darling Buds and the book and television series The Darling Buds of May. Read it and weep! </p> <ul> <li>Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?</li> <li>Thou art more lovely and more temperate:</li> <li>Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,</li> <li>And summer's lease hath all too short a date:</li> <li>Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,</li> <li>And often is his gold complexion dimm'd,</li> <li>And every fair from fair sometime declines,</li> <li>By chance, or nature's changing course untrimm'd:</li> <li>But thy eternal summer shall not fade,</li> <li>Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st,</li> <li>Nor shall death brag thou wander'st in his shade,</li> <li>When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st,</li> <li>So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,</li> <li>So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.</li> </ul> <p class="copyright"> See the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Sonnets"> Shakespeare's sonnets</a > Wikipedia article for more information </p> </div> </body> </html> </syntaxhighlight> == Challenge 3: 2-column layout== [[Image:Css 3 1.png|thumb|right|Challenge 3 ]] This one will get you fiddling with margins and padding! Hints: * You'll need to set a fixed width for your wrap, and then float the navigation <code>div</code>. * You may also want to fiddle with widths/margins of the navigation and content divisions! * For this and the next few challenges, you may want to first look through MaxDesign's [https://web.archive.org/web/20150117111031/http://www.maxdesign.com.au/articles/two-columns/ Two columns with colour] tutorial. </br> <syntaxhighlight lang="html"> <html> <head> <title>CSS Challenge 3</title> <style> </style> </head> <body> <div id="wrap"> <div id="nav"> <h2>Sonnet Index</h2> <ul> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #1</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #6</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #11</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #15</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #18</a></li> </ul> </div> <div id="content"> <h1>Shakespeare's Sonnet #18</h1> <p>This is one of the most famous of the sonnets. It is referenced in the film Dead Poets Society and gave names to the band The Darling Buds and the book and television series The Darling Buds of May. Read it and weep!</p> <ul> <li>Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?</li> <li>Thou art more lovely and more temperate:</li> <li>Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,</li> <li>And summer's lease hath all too short a date:</li> <li>Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,</li> <li>And often is his gold complexion dimm'd,</li> <li>And every fair from fair sometime declines,</li> <li>By chance, or nature's changing course untrimm'd:</li> <li>But thy eternal summer shall not fade,</li> <li>Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st,</li> <li>Nor shall death brag thou wander'st in his shade,</li> <li>When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st,</li> <li>So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,</li> <li>So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.</li> </ul> </div> </div> <p class="copyright">See the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Sonnets"> Shakespeare's sonnets</a> Wikipedia article for more information </p> </body> </html> </syntaxhighlight> {{-}} == Challenge 4: 2 Columns with a header and footer == [[Image:csschallenge4.png|thumb|right|Challenge 4 ]] This time you've got an extra header and horizontal navigation to worry about! Hints: * For some ideas for styling the horizontal nav bar, see [http://css.maxdesign.com.au/listamatic/ listamatic]. * You'll need to fiddle with paddings/margins to get the divs bumped up against each other. * If you get stuck, try following [http://www.456bereastreet.com/lab/developing_with_web_standards/csslayout/2-col/ 456BereaStreet's 2-column layout tutorial]. </br></br></br> <syntaxhighlight lang="html"> <html lang="en"> <head> <title>CSS Challenge 4</title> </head> <body> <div id="wrap"> <div id="header"> <h1>Shakespear.net</h1> </div> <div id="nav"> <ul> <li><a href="#">Home</a></li> <li><a href="#">Writings</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnets</a></li> <li><a href="#">Life Story</a></li> <li><a href="#">About Shakespear.net</a></li> </ul> </div> <div id="sidebar"> <h2>Sonnet Index</h2> <ul> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #1</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #6</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #11</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #15</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #18</a></li> </ul> </div> <div id="content"> <h1>Shakespeare's Sonnet #18</h1> <p>This is one of the most famous of the sonnets. It is referenced in the film Dead Poets Society and gave names to the band The Darling Buds and the book and television series The Darling Buds of May. Read it and weep!</p> <ul> <li>Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?</li> <li>Thou art more lovely and more temperate:</li> <li>Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,</li> <li>And summer's lease hath all too short a date:</li> <li>Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,</li> <li>And often is his gold complexion dimm'd,</li> <li>And every fair from fair sometime declines,</li> <li>By chance, or nature's changing course untrimm'd:</li> <li>But thy eternal summer shall not fade,</li> <li>Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st,</li> <li>Nor shall death brag thou wander'st in his shade,</li> <li>When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st,</li> <li>So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,</li> <li>So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.</li> </ul> </div> <div id="footer"> <p class="copyright">See the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Sonnets"> Shakespeare's sonnets</a> Wikipedia article for more information </p> </div> </div> </body> </html> </syntaxhighlight> {{-}} == Challenge 5: Gimme some whitespace == [[Image:csschallenge5.png|thumb|left|Challenge 5 ]] [[Image:csschallenge5.jpg|thumb|right|Logo for Challenge 5 ]] This one's inspired by the design of [http://clearleft.com clearleft]. A nice clean look with lots of whitespace. Have fun! Hints: * You'll need to hide the h1 somehow! (for some good tips on the best and most appropriate way to do this, you might like to read through [http://webaim.org/techniques/css/invisiblecontent/ WebAIM's Invisible Content page]). </br></br></br> <syntaxhighlight lang="HTML"> <!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en"> <head> <title>live and let learn</title> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"> </head> <body> <div id="header"> <blockquote> <p>Learning is not a privilege, it's a right.</p> </blockquote> <div id="logo"> <h1>live and let learn</h1> <img src="csschallenge5.jpg" alt="live and let learn"> </div> </div> <div id="content"> <div id="content-side"> <dl> <dt><a href="services/">Services</a></dt> <dd>Learning and facilitation through TAFE WSI</dd> <dt><a href="learning/">Personal Learning</a></dt> <dd>Learning from the network</dd> <dt><a href="resources/">Resources</a></dt> <dd>Browse through resources ...</dd> <dt><a href="about/">About</a></dt> <dd>What am I about? Personal interests and other stuff</dd> </dl> </div> <!-- content-side --> <div id="content-main"> <h2>Please update your links!</h2> <small>Wednesday, October 12th, 2005</small> <p>New blog address: <a href="http://liveandletlearn.net/learning/"> http://liveandletlearn.net/learning/</a> </p> <p>During the last holidays I've been busy moving my blog from <a href="http://www.absoludity.net/blog/">absoludity.net</a> to <a href="http://liveandletlearn.net/learning/">liveandletlearn.net</a> ... why? Good question! Part of the Web Design course that I facilitate is a client project where participants are required to develop a site from start to finish - and i'd been a while since I'd been through that process myself - so what better a project for the holidays (next to my gardening project to get me <em>away</em> from the computer)! </p> <p>You'll notice that the site itself is still in prototype stage, but the blog is all up and running so I'm going to be using liveandletlearn from now on. <strong>Please update your bookmarks/feeds</strong>! And please give me any feedback you've got time for at <a href="http://liveandletlearn.net/learning/">liveandletlearn.net</a>! </p> </div> <!-- content-main --> </div> <!-- content --> </body> </html> </syntaxhighlight> {{-}} == Challenge 6: The Headline Challenge == This time you'll be working with a chunk of HTML similar to a blog post, but now you're in charge of the design. Create a colour scheme and layout that has a look and feel related to one of the following words: * Passion * Love * Funky * Creative * Elegant * Industrial * Gothic Try using a background image that fits the aesthetic of your design, but remember to keep your text readable! If you've started experimenting with [http://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2008/10/embedded-web-fonts.ars CSS Web Fonts], this is a perfect place to use them. [http://www.fontsquirrel.com/ Font Squirrel] and [http://www.google.com/webfonts Google Web Fonts] are excellent resources for finding decorative heading and body text fonts that are free to use. For some inspiration, checkout the collection of [http://www.smileycat.com/miaow/archives/typography-for-headlines-2.html Typography for Headlines] Hints: * You'll need to link your HTML to a new stylesheet. * Add some more content paragraphs if you like. * Try to use the HTML structure as-is, but add some extra &lt;div&gt;s if you really need to. <syntaxhighlight lang="HTML"> <!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en"> <head> <title>Headline Challenge</title> </head> <body> <div id="wrap"> <div class="thepost"> <h1 class="posttitle">CSS Layout</h1> <h2 class="dateheader">Monday, May 29, 2006</h2> <p> Wonder when CSS layout techniques will be less of an art and more of a science. </p> <p class="postfooter"> <em>Posted by Robin.</em> </p> </div> </div> </body> </html> </syntaxhighlight> {{-}} == Challenge 7: Cutting the code == [[Image:RedTie_-_OSWD.png|thumb|350px|A small website design called [http://www.oswd.org/design/preview/id/3699 Red Tie] from OpenSource Web Design]]This challenge is designed to help you build your process for producing a CSS-based layout from scratch. The idea is to choose a design from [http://www.oswd.org/ Open Source Web Design] (or otherwise) that: # you like! # is a little beyond your current skills # is not too far beyond your current skills (so you don't get overwhelmed!) Without looking at the HTML/CSS of the chosen design, you'll then work together or on your own to code the HTML and CSS for the layout using the steps below. This challenge is designed so that you can do it multiple times at different levels of difficulty if you find it helpful! === Steps: === * Choose and print off a design from [http://www.opendesigns.org/view-designs/ Open Designs] (or a website of your choice). Make sure you choose a design that is within your grasp - a little beyond your current skills, but not too far beyond so as to overwhelm you! * Use your printout to decide on your HTML structure (what divs you'll use etc.) * Create your HTML code with a DOCTYPE, head, title, body and your divs that you've decided on and link it to a stylesheet. * At this point, you might want to use a strategy such as [http://www.maxdesign.com.au/presentation/process/ Russ Weakley's coloured boxes] to give your divs some colour so you can see where they are! * Add some content such as headings, navigation etc. If you need paragraphs of text, you might want to try the [http://www.lipsum.com/ Lorum Ipsum generator] * Get started styling your page! As you work, you might choose to just focus on the layout and not worry about the images. On the other hand, you might also choose to use the images for your chosen design and add them to your stylesheet. If you get stuck, chat with the people around you to get ideas rather than looking at a solution. Only look at the solution if you're really really stuck and there's no one to talk with! When you're happy with your design (and only then!), print out your HTML and CSS as well as the HTML and CSS that was used by the original author of your chosen design. Looking at the differences, work out the pro's and con's of your code versus the original. == Challenge 8: A CSS Zen Garden entry == The [http://www.csszengarden.com/ CSS Zen Garden site] is a collection of unique designs that all use exactly the same HTML, with only the CSS changing between them. It's intended to show how powerful CSS can be in changing the site's style and appeal. Your challenge is to create a simple CSS Zen Garden design. You'll find a link to the HTML and a simple starter CSS under the "Participation" heading on the front page. Download these files and work on your local computer to build something beautiful! If you're so inclined, you're welcome to contact the Zen Garden owners to get your design listed! == Challenge 9: CSSBattle targets == [https://cssbattle.dev/ CSSBattle] is an online code-golfing game where players have to visually replicate given targets using HTML/CSS. It's not only limited to code golfing but can also be used by developers starting to learn CSS to practice CSS properties. There are plenty of targets there to practice your CSS skills there. {{Web design}} [[Category:Learning activities]] j1bk0ccgxip5xee53chqqv4budqugmd 2415632 2415570 2022-08-16T21:59:49Z Islam2022 2948341 /* Challenge 2: Shakespeare's Sonnet */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Web design/header}} {{TOC center|limit=2}} These challenges are here to help you flex your CSS skills, and see where you need to practice more! If you're new to CSS, you should go through the [https://www.web4college.com/css-play/index.php list of CSS properties] from web4college. It represents the CSS tutorials from basic to advance with the examples related to every topic and an online code-editor is also available to practice these examples. Go ahead to the next level of CSS and learn new kind of web [https://www.web4college.com/how-to-make/ animations]. == Challenge 1: Fonts and Colours == [[Image:Css challenges 1.png|thumb|right|Challenge 1 ]]This first challenge only involves changing your fonts and colours - no layout or other more advanced CSS here! Copy-n-paste the HTML to get started, and click on the image to see what your page should look like! Hints: * You'll need to link your HTML to a new stylesheet. * You can use the following fonts list for help: http://www.w3.org/Style/Examples/007/fonts * Don't worry if your text doesn't wrap at the same word -- it will depend on the size of your browser window. <!--Notes: * Lines of poetry like this really shouldn't be marked-up as list-items. The current draft of XHTML 2.0 introduces the <code>l</code> element ([http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml2/mod-text.html#sec_9.7.]), which is intended for marking up lines of verse amongst other things. The <code>pre</code> element is normally used to mark up poetry in XHTML 1.0.--> <syntaxhighlight lang="html" line="1"> <!DOCTYPE html> <html> <head> <title>Challenge 1</title> <!-- css stylesheet --> <style> * { box-sizing: border-box; -webkit-box-sizing: border-box; -moz-box-sizing: border-box; } body { background-color: rgb(178, 215, 216); margin: 0 auto; width: 90%; } h1 { font-size: 22pt; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: 600; color: white; } p { font-family: 'Segoe UI', Tahoma, Geneva, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18pt; line-height: 1.6; } ul { color: darkblue; text-align: center; list-style: circle; width: 40%; font-size: 14pt; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; margin-left: calc(90%/3); } </style> </head> <body> <h1>Shakespeare's Sonnet #18</h1> <p> This is one of the most famous of the sonnets. It is referenced in the film Dead Poets Society and gave names to the band The Darling Buds and the book and television series The Darling Buds of May. Read it and weep! </p> <ul> <li>Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?</li> <li>Thou art more lovely and more temperate:</li> <li>Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,</li> <li>And summer's lease hath all too short a date:</li> <li>Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,</li> <li>And often is his gold complexion dimm'd,</li> <li>And every fair from fair sometime declines,</li> <li>By chance, or nature's changing course untrimm'd:</li> <li>But thy eternal summer shall not fade,</li> <li>Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st,</li> <li>Nor shall death brag thou wander'st in his shade,</li> <li>When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st,</li> <li>So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,</li> <li>So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.</li> </ul> <p class="copyright">See the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Sonnets"> Shakespeare's sonnets</a> Wikipedia article for more information </p> </body> </html> </syntaxhighlight> {{-}} == Challenge 2: Shakespeare's Sonnet == [[Image:Css1_1.png|thumb|right|Challenge 2 ]] [[Image:Cssthingy.png|thumb|right|Challenge 2-A ]] This second challenge will help you to re-cap your CSS text formatting skills, as well as start using margins and padding. Copy-n-paste the HTML to get started, and click on the image to see what your page should look like! You can also try to get your page to look like the page from the image on the right (challenge 2-A), which uses a few more advanced (though not too hard) CSS techniques. If you can improve on the design (shouldn't be too hard!) without increasing the difficulty of this challenge, great! I'll happily replace the image! Hints: * The thumbnails are not very representative, but this challenge requires you to create a '''fixed-width''' layout that is centred in the browser window. Click on an image for a closer view. * To get the wrap division to stay centred, you'll need to set the left and right margins to a_t_ (you've got to fill in the blanks). </br> <syntaxhighlight lang="html" line="1"> <!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0"> <title>CSS Challenge 2</title> <!-- css stylesheet --> <style> * { box-sizing: border-box; } html { background-color: rgb(243, 186, 167); } body { margin: 0 auto; width: 60%; border: black dotted 5px; margin-top: 10px; } #wrap h1 { text-align: center; font-size: 22pt; font-weight: bolder; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; height: 50%; } .line { border-bottom: black dashed 5px; } p { font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; width: 70%; text-align: left; margin-left: 15%; } li { text-align: center; line-height: 1.4; font-weight: 500; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; list-style: none; } span { font-weight: 600; font-size: 15pt; } </style> </head> <body> <div id="wrap"> <h1>Shakespeare's Sonnet #18</h1> <div class="line"></div> <p> This is one of the most famous of the sonnets. It is referenced in the film Dead Poets Society and gave names to the band The Darling Buds and the book and television series The Darling Buds of May. Read it and weep! </p> <ul> <li><span>S</span> hall I compare thee to a summer's day?</li> <li><span>T</span>hou art more lovely and more temperate:</li> <li><span>R</span>ough winds do shake the darling buds of May,</li> <li><span>A</span>nd summer's lease hath all too short a date:</li> <li><span>S</span>ometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,</li> <li><span>A</span>nd often is his gold complexion dimm'd,</li> <li><span>A</span>nd every fair from fair sometime declines,</li> <li><span>B</span>y chance, or nature's changing course untrimm'd:</li> <li><span>B</span>ut thy eternal summer shall not fade,</li> <li><span>N</span>or lose possession of that fair thou ow'st,</li> <li><span>N</span>or shall death brag thou wander'st in his shade,</li> <li><span>W</span>hen in eternal lines to time thou grow'st,</li> <li><span>S</span>o long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,</li> <li><span>S</span>o long lives this, and this gives life to thee.</li> </ul> <p class="copyright"> See the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Sonnets"> Shakespeare's sonnets</a> Wikipedia article for more information </p> </div> </body> </html> </syntaxhighlight> == Challenge 3: 2-column layout== [[Image:Css 3 1.png|thumb|right|Challenge 3 ]] This one will get you fiddling with margins and padding! Hints: * You'll need to set a fixed width for your wrap, and then float the navigation <code>div</code>. * You may also want to fiddle with widths/margins of the navigation and content divisions! * For this and the next few challenges, you may want to first look through MaxDesign's [https://web.archive.org/web/20150117111031/http://www.maxdesign.com.au/articles/two-columns/ Two columns with colour] tutorial. </br> <syntaxhighlight lang="html"> <html> <head> <title>CSS Challenge 3</title> <style> </style> </head> <body> <div id="wrap"> <div id="nav"> <h2>Sonnet Index</h2> <ul> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #1</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #6</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #11</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #15</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #18</a></li> </ul> </div> <div id="content"> <h1>Shakespeare's Sonnet #18</h1> <p>This is one of the most famous of the sonnets. It is referenced in the film Dead Poets Society and gave names to the band The Darling Buds and the book and television series The Darling Buds of May. Read it and weep!</p> <ul> <li>Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?</li> <li>Thou art more lovely and more temperate:</li> <li>Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,</li> <li>And summer's lease hath all too short a date:</li> <li>Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,</li> <li>And often is his gold complexion dimm'd,</li> <li>And every fair from fair sometime declines,</li> <li>By chance, or nature's changing course untrimm'd:</li> <li>But thy eternal summer shall not fade,</li> <li>Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st,</li> <li>Nor shall death brag thou wander'st in his shade,</li> <li>When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st,</li> <li>So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,</li> <li>So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.</li> </ul> </div> </div> <p class="copyright">See the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Sonnets"> Shakespeare's sonnets</a> Wikipedia article for more information </p> </body> </html> </syntaxhighlight> {{-}} == Challenge 4: 2 Columns with a header and footer == [[Image:csschallenge4.png|thumb|right|Challenge 4 ]] This time you've got an extra header and horizontal navigation to worry about! Hints: * For some ideas for styling the horizontal nav bar, see [http://css.maxdesign.com.au/listamatic/ listamatic]. * You'll need to fiddle with paddings/margins to get the divs bumped up against each other. * If you get stuck, try following [http://www.456bereastreet.com/lab/developing_with_web_standards/csslayout/2-col/ 456BereaStreet's 2-column layout tutorial]. </br></br></br> <syntaxhighlight lang="html"> <html lang="en"> <head> <title>CSS Challenge 4</title> </head> <body> <div id="wrap"> <div id="header"> <h1>Shakespear.net</h1> </div> <div id="nav"> <ul> <li><a href="#">Home</a></li> <li><a href="#">Writings</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnets</a></li> <li><a href="#">Life Story</a></li> <li><a href="#">About Shakespear.net</a></li> </ul> </div> <div id="sidebar"> <h2>Sonnet Index</h2> <ul> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #1</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #6</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #11</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #15</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #18</a></li> </ul> </div> <div id="content"> <h1>Shakespeare's Sonnet #18</h1> <p>This is one of the most famous of the sonnets. It is referenced in the film Dead Poets Society and gave names to the band The Darling Buds and the book and television series The Darling Buds of May. Read it and weep!</p> <ul> <li>Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?</li> <li>Thou art more lovely and more temperate:</li> <li>Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,</li> <li>And summer's lease hath all too short a date:</li> <li>Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,</li> <li>And often is his gold complexion dimm'd,</li> <li>And every fair from fair sometime declines,</li> <li>By chance, or nature's changing course untrimm'd:</li> <li>But thy eternal summer shall not fade,</li> <li>Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st,</li> <li>Nor shall death brag thou wander'st in his shade,</li> <li>When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st,</li> <li>So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,</li> <li>So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.</li> </ul> </div> <div id="footer"> <p class="copyright">See the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Sonnets"> Shakespeare's sonnets</a> Wikipedia article for more information </p> </div> </div> </body> </html> </syntaxhighlight> {{-}} == Challenge 5: Gimme some whitespace == [[Image:csschallenge5.png|thumb|left|Challenge 5 ]] [[Image:csschallenge5.jpg|thumb|right|Logo for Challenge 5 ]] This one's inspired by the design of [http://clearleft.com clearleft]. A nice clean look with lots of whitespace. Have fun! Hints: * You'll need to hide the h1 somehow! (for some good tips on the best and most appropriate way to do this, you might like to read through [http://webaim.org/techniques/css/invisiblecontent/ WebAIM's Invisible Content page]). </br></br></br> <syntaxhighlight lang="HTML"> <!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en"> <head> <title>live and let learn</title> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"> </head> <body> <div id="header"> <blockquote> <p>Learning is not a privilege, it's a right.</p> </blockquote> <div id="logo"> <h1>live and let learn</h1> <img src="csschallenge5.jpg" alt="live and let learn"> </div> </div> <div id="content"> <div id="content-side"> <dl> <dt><a href="services/">Services</a></dt> <dd>Learning and facilitation through TAFE WSI</dd> <dt><a href="learning/">Personal Learning</a></dt> <dd>Learning from the network</dd> <dt><a href="resources/">Resources</a></dt> <dd>Browse through resources ...</dd> <dt><a href="about/">About</a></dt> <dd>What am I about? Personal interests and other stuff</dd> </dl> </div> <!-- content-side --> <div id="content-main"> <h2>Please update your links!</h2> <small>Wednesday, October 12th, 2005</small> <p>New blog address: <a href="http://liveandletlearn.net/learning/"> http://liveandletlearn.net/learning/</a> </p> <p>During the last holidays I've been busy moving my blog from <a href="http://www.absoludity.net/blog/">absoludity.net</a> to <a href="http://liveandletlearn.net/learning/">liveandletlearn.net</a> ... why? Good question! Part of the Web Design course that I facilitate is a client project where participants are required to develop a site from start to finish - and i'd been a while since I'd been through that process myself - so what better a project for the holidays (next to my gardening project to get me <em>away</em> from the computer)! </p> <p>You'll notice that the site itself is still in prototype stage, but the blog is all up and running so I'm going to be using liveandletlearn from now on. <strong>Please update your bookmarks/feeds</strong>! And please give me any feedback you've got time for at <a href="http://liveandletlearn.net/learning/">liveandletlearn.net</a>! </p> </div> <!-- content-main --> </div> <!-- content --> </body> </html> </syntaxhighlight> {{-}} == Challenge 6: The Headline Challenge == This time you'll be working with a chunk of HTML similar to a blog post, but now you're in charge of the design. Create a colour scheme and layout that has a look and feel related to one of the following words: * Passion * Love * Funky * Creative * Elegant * Industrial * Gothic Try using a background image that fits the aesthetic of your design, but remember to keep your text readable! If you've started experimenting with [http://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2008/10/embedded-web-fonts.ars CSS Web Fonts], this is a perfect place to use them. [http://www.fontsquirrel.com/ Font Squirrel] and [http://www.google.com/webfonts Google Web Fonts] are excellent resources for finding decorative heading and body text fonts that are free to use. For some inspiration, checkout the collection of [http://www.smileycat.com/miaow/archives/typography-for-headlines-2.html Typography for Headlines] Hints: * You'll need to link your HTML to a new stylesheet. * Add some more content paragraphs if you like. * Try to use the HTML structure as-is, but add some extra &lt;div&gt;s if you really need to. <syntaxhighlight lang="HTML"> <!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en"> <head> <title>Headline Challenge</title> </head> <body> <div id="wrap"> <div class="thepost"> <h1 class="posttitle">CSS Layout</h1> <h2 class="dateheader">Monday, May 29, 2006</h2> <p> Wonder when CSS layout techniques will be less of an art and more of a science. </p> <p class="postfooter"> <em>Posted by Robin.</em> </p> </div> </div> </body> </html> </syntaxhighlight> {{-}} == Challenge 7: Cutting the code == [[Image:RedTie_-_OSWD.png|thumb|350px|A small website design called [http://www.oswd.org/design/preview/id/3699 Red Tie] from OpenSource Web Design]]This challenge is designed to help you build your process for producing a CSS-based layout from scratch. The idea is to choose a design from [http://www.oswd.org/ Open Source Web Design] (or otherwise) that: # you like! # is a little beyond your current skills # is not too far beyond your current skills (so you don't get overwhelmed!) Without looking at the HTML/CSS of the chosen design, you'll then work together or on your own to code the HTML and CSS for the layout using the steps below. This challenge is designed so that you can do it multiple times at different levels of difficulty if you find it helpful! === Steps: === * Choose and print off a design from [http://www.opendesigns.org/view-designs/ Open Designs] (or a website of your choice). Make sure you choose a design that is within your grasp - a little beyond your current skills, but not too far beyond so as to overwhelm you! * Use your printout to decide on your HTML structure (what divs you'll use etc.) * Create your HTML code with a DOCTYPE, head, title, body and your divs that you've decided on and link it to a stylesheet. * At this point, you might want to use a strategy such as [http://www.maxdesign.com.au/presentation/process/ Russ Weakley's coloured boxes] to give your divs some colour so you can see where they are! * Add some content such as headings, navigation etc. If you need paragraphs of text, you might want to try the [http://www.lipsum.com/ Lorum Ipsum generator] * Get started styling your page! As you work, you might choose to just focus on the layout and not worry about the images. On the other hand, you might also choose to use the images for your chosen design and add them to your stylesheet. If you get stuck, chat with the people around you to get ideas rather than looking at a solution. Only look at the solution if you're really really stuck and there's no one to talk with! When you're happy with your design (and only then!), print out your HTML and CSS as well as the HTML and CSS that was used by the original author of your chosen design. Looking at the differences, work out the pro's and con's of your code versus the original. == Challenge 8: A CSS Zen Garden entry == The [http://www.csszengarden.com/ CSS Zen Garden site] is a collection of unique designs that all use exactly the same HTML, with only the CSS changing between them. It's intended to show how powerful CSS can be in changing the site's style and appeal. Your challenge is to create a simple CSS Zen Garden design. You'll find a link to the HTML and a simple starter CSS under the "Participation" heading on the front page. Download these files and work on your local computer to build something beautiful! If you're so inclined, you're welcome to contact the Zen Garden owners to get your design listed! == Challenge 9: CSSBattle targets == [https://cssbattle.dev/ CSSBattle] is an online code-golfing game where players have to visually replicate given targets using HTML/CSS. It's not only limited to code golfing but can also be used by developers starting to learn CSS to practice CSS properties. There are plenty of targets there to practice your CSS skills there. {{Web design}} [[Category:Learning activities]] 8rof9odaoexmsocqt4qepeb01rw46cj 2415773 2415632 2022-08-17T08:01:02Z Islam2022 2948341 /* Challenge 3: 2-column layout */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Web design/header}} {{TOC center|limit=2}} These challenges are here to help you flex your CSS skills, and see where you need to practice more! If you're new to CSS, you should go through the [https://www.web4college.com/css-play/index.php list of CSS properties] from web4college. It represents the CSS tutorials from basic to advance with the examples related to every topic and an online code-editor is also available to practice these examples. Go ahead to the next level of CSS and learn new kind of web [https://www.web4college.com/how-to-make/ animations]. == Challenge 1: Fonts and Colours == [[Image:Css challenges 1.png|thumb|right|Challenge 1 ]]This first challenge only involves changing your fonts and colours - no layout or other more advanced CSS here! Copy-n-paste the HTML to get started, and click on the image to see what your page should look like! Hints: * You'll need to link your HTML to a new stylesheet. * You can use the following fonts list for help: http://www.w3.org/Style/Examples/007/fonts * Don't worry if your text doesn't wrap at the same word -- it will depend on the size of your browser window. <!--Notes: * Lines of poetry like this really shouldn't be marked-up as list-items. The current draft of XHTML 2.0 introduces the <code>l</code> element ([http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml2/mod-text.html#sec_9.7.]), which is intended for marking up lines of verse amongst other things. The <code>pre</code> element is normally used to mark up poetry in XHTML 1.0.--> <syntaxhighlight lang="html" line="1"> <!DOCTYPE html> <html> <head> <title>Challenge 1</title> <!-- css stylesheet --> <style> * { box-sizing: border-box; -webkit-box-sizing: border-box; -moz-box-sizing: border-box; } body { background-color: rgb(178, 215, 216); margin: 0 auto; width: 90%; } h1 { font-size: 22pt; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-weight: 600; color: white; } p { font-family: 'Segoe UI', Tahoma, Geneva, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 18pt; line-height: 1.6; } ul { color: darkblue; text-align: center; list-style: circle; width: 40%; font-size: 14pt; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; margin-left: calc(90%/3); } </style> </head> <body> <h1>Shakespeare's Sonnet #18</h1> <p> This is one of the most famous of the sonnets. It is referenced in the film Dead Poets Society and gave names to the band The Darling Buds and the book and television series The Darling Buds of May. Read it and weep! </p> <ul> <li>Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?</li> <li>Thou art more lovely and more temperate:</li> <li>Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,</li> <li>And summer's lease hath all too short a date:</li> <li>Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,</li> <li>And often is his gold complexion dimm'd,</li> <li>And every fair from fair sometime declines,</li> <li>By chance, or nature's changing course untrimm'd:</li> <li>But thy eternal summer shall not fade,</li> <li>Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st,</li> <li>Nor shall death brag thou wander'st in his shade,</li> <li>When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st,</li> <li>So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,</li> <li>So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.</li> </ul> <p class="copyright">See the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Sonnets"> Shakespeare's sonnets</a> Wikipedia article for more information </p> </body> </html> </syntaxhighlight> {{-}} == Challenge 2: Shakespeare's Sonnet == [[Image:Css1_1.png|thumb|right|Challenge 2 ]] [[Image:Cssthingy.png|thumb|right|Challenge 2-A ]] This second challenge will help you to re-cap your CSS text formatting skills, as well as start using margins and padding. Copy-n-paste the HTML to get started, and click on the image to see what your page should look like! You can also try to get your page to look like the page from the image on the right (challenge 2-A), which uses a few more advanced (though not too hard) CSS techniques. If you can improve on the design (shouldn't be too hard!) without increasing the difficulty of this challenge, great! I'll happily replace the image! Hints: * The thumbnails are not very representative, but this challenge requires you to create a '''fixed-width''' layout that is centred in the browser window. Click on an image for a closer view. * To get the wrap division to stay centred, you'll need to set the left and right margins to a_t_ (you've got to fill in the blanks). </br> <syntaxhighlight lang="html" line="1"> <!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0"> <title>CSS Challenge 2</title> <!-- css stylesheet --> <style> * { box-sizing: border-box; } html { background-color: rgb(243, 186, 167); } body { margin: 0 auto; width: 60%; border: black dotted 5px; margin-top: 10px; } #wrap h1 { text-align: center; font-size: 22pt; font-weight: bolder; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; height: 50%; } .line { border-bottom: black dashed 5px; } p { font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 14px; width: 70%; text-align: left; margin-left: 15%; } li { text-align: center; line-height: 1.4; font-weight: 500; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; list-style: none; } span { font-weight: 600; font-size: 15pt; } </style> </head> <body> <div id="wrap"> <h1>Shakespeare's Sonnet #18</h1> <div class="line"></div> <p> This is one of the most famous of the sonnets. It is referenced in the film Dead Poets Society and gave names to the band The Darling Buds and the book and television series The Darling Buds of May. Read it and weep! </p> <ul> <li><span>S</span> hall I compare thee to a summer's day?</li> <li><span>T</span>hou art more lovely and more temperate:</li> <li><span>R</span>ough winds do shake the darling buds of May,</li> <li><span>A</span>nd summer's lease hath all too short a date:</li> <li><span>S</span>ometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,</li> <li><span>A</span>nd often is his gold complexion dimm'd,</li> <li><span>A</span>nd every fair from fair sometime declines,</li> <li><span>B</span>y chance, or nature's changing course untrimm'd:</li> <li><span>B</span>ut thy eternal summer shall not fade,</li> <li><span>N</span>or lose possession of that fair thou ow'st,</li> <li><span>N</span>or shall death brag thou wander'st in his shade,</li> <li><span>W</span>hen in eternal lines to time thou grow'st,</li> <li><span>S</span>o long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,</li> <li><span>S</span>o long lives this, and this gives life to thee.</li> </ul> <p class="copyright"> See the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Sonnets"> Shakespeare's sonnets</a> Wikipedia article for more information </p> </div> </body> </html> </syntaxhighlight> == Challenge 3: 2-column layout== [[Image:Css 3 1.png|thumb|right|Challenge 3 ]] This one will get you fiddling with margins and padding! Hints: * You'll need to set a fixed width for your wrap, and then float the navigation <code>div</code>. * You may also want to fiddle with widths/margins of the navigation and content divisions! * For this and the next few challenges, you may want to first look through MaxDesign's [https://web.archive.org/web/20150117111031/http://www.maxdesign.com.au/articles/two-columns/ Two columns with colour] tutorial. </br> <syntaxhighlight lang="html"> <html> <head> <title>CSS Challenge 3</title> <style> * { box-sizing: border-box; } body { background-color: darkcyan; } #wrap { margin: 0 auto; width: 80%; } #nav { float: left; width: 20%; height: 470px; background-color: cadetblue; } #nav h2 { text-align: center; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; } #nav ul { margin-left: 40px; line-height: 1.6; font-size: 14pt; font-family: 'Times New Roman', Times, serif; } #content { float: right; width: 80%; height: 470px; background-color: cyan; } #content h1 { text-align: center; font-size: 18pt; font-weight: bold; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; } #content p { text-align: center; font-size: 12pt; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 1.4; padding: 5px; } #content ul { list-style: none; text-align: center; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 1.2; } .copyright { clear: both; text-align: center; padding-top: 10px; font-size: 14pt; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; color: white; } </style> </head> <body> <div id="wrap"> <div id="nav"> <h2>Sonnet Index</h2> <ul> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #1</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #6</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #11</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #15</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #18</a></li> </ul> </div> <div id="content"> <h1>Shakespeare's Sonnet #18</h1> <p>This is one of the most famous of the sonnets. It is referenced in the film Dead Poets Society and gave names to the band The Darling Buds and the book and television series The Darling Buds of May. Read it and weep!</p> <ul> <li>Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?</li> <li>Thou art more lovely and more temperate:</li> <li>Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,</li> <li>And summer's lease hath all too short a date:</li> <li>Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,</li> <li>And often is his gold complexion dimm'd,</li> <li>And every fair from fair sometime declines,</li> <li>By chance, or nature's changing course untrimm'd:</li> <li>But thy eternal summer shall not fade,</li> <li>Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st,</li> <li>Nor shall death brag thou wander'st in his shade,</li> <li>When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st,</li> <li>So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,</li> <li>So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.</li> </ul> </div> </div> <p class="copyright">See the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Sonnets"> Shakespeare's sonnets</a> Wikipedia article for more information </p> </body> </html> </syntaxhighlight> {{-}} == Challenge 4: 2 Columns with a header and footer == [[Image:csschallenge4.png|thumb|right|Challenge 4 ]] This time you've got an extra header and horizontal navigation to worry about! Hints: * For some ideas for styling the horizontal nav bar, see [http://css.maxdesign.com.au/listamatic/ listamatic]. * You'll need to fiddle with paddings/margins to get the divs bumped up against each other. * If you get stuck, try following [http://www.456bereastreet.com/lab/developing_with_web_standards/csslayout/2-col/ 456BereaStreet's 2-column layout tutorial]. </br></br></br> <syntaxhighlight lang="html"> <html lang="en"> <head> <title>CSS Challenge 4</title> </head> <body> <div id="wrap"> <div id="header"> <h1>Shakespear.net</h1> </div> <div id="nav"> <ul> <li><a href="#">Home</a></li> <li><a href="#">Writings</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnets</a></li> <li><a href="#">Life Story</a></li> <li><a href="#">About Shakespear.net</a></li> </ul> </div> <div id="sidebar"> <h2>Sonnet Index</h2> <ul> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #1</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #6</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #11</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #15</a></li> <li><a href="#">Sonnet #18</a></li> </ul> </div> <div id="content"> <h1>Shakespeare's Sonnet #18</h1> <p>This is one of the most famous of the sonnets. It is referenced in the film Dead Poets Society and gave names to the band The Darling Buds and the book and television series The Darling Buds of May. Read it and weep!</p> <ul> <li>Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?</li> <li>Thou art more lovely and more temperate:</li> <li>Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May,</li> <li>And summer's lease hath all too short a date:</li> <li>Sometime too hot the eye of heaven shines,</li> <li>And often is his gold complexion dimm'd,</li> <li>And every fair from fair sometime declines,</li> <li>By chance, or nature's changing course untrimm'd:</li> <li>But thy eternal summer shall not fade,</li> <li>Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st,</li> <li>Nor shall death brag thou wander'st in his shade,</li> <li>When in eternal lines to time thou grow'st,</li> <li>So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see,</li> <li>So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.</li> </ul> </div> <div id="footer"> <p class="copyright">See the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespeare%27s_Sonnets"> Shakespeare's sonnets</a> Wikipedia article for more information </p> </div> </div> </body> </html> </syntaxhighlight> {{-}} == Challenge 5: Gimme some whitespace == [[Image:csschallenge5.png|thumb|left|Challenge 5 ]] [[Image:csschallenge5.jpg|thumb|right|Logo for Challenge 5 ]] This one's inspired by the design of [http://clearleft.com clearleft]. A nice clean look with lots of whitespace. Have fun! Hints: * You'll need to hide the h1 somehow! (for some good tips on the best and most appropriate way to do this, you might like to read through [http://webaim.org/techniques/css/invisiblecontent/ WebAIM's Invisible Content page]). </br></br></br> <syntaxhighlight lang="HTML"> <!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en"> <head> <title>live and let learn</title> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"> </head> <body> <div id="header"> <blockquote> <p>Learning is not a privilege, it's a right.</p> </blockquote> <div id="logo"> <h1>live and let learn</h1> <img src="csschallenge5.jpg" alt="live and let learn"> </div> </div> <div id="content"> <div id="content-side"> <dl> <dt><a href="services/">Services</a></dt> <dd>Learning and facilitation through TAFE WSI</dd> <dt><a href="learning/">Personal Learning</a></dt> <dd>Learning from the network</dd> <dt><a href="resources/">Resources</a></dt> <dd>Browse through resources ...</dd> <dt><a href="about/">About</a></dt> <dd>What am I about? Personal interests and other stuff</dd> </dl> </div> <!-- content-side --> <div id="content-main"> <h2>Please update your links!</h2> <small>Wednesday, October 12th, 2005</small> <p>New blog address: <a href="http://liveandletlearn.net/learning/"> http://liveandletlearn.net/learning/</a> </p> <p>During the last holidays I've been busy moving my blog from <a href="http://www.absoludity.net/blog/">absoludity.net</a> to <a href="http://liveandletlearn.net/learning/">liveandletlearn.net</a> ... why? Good question! Part of the Web Design course that I facilitate is a client project where participants are required to develop a site from start to finish - and i'd been a while since I'd been through that process myself - so what better a project for the holidays (next to my gardening project to get me <em>away</em> from the computer)! </p> <p>You'll notice that the site itself is still in prototype stage, but the blog is all up and running so I'm going to be using liveandletlearn from now on. <strong>Please update your bookmarks/feeds</strong>! And please give me any feedback you've got time for at <a href="http://liveandletlearn.net/learning/">liveandletlearn.net</a>! </p> </div> <!-- content-main --> </div> <!-- content --> </body> </html> </syntaxhighlight> {{-}} == Challenge 6: The Headline Challenge == This time you'll be working with a chunk of HTML similar to a blog post, but now you're in charge of the design. Create a colour scheme and layout that has a look and feel related to one of the following words: * Passion * Love * Funky * Creative * Elegant * Industrial * Gothic Try using a background image that fits the aesthetic of your design, but remember to keep your text readable! If you've started experimenting with [http://arstechnica.com/open-source/news/2008/10/embedded-web-fonts.ars CSS Web Fonts], this is a perfect place to use them. [http://www.fontsquirrel.com/ Font Squirrel] and [http://www.google.com/webfonts Google Web Fonts] are excellent resources for finding decorative heading and body text fonts that are free to use. For some inspiration, checkout the collection of [http://www.smileycat.com/miaow/archives/typography-for-headlines-2.html Typography for Headlines] Hints: * You'll need to link your HTML to a new stylesheet. * Add some more content paragraphs if you like. * Try to use the HTML structure as-is, but add some extra &lt;div&gt;s if you really need to. <syntaxhighlight lang="HTML"> <!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en"> <head> <title>Headline Challenge</title> </head> <body> <div id="wrap"> <div class="thepost"> <h1 class="posttitle">CSS Layout</h1> <h2 class="dateheader">Monday, May 29, 2006</h2> <p> Wonder when CSS layout techniques will be less of an art and more of a science. </p> <p class="postfooter"> <em>Posted by Robin.</em> </p> </div> </div> </body> </html> </syntaxhighlight> {{-}} == Challenge 7: Cutting the code == [[Image:RedTie_-_OSWD.png|thumb|350px|A small website design called [http://www.oswd.org/design/preview/id/3699 Red Tie] from OpenSource Web Design]]This challenge is designed to help you build your process for producing a CSS-based layout from scratch. The idea is to choose a design from [http://www.oswd.org/ Open Source Web Design] (or otherwise) that: # you like! # is a little beyond your current skills # is not too far beyond your current skills (so you don't get overwhelmed!) Without looking at the HTML/CSS of the chosen design, you'll then work together or on your own to code the HTML and CSS for the layout using the steps below. This challenge is designed so that you can do it multiple times at different levels of difficulty if you find it helpful! === Steps: === * Choose and print off a design from [http://www.opendesigns.org/view-designs/ Open Designs] (or a website of your choice). Make sure you choose a design that is within your grasp - a little beyond your current skills, but not too far beyond so as to overwhelm you! * Use your printout to decide on your HTML structure (what divs you'll use etc.) * Create your HTML code with a DOCTYPE, head, title, body and your divs that you've decided on and link it to a stylesheet. * At this point, you might want to use a strategy such as [http://www.maxdesign.com.au/presentation/process/ Russ Weakley's coloured boxes] to give your divs some colour so you can see where they are! * Add some content such as headings, navigation etc. If you need paragraphs of text, you might want to try the [http://www.lipsum.com/ Lorum Ipsum generator] * Get started styling your page! As you work, you might choose to just focus on the layout and not worry about the images. On the other hand, you might also choose to use the images for your chosen design and add them to your stylesheet. If you get stuck, chat with the people around you to get ideas rather than looking at a solution. Only look at the solution if you're really really stuck and there's no one to talk with! When you're happy with your design (and only then!), print out your HTML and CSS as well as the HTML and CSS that was used by the original author of your chosen design. Looking at the differences, work out the pro's and con's of your code versus the original. == Challenge 8: A CSS Zen Garden entry == The [http://www.csszengarden.com/ CSS Zen Garden site] is a collection of unique designs that all use exactly the same HTML, with only the CSS changing between them. It's intended to show how powerful CSS can be in changing the site's style and appeal. Your challenge is to create a simple CSS Zen Garden design. You'll find a link to the HTML and a simple starter CSS under the "Participation" heading on the front page. Download these files and work on your local computer to build something beautiful! If you're so inclined, you're welcome to contact the Zen Garden owners to get your design listed! == Challenge 9: CSSBattle targets == [https://cssbattle.dev/ CSSBattle] is an online code-golfing game where players have to visually replicate given targets using HTML/CSS. It's not only limited to code golfing but can also be used by developers starting to learn CSS to practice CSS properties. There are plenty of targets there to practice your CSS skills there. {{Web design}} [[Category:Learning activities]] qnnn6j13g8g6orj7ilpbc3uwkjt0upw 0 54718 2415568 2412177 2022-08-16T13:03:38Z Huz and Buz 2928717 /* Chapter 25 */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{RightTOC}} <[[Bible, English, King James, According to the documentary hypothesis]] According to the [[w:documentary hypothesis|documentary hypothesis]], [[w:Numbers|Numbers]] is composed from a number of originally independant sources joined by a [[w:redaction|redactor]]. There follows the text of Numbers in the [[w:King James Version|King James Version]], with sources highlighted according to the documentary hypothesis *The [[w:Priestly source|"Priestly source"]] is highlighted in {{font|color=#888800|olive yellow}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|([[Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, Priestly source|view in isolation]])}}</small> *The [[w:Jahwist|"Jahwist source"]] is highlighted in {{font|color=#000088|navy blue}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|([[Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, JE source, Jahwist source|view in isolation]])}}</small> *The [[w:Elohist|"Elohist source"]] is highlighted in {{font|color=#008888|teal blueish grey}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|([[Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, JE source, Elohist source|view in isolation]])}}</small> *The [[w:Torah redactor|"Additions by the redactor"]] are highlighted in {{font|color=#880000|maroon red}} ==Chapter 1== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses in the wilderness of Sinai, in the tabernacle of the congregation, on the first day of the second month, in the second year after they were come out of the land of Egypt, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take ye the sum of all the congregation of the children of Israel, after their families, by the house of their fathers, with the number of their names, every male by their polls;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From twenty years old and upward, all that are able to go forth to war in Israel: thou and Aaron shall number them by their armies.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And with you there shall be a man of every tribe; every one head of the house of his fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these are the names of the men that shall stand with you: of the tribe of Reuben; Elizur the son of Shedeur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Simeon; Shelumiel the son of Zurishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Judah; Nahshon the son of Amminadab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Issachar; Nethaneel the son of Zuar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Zebulun; Eliab the son of Helon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Joseph: of Ephraim; Elishama the son of Ammihud: of Manasseh; Gamaliel the son of Pedahzur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Benjamin; Abidan the son of Gideoni.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Dan; Ahiezer the son of Ammishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Asher; Pagiel the son of Ocran.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Gad; Eliasaph the son of Deuel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Naphtali; Ahira the son of Enan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These were the renowned of the congregation, princes of the tribes of their fathers, heads of thousands in Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Aaron took these men which are expressed by their names:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they assembled all the congregation together on the first day of the second month, and they declared their pedigrees after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, by their polls.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| As the LORD commanded Moses, so he numbered them in the wilderness of Sinai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Reuben, Israel's eldest son, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, by their polls, every male from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Reuben, were forty and six thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Simeon, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, those that were numbered of them, according to the number of the names, by their polls, every male from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Simeon, were fifty and nine thousand and three hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Gad, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Gad, were forty and five thousand six hundred and fifty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Judah, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Judah, were threescore and fourteen thousand and six hundred. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Issachar, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Issachar, were fifty and four thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Zebulun, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Zebulun, were fifty and seven thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Joseph, namely, of the children of Ephraim, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Ephraim, were forty thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Manasseh, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Manasseh, were thirty and two thousand and two hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Benjamin, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Benjamin, were thirty and five thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Dan, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Dan, were threescore and two thousand and seven hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Asher, by their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Asher, were forty and one thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Naphtali, throughout their generations, after their families, by the house of their fathers, according to the number of the names, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, even of the tribe of Naphtali, were fifty and three thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are those that were numbered, which Moses and Aaron numbered, and the princes of Israel, being twelve men: each one was for the house of his fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So were all those that were numbered of the children of Israel, by the house of their fathers, from twenty years old and upward, all that were able to go forth to war in Israel; }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even all they that were numbered were six hundred thousand and three thousand and five hundred and fifty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the Levites after the tribe of their fathers were not numbered among them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For the LORD had spoken unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Only thou shalt not number the tribe of Levi, neither take the sum of them among the children of Israel:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But thou shalt appoint the Levites over the tabernacle of testimony, and over all the vessels thereof, and over all things that belong to it: they shall bear the tabernacle, and all the vessels thereof; and they shall minister unto it, and shall encamp round about the tabernacle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|51}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when the tabernacle setteth forward, the Levites shall take it down: and when the tabernacle is to be pitched, the Levites shall set it up: and the stranger that cometh nigh shall be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|52}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel shall pitch their tents, every man by his own camp, and every man by his own standard, throughout their hosts.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|53}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the Levites shall pitch round about the tabernacle of testimony, that there be no wrath upon the congregation of the children of Israel: and the Levites shall keep the charge of the tabernacle of testimony.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|54}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel did according to all that the LORD commanded Moses, so did they.}} ==Chapter 2== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Aaron, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Every man of the children of Israel shall pitch by his own standard, with the ensign of their father's house: far off about the tabernacle of the congregation shall they pitch.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And on the east side toward the rising of the sun shall they of the standard of the camp of Judah pitch throughout their armies: and Nahshon the son of Amminadab shall be captain of the children of Judah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were threescore and fourteen thousand and six hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that do pitch next unto him shall be the tribe of Issachar: and Nethaneel the son of Zuar shall be captain of the children of Issachar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered thereof, were fifty and four thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the tribe of Zebulun: and Eliab the son of Helon shall be captain of the children of Zebulun.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered thereof, were fifty and seven thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All that were numbered in the camp of Judah were an hundred thousand and fourscore thousand and six thousand and four hundred, throughout their armies. These shall first set forth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the south side shall be the standard of the camp of Reuben according to their armies: and the captain of the children of Reuben shall be Elizur the son of Shedeur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered thereof, were forty and six thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those which pitch by him shall be the tribe of Simeon: and the captain of the children of Simeon shall be Shelumiel the son of Zurishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were fifty and nine thousand and three hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the tribe of Gad: and the captain of the sons of Gad shall be Eliasaph the son of Reuel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were forty and five thousand and six hundred and fifty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All that were numbered in the camp of Reuben were an hundred thousand and fifty and one thousand and four hundred and fifty, throughout their armies. And they shall set forth in the second rank.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the tabernacle of the congregation shall set forward with the camp of the Levites in the midst of the camp: as they encamp, so shall they set forward, every man in his place by their standards.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the west side shall be the standard of the camp of Ephraim according to their armies: and the captain of the sons of Ephraim shall be Elishama the son of Ammihud.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were forty thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And by him shall be the tribe of Manasseh: and the captain of the children of Manasseh shall be Gamaliel the son of Pedahzur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were thirty and two thousand and two hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the tribe of Benjamin: and the captain of the sons of Benjamin shall be Abidan the son of Gideoni.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were thirty and five thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All that were numbered of the camp of Ephraim were an hundred thousand and eight thousand and an hundred, throughout their armies. And they shall go forward in the third rank.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The standard of the camp of Dan shall be on the north side by their armies: and the captain of the children of Dan shall be Ahiezer the son of Ammishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were threescore and two thousand and seven hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that encamp by him shall be the tribe of Asher: and the captain of the children of Asher shall be Pagiel the son of Ocran.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were forty and one thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the tribe of Naphtali: and the captain of the children of Naphtali shall be Ahira the son of Enan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his host, and those that were numbered of them, were fifty and three thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All they that were numbered in the camp of Dan were an hundred thousand and fifty and seven thousand and six hundred. They shall go hindmost with their standards.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are those which were numbered of the children of Israel by the house of their fathers: all those that were numbered of the camps throughout their hosts were six hundred thousand and three thousand and five hundred and fifty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the Levites were not numbered among the children of Israel; as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel did according to all that the LORD commanded Moses: so they pitched by their standards, and so they set forward, every one after their families, according to the house of their fathers.}} ==Chapter 3== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These also are the generations of Aaron and Moses in the day that the LORD spake with Moses in mount Sinai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these are the names of the sons of Aaron; Nadab the firstborn, and Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the names of the sons of Aaron, the priests which were anointed, whom he consecrated to minister in the priest's office.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Nadab and Abihu died before the LORD, when they offered strange fire before the LORD, in the wilderness of Sinai, and they had no children: and Eleazar and Ithamar ministered in the priest's office in the sight of Aaron their father.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Bring the tribe of Levi near, and present them before Aaron the priest, that they may minister unto him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall keep his charge, and the charge of the whole congregation before the tabernacle of the congregation, to do the service of the tabernacle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall keep all the instruments of the tabernacle of the congregation, and the charge of the children of Israel, to do the service of the tabernacle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt give the Levites unto Aaron and to his sons: they are wholly given unto him out of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt appoint Aaron and his sons, and they shall wait on their priest's office: and the stranger that cometh nigh shall be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And I, behold, I have taken the Levites from among the children of Israel instead of all the firstborn that openeth the matrix among the children of Israel: therefore the Levites shall be mine;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Because all the firstborn are mine; for on the day that I smote all the firstborn in the land of Egypt I hallowed unto me all the firstborn in Israel, both man and beast: mine shall they be: I am the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses in the wilderness of Sinai, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Number the children of Levi after the house of their fathers, by their families: every male from a month old and upward shalt thou number them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses numbered them according to the word of the LORD, as he was commanded.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these were the sons of Levi by their names; Gershon, and Kohath, and Merari.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these are the names of the sons of Gershon by their families; Libni, and Shimei.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Kohath by their families; Amram, and Izehar, Hebron, and Uzziel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Merari by their families; Mahli, and Mushi. These are the families of the Levites according to the house of their fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Gershon was the family of the Libnites, and the family of the Shimites: these are the families of the Gershonites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Those that were numbered of them, according to the number of all the males, from a month old and upward, even those that were numbered of them were seven thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The families of the Gershonites shall pitch behind the tabernacle westward.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the chief of the house of the father of the Gershonites shall be Eliasaph the son of Lael.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the charge of the sons of Gershon in the tabernacle of the congregation shall be the tabernacle, and the tent, the covering thereof, and the hanging for the door of the tabernacle of the congregation,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the hangings of the court, and the curtain for the door of the court, which is by the tabernacle, and by the altar round about, and the cords of it for all the service thereof.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of Kohath was the family of the Amramites, and the family of the Izeharites, and the family of the Hebronites, and the family of the Uzzielites: these are the families of the Kohathites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| In the number of all the males, from a month old and upward, were eight thousand and six hundred, keeping the charge of the sanctuary.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The families of the sons of Kohath shall pitch on the side of the tabernacle southward.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the chief of the house of the father of the families of the Kohathites shall be Elizaphan the son of Uzziel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And their charge shall be the ark, and the table, and the candlestick, and the altars, and the vessels of the sanctuary wherewith they minister, and the hanging, and all the service thereof.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Eleazar the son of Aaron the priest shall be chief over the chief of the Levites, and have the oversight of them that keep the charge of the sanctuary.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Merari was the family of the Mahlites, and the family of the Mushites: these are the families of Merari.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that were numbered of them, according to the number of all the males, from a month old and upward, were six thousand and two hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the chief of the house of the father of the families of Merari was Zuriel the son of Abihail: these shall pitch on the side of the tabernacle northward.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And under the custody and charge of the sons of Merari shall be the boards of the tabernacle, and the bars thereof, and the pillars thereof, and the sockets thereof, and all the vessels thereof, and all that serveth thereto,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the pillars of the court round about, and their sockets, and their pins, and their cords.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But those that encamp before the tabernacle toward the east, even before the tabernacle of the congregation eastward, shall be Moses, and Aaron and his sons, keeping the charge of the sanctuary for the charge of the children of Israel; and the stranger that cometh nigh shall be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All that were numbered of the Levites, which Moses and Aaron numbered at the commandment of the LORD, throughout their families, all the males from a month old and upward, were twenty and two thousand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Moses, Number all the firstborn of the males of the children of Israel from a month old and upward, and take the number of their names.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt take the Levites for me (I am the LORD) instead of all the firstborn among the children of Israel; and the cattle of the Levites instead of all the firstlings among the cattle of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses numbered, as the LORD commanded him, all the firstborn among the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And all the firstborn males by the number of names, from a month old and upward, of those that were numbered of them, were twenty and two thousand two hundred and threescore and thirteen.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the Levites instead of all the firstborn among the children of Israel, and the cattle of the Levites instead of their cattle; and the Levites shall be mine: I am the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for those that are to be redeemed of the two hundred and threescore and thirteen of the firstborn of the children of Israel, which are more than the Levites;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Thou shalt even take five shekels apiece by the poll, after the shekel of the sanctuary shalt thou take them: (the shekel is twenty gerahs:)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt give the money, wherewith the odd number of them is to be redeemed, unto Aaron and to his sons.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses took the redemption money of them that were over and above them that were redeemed by the Levites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the firstborn of the children of Israel took he the money; a thousand three hundred and threescore and five shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|51}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses gave the money of them that were redeemed unto Aaron and to his sons, according to the word of the LORD, as the LORD commanded Moses.}} ==Chapter 4== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Aaron, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the sum of the sons of Kohath from among the sons of Levi, after their families, by the house of their fathers,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward even until fifty years old, all that enter into the host, to do the work in the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This shall be the service of the sons of Kohath in the tabernacle of the congregation, about the most holy things:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when the camp setteth forward, Aaron shall come, and his sons, and they shall take down the covering vail, and cover the ark of testimony with it:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And shall put thereon the covering of badgers' skins, and shall spread over it a cloth wholly of blue, and shall put in the staves thereof.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And upon the table of shewbread they shall spread a cloth of blue, and put thereon the dishes, and the spoons, and the bowls, and covers to cover withal: and the continual bread shall be thereon:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall spread upon them a cloth of scarlet, and cover the same with a covering of badgers' skins, and shall put in the staves thereof.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall take a cloth of blue, and cover the candlestick of the light, and his lamps, and his tongs, and his snuffdishes, and all the oil vessels thereof, wherewith they minister unto it:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall put it and all the vessels thereof within a covering of badgers' skins, and shall put it upon a bar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And upon the golden altar they shall spread a cloth of blue, and cover it with a covering of badgers' skins, and shall put to the staves thereof:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall take all the instruments of ministry, wherewith they minister in the sanctuary, and put them in a cloth of blue, and cover them with a covering of badgers' skins, and shall put them on a bar:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall take away the ashes from the altar, and spread a purple cloth thereon:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall put upon it all the vessels thereof, wherewith they minister about it, even the censers, the fleshhooks, and the shovels, and the basons, all the vessels of the altar; and they shall spread upon it a covering of badgers' skins, and put to the staves of it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when Aaron and his sons have made an end of covering the sanctuary, and all the vessels of the sanctuary, as the camp is to set forward; after that, the sons of Kohath shall come to bear it: but they shall not touch any holy thing, lest they die. These things are the burden of the sons of Kohath in the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And to the office of Eleazar the son of Aaron the priest pertaineth the oil for the light, and the sweet incense, and the daily meat offering, and the anointing oil, and the oversight of all the tabernacle, and of all that therein is, in the sanctuary, and in the vessels thereof.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Aaron saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Cut ye not off the tribe of the families of the Kohathites from among the Levites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But thus do unto them, that they may live, and not die, when they approach unto the most holy things: Aaron and his sons shall go in, and appoint them every one to his service and to his burden:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But they shall not go in to see when the holy things are covered, lest they die.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take also the sum of the sons of Gershon, throughout the houses of their fathers, by their families;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward until fifty years old shalt thou number them; all that enter in to perform the service, to do the work in the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the service of the families of the Gershonites, to serve, and for burdens:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall bear the curtains of the tabernacle, and the tabernacle of the congregation, his covering, and the covering of the badgers' skins that is above upon it, and the hanging for the door of the tabernacle of the congregation,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the hangings of the court, and the hanging for the door of the gate of the court, which is by the tabernacle and by the altar round about, and their cords, and all the instruments of their service, and all that is made for them: so shall they serve.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| At the appointment of Aaron and his sons shall be all the service of the sons of the Gershonites, in all their burdens, and in all their service: and ye shall appoint unto them in charge all their burdens.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the service of the families of the sons of Gershon in the tabernacle of the congregation: and their charge shall be under the hand of Ithamar the son of Aaron the priest.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| As for the sons of Merari, thou shalt number them after their families, by the house of their fathers;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward even unto fifty years old shalt thou number them, every one that entereth into the service, to do the work of the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this is the charge of their burden, according to all their service in the tabernacle of the congregation; the boards of the tabernacle, and the bars thereof, and the pillars thereof, and sockets thereof,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the pillars of the court round about, and their sockets, and their pins, and their cords, with all their instruments, and with all their service: and by name ye shall reckon the instruments of the charge of their burden.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the service of the families of the sons of Merari, according to all their service, in the tabernacle of the congregation, under the hand of Ithamar the son of Aaron the priest.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Aaron and the chief of the congregation numbered the sons of the Kohathites after their families, and after the house of their fathers,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward even unto fifty years old, every one that entereth into the service, for the work in the tabernacle of the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that were numbered of them by their families were two thousand seven hundred and fifty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These were they that were numbered of the families of the Kohathites, all that might do service in the tabernacle of the congregation, which Moses and Aaron did number according to the commandment of the LORD by the hand of Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that were numbered of the sons of Gershon, throughout their families, and by the house of their fathers,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward even unto fifty years old, every one that entereth into the service, for the work in the tabernacle of the congregation,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even those that were numbered of them, throughout their families, by the house of their fathers, were two thousand and six hundred and thirty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are they that were numbered of the families of the sons of Gershon, of all that might do service in the tabernacle of the congregation, whom Moses and Aaron did number according to the commandment of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that were numbered of the families of the sons of Merari, throughout their families, by the house of their fathers,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward even unto fifty years old, every one that entereth into the service, for the work in the tabernacle of the congregation,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even those that were numbered of them after their families, were three thousand and two hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These be those that were numbered of the families of the sons of Merari, whom Moses and Aaron numbered according to the word of the LORD by the hand of Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All those that were numbered of the Levites, whom Moses and Aaron and the chief of Israel numbered, after their families, and after the house of their fathers,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From thirty years old and upward even unto fifty years old, every one that came to do the service of the ministry, and the service of the burden in the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even those that were numbered of them, were eight thousand and five hundred and fourscore,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| According to the commandment of the LORD they were numbered by the hand of Moses, every one according to his service, and according to his burden: thus were they numbered of him, as the LORD commanded Moses.}} ==Chapter 5== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Command the children of Israel, that they put out of the camp every leper, and every one that hath an issue, and whosoever is defiled by the dead:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Both male and female shall ye put out, without the camp shall ye put them; that they defile not their camps, in the midst whereof I dwell.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel did so, and put them out without the camp: as the LORD spake unto Moses, so did the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, When a man or woman shall commit any sin that men commit, to do a trespass against the LORD, and that person be guilty;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then they shall confess their sin which they have done: and he shall recompense his trespass with the principal thereof, and add unto it the fifth part thereof, and give it unto him against whom he hath trespassed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if the man have no kinsman to recompense the trespass unto, let the trespass be recompensed unto the LORD, even to the priest; beside the ram of the atonement, whereby an atonement shall be made for him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And every offering of all the holy things of the children of Israel, which they bring unto the priest, shall be his.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And every man's hallowed things shall be his: whatsoever any man giveth the priest, it shall be his.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, If any man's wife go aside, and commit a trespass against him,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And a man lie with her carnally, and it be hid from the eyes of her husband, and be kept close, and she be defiled, and there be no witness against her, neither she be taken with the manner;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the spirit of jealousy come upon him, and he be jealous of his wife, and she be defiled: or if the spirit of jealousy come upon him, and he be jealous of his wife, and she be not defiled:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then shall the man bring his wife unto the priest, and he shall bring her offering for her, the tenth part of an ephah of barley meal; he shall pour no oil upon it, nor put frankincense thereon; for it is an offering of jealousy, an offering of memorial, bringing iniquity to remembrance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall bring her near, and set her before the LORD:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall take holy water in an earthen vessel; and of the dust that is in the floor of the tabernacle the priest shall take, and put it into the water:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall set the woman before the LORD, and uncover the woman's head, and put the offering of memorial in her hands, which is the jealousy offering: and the priest shall have in his hand the bitter water that causeth the curse:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall charge her by an oath, and say unto the woman, If no man have lain with thee, and if thou hast not gone aside to uncleanness with another instead of thy husband, be thou free from this bitter water that causeth the curse:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if thou hast gone aside to another instead of thy husband, and if thou be defiled, and some man have lain with thee beside thine husband:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the priest shall charge the woman with an oath of cursing, and the priest shall say unto the woman, The LORD make thee a curse and an oath among thy people, when the LORD doth make thy thigh to rot, and thy belly to swell;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this water that causeth the curse shall go into thy bowels, to make thy belly to swell, and thy thigh to rot: And the woman shall say, Amen, amen.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall write these curses in a book, and he shall blot them out with the bitter water:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he shall cause the woman to drink the bitter water that causeth the curse: and the water that causeth the curse shall enter into her, and become bitter.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the priest shall take the jealousy offering out of the woman's hand, and shall wave the offering before the LORD, and offer it upon the altar:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall take an handful of the offering, even the memorial thereof, and burn it upon the altar, and afterward shall cause the woman to drink the water.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when he hath made her to drink the water, then it shall come to pass, that, if she be defiled, and have done trespass against her husband, that the water that causeth the curse shall enter into her, and become bitter, and her belly shall swell, and her thigh shall rot: and the woman shall be a curse among her people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if the woman be not defiled, but be clean; then she shall be free, and shall conceive seed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the law of jealousies, when a wife goeth aside to another instead of her husband, and is defiled;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Or when the spirit of jealousy cometh upon him, and he be jealous over his wife, and shall set the woman before the LORD, and the priest shall execute upon her all this law.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then shall the man be guiltless from iniquity, and this woman shall bear her iniquity.}} ==Chapter 6== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When either man or woman shall separate themselves to vow a vow of a Nazarite, to separate themselves unto the LORD:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| He shall separate himself from wine and strong drink, and shall drink no vinegar of wine, or vinegar of strong drink, neither shall he drink any liquor of grapes, nor eat moist grapes, or dried.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the days of his separation shall he eat nothing that is made of the vine tree, from the kernels even to the husk.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the days of the vow of his separation there shall no razor come upon his head: until the days be fulfilled, in the which he separateth himself unto the LORD, he shall be holy, and shall let the locks of the hair of his head grow.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the days that he separateth himself unto the LORD he shall come at no dead body.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| He shall not make himself unclean for his father, or for his mother, for his brother, or for his sister, when they die: because the consecration of his God is upon his head.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the days of his separation he is holy unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if any man die very suddenly by him, and he hath defiled the head of his consecration; then he shall shave his head in the day of his cleansing, on the seventh day shall he shave it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And on the eighth day he shall bring two turtles, or two young pigeons, to the priest, to the door of the tabernacle of the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall offer the one for a sin offering, and the other for a burnt offering, and make an atonement for him, for that he sinned by the dead, and shall hallow his head that same day.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he shall consecrate unto the LORD the days of his separation, and shall bring a lamb of the first year for a trespass offering: but the days that were before shall be lost, because his separation was defiled.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this is the law of the Nazarite, when the days of his separation are fulfilled: he shall be brought unto the door of the tabernacle of the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he shall offer his offering unto the LORD, one he lamb of the first year without blemish for a burnt offering, and one ewe lamb of the first year without blemish for a sin offering, and one ram without blemish for peace offerings,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And a basket of unleavened bread, cakes of fine flour mingled with oil, and wafers of unleavened bread anointed with oil, and their meat offering, and their drink offerings.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall bring them before the LORD, and shall offer his sin offering, and his burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he shall offer the ram for a sacrifice of peace offerings unto the LORD, with the basket of unleavened bread: the priest shall offer also his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the Nazarite shall shave the head of his separation at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation, and shall take the hair of the head of his separation, and put it in the fire which is under the sacrifice of the peace offerings.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall take the sodden shoulder of the ram, and one unleavened cake out of the basket, and one unleavened wafer, and shall put them upon the hands of the Nazarite, after the hair of his separation is shaven:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall wave them for a wave offering before the LORD: this is holy for the priest, with the wave breast and heave shoulder: and after that the Nazarite may drink wine.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the law of the Nazarite who hath vowed, and of his offering unto the LORD for his separation, beside that that his hand shall get: according to the vow which he vowed, so he must do after the law of his separation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto Aaron and unto his sons, saying, On this wise ye shall bless the children of Israel, saying unto them,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The LORD bless thee, and keep thee:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The LORD make his face shine upon thee, and be gracious unto thee:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The LORD lift up his countenance upon thee, and give thee peace.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall put my name upon the children of Israel, and I will bless them.}} ==Chapter 7== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it came to pass on the day that Moses had fully set up the tabernacle, and had anointed it, and sanctified it, and all the instruments thereof, both the altar and all the vessels thereof, and had anointed them, and sanctified them;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| That the princes of Israel, heads of the house of their fathers, who were the princes of the tribes, and were over them that were numbered, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they brought their offering before the LORD, six covered wagons, and twelve oxen; a wagon for two of the princes, and for each one an ox: and they brought them before the tabernacle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take it of them, that they may be to do the service of the tabernacle of the congregation; and thou shalt give them unto the Levites, to every man according to his service.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses took the wagons and the oxen, and gave them unto the Levites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Two wagons and four oxen he gave unto the sons of Gershon, according to their service:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And four wagons and eight oxen he gave unto the sons of Merari, according unto their service, under the hand of Ithamar the son of Aaron the priest.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But unto the sons of Kohath he gave none: because the service of the sanctuary belonging unto them was that they should bear upon their shoulders.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the princes offered for dedicating of the altar in the day that it was anointed, even the princes offered their offering before the altar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Moses, They shall offer their offering, each prince on his day, for the dedicating of the altar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he that offered his offering the first day was Nahshon the son of Amminadab, of the tribe of Judah:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And his offering was one silver charger, the weight thereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them were full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One spoon of ten shekels of gold, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Nahshon the son of Amminadab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the second day Nethaneel the son of Zuar, prince of Issachar, did offer:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| He offered for his offering one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One spoon of gold of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Nethaneel the son of Zuar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the third day Eliab the son of Helon, prince of the children of Zebulun, did offer:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Eliab the son of Helon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the fourth day Elizur the son of Shedeur, prince of the children of Reuben, did offer:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger of the weight of an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Elizur the son of Shedeur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the fifth day Shelumiel the son of Zurishaddai, prince of the children of Simeon, did offer:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Shelumiel the son of Zurishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the sixth day Eliasaph the son of Deuel, prince of the children of Gad, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger of the weight of an hundred and thirty shekels, a silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Eliasaph the son of Deuel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the seventh day Elishama the son of Ammihud, prince of the children of Ephraim, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|51}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|52}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|53}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Elishama the son of Ammihud.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|54}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the eighth day offered Gamaliel the son of Pedahzur, prince of the children of Manasseh:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|55}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger of the weight of an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|56}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|57}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|58}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|59}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Gamaliel the son of Pedahzur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|60}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the ninth day Abidan the son of Gideoni, prince of the children of Benjamin, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|61}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|62}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|63}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|64}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|65}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Abidan the son of Gideoni.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|66}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the tenth day Ahiezer the son of Ammishaddai, prince of the children of Dan, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|67}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|68}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|69}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|70}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|71}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Ahiezer the son of Ammishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|72}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the eleventh day Pagiel the son of Ocran, prince of the children of Asher, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|73}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|74}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|75}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|76}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|77}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Pagiel the son of Ocran.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|78}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| On the twelfth day Ahira the son of Enan, prince of the children of Naphtali, offered:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|79}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| His offering was one silver charger, the weight whereof was an hundred and thirty shekels, one silver bowl of seventy shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary; both of them full of fine flour mingled with oil for a meat offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|80}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One golden spoon of ten shekels, full of incense:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|81}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One young bullock, one ram, one lamb of the first year, for a burnt offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|82}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One kid of the goats for a sin offering:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|83}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a sacrifice of peace offerings, two oxen, five rams, five he goats, five lambs of the first year: this was the offering of Ahira the son of Enan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|84}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This was the dedication of the altar, in the day when it was anointed, by the princes of Israel: twelve chargers of silver, twelve silver bowls, twelve spoons of gold:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|85}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Each charger of silver weighing an hundred and thirty shekels, each bowl seventy: all the silver vessels weighed two thousand and four hundred shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|86}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The golden spoons were twelve, full of incense, weighing ten shekels apiece, after the shekel of the sanctuary: all the gold of the spoons was an hundred and twenty shekels.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|87}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the oxen for the burnt offering were twelve bullocks, the rams twelve, the lambs of the first year twelve, with their meat offering: and the kids of the goats for sin offering twelve.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|88}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And all the oxen for the sacrifice of the peace offerings were twenty and four bullocks, the rams sixty, the he goats sixty, the lambs of the first year sixty. This was the dedication of the altar, after that it was anointed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|89}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when Moses was gone into the tabernacle of the congregation to speak with him, then he heard the voice of one speaking unto him from off the mercy seat that was upon the ark of testimony, from between the two cherubims: and he spake unto him.}} ==Chapter 8== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto Aaron and say unto him, When thou lightest the lamps, the seven lamps shall give light over against the candlestick.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Aaron did so; he lighted the lamps thereof over against the candlestick, as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this work of the candlestick was of beaten gold, unto the shaft thereof, unto the flowers thereof, was beaten work: according unto the pattern which the LORD had shewed Moses, so he made the candlestick.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the Levites from among the children of Israel, and cleanse them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thus shalt thou do unto them, to cleanse them: Sprinkle water of purifying upon them, and let them shave all their flesh, and let them wash their clothes, and so make themselves clean.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then let them take a young bullock with his meat offering, even fine flour mingled with oil, and another young bullock shalt thou take for a sin offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt bring the Levites before the tabernacle of the congregation: and thou shalt gather the whole assembly of the children of Israel together:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt bring the Levites before the LORD: and the children of Israel shall put their hands upon the Levites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Aaron shall offer the Levites before the LORD for an offering of the children of Israel, that they may execute the service of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the Levites shall lay their hands upon the heads of the bullocks: and thou shalt offer the one for a sin offering, and the other for a burnt offering, unto the LORD, to make an atonement for the Levites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt set the Levites before Aaron, and before his sons, and offer them for an offering unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Thus shalt thou separate the Levites from among the children of Israel: and the Levites shall be mine.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And after that shall the Levites go in to do the service of the tabernacle of the congregation: and thou shalt cleanse them, and offer them for an offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For they are wholly given unto me from among the children of Israel; instead of such as open every womb, even instead of the firstborn of all the children of Israel, have I taken them unto me.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For all the firstborn of the children of Israel are mine, both man and beast: on the day that I smote every firstborn in the land of Egypt I sanctified them for myself.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And I have taken the Levites for all the firstborn of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And I have given the Levites as a gift to Aaron and to his sons from among the children of Israel, to do the service of the children of Israel in the tabernacle of the congregation, and to make an atonement for the children of Israel: that there be no plague among the children of Israel, when the children of Israel come nigh unto the sanctuary.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses, and Aaron, and all the congregation of the children of Israel, did to the Levites according unto all that the LORD commanded Moses concerning the Levites, so did the children of Israel unto them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the Levites were purified, and they washed their clothes; and Aaron offered them as an offering before the LORD; and Aaron made an atonement for them to cleanse them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And after that went the Levites in to do their service in the tabernacle of the congregation before Aaron, and before his sons: as the LORD had commanded Moses concerning the Levites, so did they unto them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is it that belongeth unto the Levites: from twenty and five years old and upward they shall go in to wait upon the service of the tabernacle of the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And from the age of fifty years they shall cease waiting upon the service thereof, and shall serve no more:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But shall minister with their brethren in the tabernacle of the congregation, to keep the charge, and shall do no service. Thus shalt thou do unto the Levites touching their charge.}} ==Chapter 9== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses in the wilderness of Sinai, in the first month of the second year after they were come out of the land of Egypt, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Let the children of Israel also keep the passover at his appointed season.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| In the fourteenth day of this month, at even, ye shall keep it in his appointed season: according to all the rites of it, and according to all the ceremonies thereof, shall ye keep it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses spake unto the children of Israel, that they should keep the passover.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they kept the passover on the fourteenth day of the first month at even in the wilderness of Sinai: according to all that the LORD commanded Moses, so did the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And there were certain men, who were defiled by the dead body of a man, that they could not keep the passover on that day: and they came before Moses and before Aaron on that day:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those men said unto him, We are defiled by the dead body of a man: wherefore are we kept back, that we may not offer an offering of the LORD in his appointed season among the children of Israel?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses said unto them, Stand still, and I will hear what the LORD will command concerning you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, saying, If any man of you or of your posterity shall be unclean by reason of a dead body, or be in a journey afar off, yet he shall keep the passover unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The fourteenth day of the second month at even they shall keep it, and eat it with unleavened bread and bitter herbs.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| They shall leave none of it unto the morning, nor break any bone of it: according to all the ordinances of the passover they shall keep it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the man that is clean, and is not in a journey, and forbeareth to keep the passover, even the same soul shall be cut off from among his people: because he brought not the offering of the LORD in his appointed season, that man shall bear his sin.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if a stranger shall sojourn among you, and will keep the passover unto the LORD; according to the ordinance of the passover, and according to the manner thereof, so shall he do: ye shall have one ordinance, both for the stranger, and for him that was born in the land.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And on the day that the tabernacle was reared up the cloud covered the tabernacle, namely, the tent of the testimony: and at even there was upon the tabernacle as it were the appearance of fire, until the morning.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So it was alway: the cloud covered it by day, and the appearance of fire by night.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when the cloud was taken up from the tabernacle, then after that the children of Israel journeyed: and in the place where the cloud abode, there the children of Israel pitched their tents.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| At the commandment of the LORD the children of Israel journeyed, and at the commandment of the LORD they pitched: as long as the cloud abode upon the tabernacle they rested in their tents.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when the cloud tarried long upon the tabernacle many days, then the children of Israel kept the charge of the LORD, and journeyed not.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And so it was, when the cloud was a few days upon the tabernacle; according to the commandment of the LORD they abode in their tents, and according to the commandment of the LORD they journeyed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And so it was, when the cloud abode from even unto the morning, and that the cloud was taken up in the morning, then they journeyed: whether it was by day or by night that the cloud was taken up, they journeyed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Or whether it were two days, or a month, or a year, that the cloud tarried upon the tabernacle, remaining thereon, the children of Israel abode in their tents, and journeyed not: but when it was taken up, they journeyed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| At the commandment of the LORD they rested in the tents, and at the commandment of the LORD they journeyed: they kept the charge of the LORD, at the commandment of the LORD by the hand of Moses.}} ==Chapter 10== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Make thee two trumpets of silver; of a whole piece shalt thou make them: that thou mayest use them for the calling of the assembly, and for the journeying of the camps.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when they shall blow with them, all the assembly shall assemble themselves to thee at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if they blow but with one trumpet, then the princes, which are heads of the thousands of Israel, shall gather themselves unto thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| When ye blow an alarm, then the camps that lie on the east parts shall go forward.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| When ye blow an alarm the second time, then the camps that lie on the south side shall take their journey: they shall blow an alarm for their journeys.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But when the congregation is to be gathered together, ye shall blow, but ye shall not sound an alarm.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Aaron, the priests, shall blow with the trumpets; and they shall be to you for an ordinance for ever throughout your generations.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if ye go to war in your land against the enemy that oppresseth you, then ye shall blow an alarm with the trumpets; and ye shall be remembered before the LORD your God, and ye shall be saved from your enemies.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Also in the day of your gladness, and in your solemn days, and in the beginnings of your months, ye shall blow with the trumpets over your burnt offerings, and over the sacrifices of your peace offerings; that they may be to you for a memorial before your God: I am the LORD your God.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it came to pass on the twentieth day of the second month, in the second year, that the cloud was taken up from off the tabernacle of the testimony.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel took their journeys out of the wilderness of Sinai; and the cloud rested in the wilderness of Paran.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they first took their journey according to the commandment of the LORD by the hand of Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| In the first place went the standard of the camp of the children of Judah according to their armies: and over his host was Nahshon the son of Amminadab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Issachar was Nethaneel the son of Zuar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Zebulun was Eliab the son of Helon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the tabernacle was taken down; and the sons of Gershon and the sons of Merari set forward, bearing the tabernacle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the standard of the camp of Reuben set forward according to their armies: and over his host was Elizur the son of Shedeur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Simeon was Shelumiel the son of Zurishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Gad was Eliasaph the son of Deuel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the Kohathites set forward, bearing the sanctuary: and the other did set up the tabernacle against they came.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the standard of the camp of the children of Ephraim set forward according to their armies: and over his host was Elishama the son of Ammihud.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Manasseh was Gamaliel the son of Pedahzur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Benjamin was Abidan the son of Gideoni.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the standard of the camp of the children of Dan set forward, which was the rereward of all the camps throughout their hosts: and over his host was Ahiezer the son of Ammishaddai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Asher was Pagiel the son of Ocran.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And over the host of the tribe of the children of Naphtali was Ahira the son of Enan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Thus were the journeyings of the children of Israel according to their armies, when they set forward.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses said unto Hobab, the son of Raguel the Midianite, Moses' father in law, We are journeying unto the place of which the LORD said, I will give it you: come thou with us, and we will do thee good: for the LORD hath spoken good concerning Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he said unto him, I will not go; but I will depart to mine own land, and to my kindred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he said, Leave us not, I pray thee; forasmuch as thou knowest how we are to encamp in the wilderness, and thou mayest be to us instead of eyes.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And it shall be, if thou go with us, yea, it shall be, that what goodness the LORD shall do unto us, the same will we do unto thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they departed from the mount of the LORD three days' journey: and the ark of the covenant of the LORD went before them in the three days' journey, to search out a resting place for them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the cloud of the LORD was upon them by day, when they went out of the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And it came to pass, when the ark set forward, that Moses said, Rise up, LORD, and let thine enemies be scattered; and let them that hate thee flee before thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when it rested, he said, Return, O LORD, unto the many thousands of Israel.}} ==Chapter 11== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when the people complained, it displeased the LORD: and the LORD heard it; and his anger was kindled; and the fire of the LORD burnt among them, and consumed them that were in the uttermost parts of the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the people cried unto Moses; and when Moses prayed unto the LORD, the fire was quenched.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he called the name of the place Taberah: because the fire of the LORD burnt among them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the mixt multitude that was among them fell a lusting: and the children of Israel also wept again, and said, Who shall give us flesh to eat?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| We remember the fish, which we did eat in Egypt freely; the cucumbers, and the melons, and the leeks, and the onions, and the garlick:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But now our soul is dried away: there is nothing at all, beside this manna, before our eyes.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And the manna was as coriander seed, and the colour thereof as the colour of bdellium.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And the people went about, and gathered it, and ground it in mills, or beat it in a mortar, and baked it in pans, and made cakes of it: and the taste of it was as the taste of fresh oil.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And when the dew fell upon the camp in the night, the manna fell upon it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Then Moses heard the people weep throughout their families, every man in the door of his tent: and the anger of the LORD was kindled greatly; Moses also was displeased.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses said unto the LORD, Wherefore hast thou afflicted thy servant? and wherefore have I not found favour in thy sight, that thou layest the burden of all this people upon me?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Have I conceived all this people? have I begotten them, that thou shouldest say unto me, Carry them in thy bosom, as a nursing father beareth the sucking child, unto the land which thou swarest unto their fathers?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Whence should I have flesh to give unto all this people? for they weep unto me, saying, Give us flesh, that we may eat.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| I am not able to bear all this people alone, because it is too heavy for me.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And if thou deal thus with me, kill me, I pray thee, out of hand, if I have found favour in thy sight; and let me not see my wretchedness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD said unto Moses, Gather unto me seventy men of the elders of Israel, whom thou knowest to be the elders of the people, and officers over them; and bring them unto the tabernacle of the congregation, that they may stand there with thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And I will come down and talk with thee there: and I will take of the spirit which is upon thee, and will put it upon them; and they shall bear the burden of the people with thee, that thou bear it not thyself alone.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And say thou unto the people, Sanctify yourselves against to morrow, and ye shall eat flesh: for ye have wept in the ears of the LORD, saying, Who shall give us flesh to eat? for it was well with us in Egypt: therefore the LORD will give you flesh, and ye shall eat.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Ye shall not eat one day, nor two days, nor five days, neither ten days, nor twenty days;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But even a whole month, until it come out at your nostrils, and it be loathsome unto you: because that ye have despised the LORD which is among you, and have wept before him, saying, Why came we forth out of Egypt?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses said, The people, among whom I am, are six hundred thousand footmen; and thou hast said, I will give them flesh, that they may eat a whole month.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Shall the flocks and the herds be slain for them, to suffice them? or shall all the fish of the sea be gathered together for them, to suffice them?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD said unto Moses, Is the LORD's hand waxed short? thou shalt see now whether my word shall come to pass unto thee or not.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses went out, and told the people the words of the LORD, }} {{font|color=#880000|and}} {{font|color=#008888|gathered the seventy men of the elders of the people, and set them round about the tabernacle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD came down in a cloud, and spake unto him, and took of the spirit that was upon him, and gave it unto the seventy elders: and it came to pass, that, when the spirit rested upon them, they prophesied, and did not cease.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| But there remained two of the men in the camp, the name of the one was Eldad, and the name of the other Medad: and the spirit rested upon them; and they were of them that were written, but went not out unto the tabernacle: and they prophesied in the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And there ran a young man, and told Moses, and said, Eldad and Medad do prophesy in the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Joshua the son of Nun, the servant of Moses, one of his young men, answered and said, My lord Moses, forbid them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses said unto him, Enviest thou for my sake? would God that all the LORD's people were prophets, and that the LORD would put his spirit upon them!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses gat him into the camp, he and the elders of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And there went forth a wind from the LORD, and brought quails from the sea, and let them fall by the camp, as it were a day's journey on this side, and as it were a day's journey on the other side, round about the camp, and as it were two cubits high upon the face of the earth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the people stood up all that day, and all that night, and all the next day, and they gathered the quails: he that gathered least gathered ten homers: and they spread them all abroad for themselves round about the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And while the flesh was yet between their teeth, ere it was chewed, the wrath of the LORD was kindled against the people, and the LORD smote the people with a very great plague.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he called the name of that place Kibrothhattaavah: because there they buried the people that lusted.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And the people journeyed from Kibrothhattaavah unto Hazeroth; and abode at Hazeroth.}} ==Chapter 12== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Miriam and Aaron spake against Moses}} {{font|color=#880000| because of the Ethiopian woman whom he had married: for he had married an Ethiopian woman.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And they said, Hath the LORD indeed spoken only by Moses? hath he not spoken also by us? And the LORD heard it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| (Now the man Moses was very meek, above all the men which were upon the face of the earth.)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD spake suddenly unto Moses, and unto Aaron, and unto Miriam, Come out ye three unto the tabernacle of the congregation. And they three came out.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD came down in the pillar of the cloud, and stood in the door of the tabernacle, and called Aaron and Miriam: and they both came forth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And he said, Hear now my words: If there be a prophet among you, I the LORD will make myself known unto him in a vision, and will speak unto him in a dream.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| My servant Moses is not so, who is faithful in all mine house. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| With him will I speak mouth to mouth, even apparently, and not in dark speeches; and the similitude of the LORD shall he behold: wherefore then were ye not afraid to speak against my servant Moses?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the anger of the LORD was kindled against them; and he departed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the cloud departed from off the tabernacle; and, behold, Miriam became leprous, white as snow: and Aaron looked upon Miriam, and, behold, she was leprous.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Aaron said unto Moses, Alas, my lord, I beseech thee, lay not the sin upon us, wherein we have done foolishly, and wherein we have sinned.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Let her not be as one dead, of whom the flesh is half consumed when he cometh out of his mother's womb.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses cried unto the LORD, saying, Heal her now, O God, I beseech thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD said unto Moses, If her father had but spit in her face, should she not be ashamed seven days? let her be shut out from the camp seven days, and after that let her be received in again.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Miriam was shut out from the camp seven days: and the people journeyed not till Miriam was brought in again.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And afterward the people removed from Hazeroth, and pitched in the wilderness of Paran.}} ==Chapter 13== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Send thou men, that they may search the land of Canaan, which I give unto the children of Israel: of every tribe of their fathers shall ye send a man, every one a ruler among them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses by the commandment of the LORD sent them from the wilderness of Paran: all those men were heads of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these were their names: of the tribe of Reuben, Shammua the son of Zaccur.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Simeon, Shaphat the son of Hori.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Judah, Caleb the son of Jephunneh.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Issachar, Igal the son of Joseph.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Ephraim, Oshea the son of Nun.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Benjamin, Palti the son of Raphu.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Zebulun, Gaddiel the son of Sodi.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Joseph, namely, of the tribe of Manasseh, Gaddi the son of Susi.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Dan, Ammiel the son of Gemalli.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Asher, Sethur the son of Michael.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Naphtali, Nahbi the son of Vophsi.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Gad, Geuel the son of Machi.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the names of the men which Moses sent to spy out the land. And Moses called Oshea the son of Nun Jehoshua.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses sent them to spy out the land of Canaan, }} {{font|color=#000088|and said unto them, Get you up this way southward, and go up into the mountain:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#000088|And see the land, what it is, and the people that dwelleth therein, whether they be strong or weak, few or many;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And what the land is that they dwell in, whether it be good or bad; and what cities they be that they dwell in, whether in tents, or in strong holds;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And what the land is, whether it be fat or lean, whether there be wood therein, or not. And be ye of good courage, and bring of the fruit of the land. Now the time was the time of the firstripe grapes.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800|So they went up, and searched the land from the wilderness of Zin unto Rehob, as men come to Hamath.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they ascended by the south, and came unto Hebron; where Ahiman, Sheshai, and Talmai, the children of Anak, were. (Now Hebron was built seven years before Zoan in Egypt.)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they came unto the brook of Eshcol, and cut down from thence a branch with one cluster of grapes, and they bare it between two upon a staff; and they brought of the pomegranates, and of the figs.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| The place was called the brook Eshcol, because of the cluster of grapes which the children of Israel cut down from thence.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they returned from searching of the land after forty days.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they went and came to Moses, and to Aaron, and to all the congregation of the children of Israel, unto the wilderness of Paran,}} {{font|color=#000088|to Kadesh; and brought back word unto them, and unto all the congregation, and shewed them the fruit of the land.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they told him, and said, We came unto the land whither thou sentest us, and surely it floweth with milk and honey; and this is the fruit of it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Nevertheless the people be strong that dwell in the land, and the cities are walled, and very great: and moreover we saw the children of Anak there.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| The Amalekites dwell in the land of the south: and the Hittites, and the Jebusites, and the Amorites, dwell in the mountains: and the Canaanites dwell by the sea, and by the coast of Jordan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Caleb stilled the people before Moses, and said, Let us go up at once, and possess it; for we are well able to overcome it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But the men that went up with him said, We be not able to go up against the people; for they are stronger than we.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they brought up an evil report of the land which they had searched unto the children of Israel, saying, The land, through which we have gone to search it, is a land that eateth up the inhabitants thereof; and all the people that we saw in it are men of a great stature.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And there we saw the giants, the sons of Anak, which come of the giants: and we were in our own sight as grasshoppers, and so we were in their sight.}} ==Chapter 14== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And all the congregation lifted up their voice, and cried;}} {{font|color=#000088| and the people wept that night.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And all the children of Israel murmured against Moses and against Aaron: and the whole congregation said unto them, Would God that we had died in the land of Egypt! or would God we had died in this wilderness!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And wherefore hath the LORD brought us unto this land, to fall by the sword, that our wives and our children should be a prey? were it not better for us to return into Egypt?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they said one to another, Let us make a captain, and let us return into Egypt.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then Moses and Aaron fell on their faces before all the assembly of the congregation of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Joshua the son of Nun, and Caleb the son of Jephunneh, which were of them that searched the land, rent their clothes:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800|And they spake unto all the company of the children of Israel, saying, The land, which we passed through to search it, is an exceeding good land.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| If the LORD delight in us, then he will bring us into this land, and give it us; a land which floweth with milk and honey.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Only rebel not ye against the LORD, neither fear ye the people of the land; for they are bread for us: their defence is departed from them, and the LORD is with us: fear them not.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But all the congregation bade stone them with stones. And the glory of the LORD appeared in the tabernacle of the congregation before all the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD said unto Moses, How long will this people provoke me? and how long will it be ere they believe me, for all the signs which I have shewed among them?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| I will smite them with the pestilence, and disinherit them, and will make of thee a greater nation and mightier than they.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses said unto the LORD, Then the Egyptians shall hear it, (for thou broughtest up this people in thy might from among them;)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they will tell it to the inhabitants of this land: for they have heard that thou LORD art among this people, that thou LORD art seen face to face, and that thy cloud standeth over them, and that thou goest before them, by day time in a pillar of a cloud, and in a pillar of fire by night.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Now if thou shalt kill all this people as one man, then the nations which have heard the fame of thee will speak, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Because the LORD was not able to bring this people into the land which he sware unto them, therefore he hath slain them in the wilderness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And now, I beseech thee, let the power of my Lord be great, according as thou hast spoken, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| The LORD is longsuffering, and of great mercy, forgiving iniquity and transgression, and by no means clearing the guilty, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Pardon, I beseech thee, the iniquity of this people according unto the greatness of thy mercy, and as thou hast forgiven this people, from Egypt even until now.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD said, I have pardoned according to thy word: }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But as truly as I live, all the earth shall be filled with the glory of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Because all those men which have seen my glory, and my miracles, which I did in Egypt and in the wilderness, and have tempted me now these ten times, and have not hearkened to my voice;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Surely they shall not see the land which I sware unto their fathers, neither shall any of them that provoked me see it:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But my servant Caleb, because he had another spirit with him, and hath followed me fully, him will I bring into the land whereinto he went; and his seed shall possess it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| (Now the Amalekites and the Canaanites dwelt in the valley.) Tomorrow turn you, and get you into the wilderness by the way of the Red sea.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Aaron, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| How long shall I bear with this evil congregation, which murmur against me? I have heard the murmurings of the children of Israel, which they murmur against me.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Say unto them, As truly as I live, saith the LORD, as ye have spoken in mine ears, so will I do to you:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Your carcases shall fall in this wilderness; and all that were numbered of you, according to your whole number, from twenty years old and upward which have murmured against me.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Doubtless ye shall not come into the land, concerning which I sware to make you dwell therein, save Caleb the son of Jephunneh, and Joshua the son of Nun.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But your little ones, which ye said should be a prey, them will I bring in, and they shall know the land which ye have despised.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But as for you, your carcases, they shall fall in this wilderness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And your children shall wander in the wilderness forty years, and bear your whoredoms, until your carcases be wasted in the wilderness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| After the number of the days in which ye searched the land, even forty days, each day for a year, shall ye bear your iniquities, even forty years, and ye shall know my breach of promise.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| I the LORD have said, I will surely do it unto all this evil congregation, that are gathered together against me: in this wilderness they shall be consumed, and there they shall die.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the men, which Moses sent to search the land, who returned, and made all the congregation to murmur against him, by bringing up a slander upon the land,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even those men that did bring up the evil report upon the land, died by the plague before the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But Joshua the son of Nun, and Caleb the son of Jephunneh, which were of the men that went to search the land, lived still.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses told these sayings unto all the children of Israel: and the people mourned greatly.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they rose up early in the morning, and gat them up into the top of the mountain, saying, Lo, we be here, and will go up unto the place which the LORD hath promised: for we have sinned.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses said, Wherefore now do ye transgress the commandment of the LORD? but it shall not prosper.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Go not up, for the LORD is not among you; that ye be not smitten before your enemies.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| For the Amalekites and the Canaanites are there before you, and ye shall fall by the sword: because ye are turned away from the LORD, therefore the LORD will not be with you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But they presumed to go up unto the hill top: nevertheless the ark of the covenant of the LORD, and Moses, departed not out of the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Then the Amalekites came down, and the Canaanites which dwelt in that hill, and smote them, and discomfited them, even unto Hormah.}} ==Chapter 15== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When ye be come into the land of your habitations, which I give unto you,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And will make an offering by fire unto the LORD, a burnt offering, or a sacrifice in performing a vow, or in a freewill offering, or in your solemn feasts, to make a sweet savour unto the LORD, of the herd or of the flock:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then shall he that offereth his offering unto the LORD bring a meat offering of a tenth deal of flour mingled with the fourth part of an hin of oil.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the fourth part of an hin of wine for a drink offering shalt thou prepare with the burnt offering or sacrifice, for one lamb.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Or for a ram, thou shalt prepare for a meat offering two tenth deals of flour mingled with the third part of an hin of oil.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for a drink offering thou shalt offer the third part of an hin of wine, for a sweet savour unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when thou preparest a bullock for a burnt offering, or for a sacrifice in performing a vow, or peace offerings unto the LORD:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then shall he bring with a bullock a meat offering of three tenth deals of flour mingled with half an hin of oil.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt bring for a drink offering half an hin of wine, for an offering made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Thus shall it be done for one bullock, or for one ram, or for a lamb, or a kid.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| According to the number that ye shall prepare, so shall ye do to every one according to their number.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All that are born of the country shall do these things after this manner, in offering an offering made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if a stranger sojourn with you, or whosoever be among you in your generations, and will offer an offering made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD; as ye do, so he shall do.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One ordinance shall be both for you of the congregation, and also for the stranger that sojourneth with you, an ordinance for ever in your generations: as ye are, so shall the stranger be before the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| One law and one manner shall be for you, and for the stranger that sojourneth with you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When ye come into the land whither I bring you,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then it shall be, that, when ye eat of the bread of the land, ye shall offer up an heave offering unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Ye shall offer up a cake of the first of your dough for an heave offering: as ye do the heave offering of the threshingfloor, so shall ye heave it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the first of your dough ye shall give unto the LORD an heave offering in your generations.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if ye have erred, and not observed all these commandments, which the LORD hath spoken unto Moses,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even all that the LORD hath commanded you by the hand of Moses, from the day that the LORD commanded Moses, and henceforward among your generations;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then it shall be, if ought be committed by ignorance without the knowledge of the congregation, that all the congregation shall offer one young bullock for a burnt offering, for a sweet savour unto the LORD, with his meat offering, and his drink offering, according to the manner, and one kid of the goats for a sin offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall make an atonement for all the congregation of the children of Israel, and it shall be forgiven them; for it is ignorance: and they shall bring their offering, a sacrifice made by fire unto the LORD, and their sin offering before the LORD, for their ignorance:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it shall be forgiven all the congregation of the children of Israel, and the stranger that sojourneth among them; seeing all the people were in ignorance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if any soul sin through ignorance, then he shall bring a she goat of the first year for a sin offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall make an atonement for the soul that sinneth ignorantly, when he sinneth by ignorance before the LORD, to make an atonement for him; and it shall be forgiven him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Ye shall have one law for him that sinneth through ignorance, both for him that is born among the children of Israel, and for the stranger that sojourneth among them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the soul that doeth ought presumptuously, whether he be born in the land, or a stranger, the same reproacheth the LORD; and that soul shall be cut off from among his people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Because he hath despised the word of the LORD, and hath broken his commandment, that soul shall utterly be cut off; his iniquity shall be upon him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And while the children of Israel were in the wilderness, they found a man that gathered sticks upon the sabbath day.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they that found him gathering sticks brought him unto Moses and Aaron, and unto all the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they put him in ward, because it was not declared what should be done to him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Moses, The man shall be surely put to death: all the congregation shall stone him with stones without the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And all the congregation brought him without the camp, and stoned him with stones, and he died; as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and bid them that they make them fringes in the borders of their garments throughout their generations, and that they put upon the fringe of the borders a ribband of blue:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it shall be unto you for a fringe, that ye may look upon it, and remember all the commandments of the LORD, and do them; and that ye seek not after your own heart and your own eyes, after which ye use to go a whoring:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| That ye may remember, and do all my commandments, and be holy unto your God.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| I am the LORD your God, which brought you out of the land of Egypt, to be your God: I am the LORD your God.}} ==Chapter 16== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Now Korah, the son of Izhar, the son of Kohath, the son of Levi,}} {{font|color=#008888| and Dathan and Abiram, the sons of Eliab,}} {{font|color=#880000|and On, the son of Peleth,}} {{font|color=#008888| son}}{{font|color=#888800|s}} {{font|color=#008888|of Reuben, took men:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they rose up before Moses, with certain of the children of Israel, two hundred and fifty princes of the assembly, famous in the congregation, men of renown:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they gathered themselves together against Moses and against Aaron, and said unto them, Ye take too much upon you, seeing all the congregation are holy, every one of them, and the LORD is among them: wherefore then lift ye up yourselves above the congregation of the LORD?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when Moses heard it, he fell upon his face:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he spake unto Korah and unto all his company, saying, Even to morrow the LORD will shew who are his, and who is holy; and will cause him to come near unto him: even him whom he hath chosen will he cause to come near unto him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This do; Take you censers, Korah, and all his company;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And put fire therein, and put incense in them before the LORD to morrow: and it shall be that the man whom the LORD doth choose, he shall be holy: ye take too much upon you, ye sons of Levi.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses said unto Korah, Hear, I pray you, ye sons of Levi:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Seemeth it but a small thing unto you, that the God of Israel hath separated you from the congregation of Israel, to bring you near to himself to do the service of the tabernacle of the LORD, and to stand before the congregation to minister unto them?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he hath brought thee near to him, and all thy brethren the sons of Levi with thee: and seek ye the priesthood also?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For which cause both thou and all thy company are gathered together against the LORD: and what is Aaron, that ye murmur against him?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses sent to call Dathan and Abiram, the sons of Eliab: which said, We will not come up:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Is it a small thing that thou hast brought us up out of a land that floweth with milk and honey, to kill us in the wilderness, except thou make thyself altogether a prince over us?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Moreover thou hast not brought us into a land that floweth with milk and honey, or given us inheritance of fields and vineyards: wilt thou put out the eyes of these men? we will not come up.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses was very wroth, and said unto the LORD, Respect not thou their offering: I have not taken one ass from them, neither have I hurt one of them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses said unto Korah, Be thou and all thy company before the LORD, thou, and they, and Aaron, to morrow:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And take every man his censer, and put incense in them, and bring ye before the LORD every man his censer, two hundred and fifty censers; thou also, and Aaron, each of you his censer.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they took every man his censer, and put fire in them, and laid incense thereon, and stood in the door of the tabernacle of the congregation with Moses and Aaron.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Korah gathered all the congregation against them unto the door of the tabernacle of the congregation: and the glory of the LORD appeared unto all the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Aaron, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Separate yourselves from among this congregation, that I may consume them in a moment.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they fell upon their faces, and said, O God, the God of the spirits of all flesh, shall one man sin, and wilt thou be wroth with all the congregation?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the congregation, saying, Get you up from about the tabernacle}} {{font|color=#880000|of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses rose up and went unto Dathan and Abiram; and the elders of Israel followed him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he spake unto the congregation,}} {{font|color=#008888| saying, Depart, I pray you, from the tents of these wicked men, and touch nothing of their's, lest ye be consumed in all their sins.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So they gat up from the tabernacle }} {{font|color=#880000| of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram,}} {{font|color=#888800| on every side:}} {{font|color=#008888| and Dathan and Abiram came out, and stood in the door of their tents, and their wives, and their sons, and their little children.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses said, Hereby ye shall know that the LORD hath sent me to do all these works; for I have not done them of mine own mind.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| If these men die the common death of all men, or if they be visited after the visitation of all men; then the LORD hath not sent me.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| But if the LORD make a new thing, and the earth open her mouth, and swallow them up, with all that appertain unto them, and they go down quick into the pit; then ye shall understand that these men have provoked the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And it came to pass, as he had made an end of speaking all these words, that the ground clave asunder that was under them:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the earth opened her mouth, and swallowed them up, and their houses,}} {{font|color=#880000| and all the men that appertained unto Korah,}} {{font|color=#008888| and all their goods.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| They, and all that appertained to them, went down alive into the pit, and the earth closed upon them: and they perished from among the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And all Israel that were round about them fled at the cry of them: for they said, Lest the earth swallow us up also.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And there came out a fire from the LORD, and consumed the two hundred and fifty men that offered incense.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto Eleazar the son of Aaron the priest, that he take up the censers out of the burning, and scatter thou the fire yonder; for they are hallowed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The censers of these sinners against their own souls, let them make them broad plates for a covering of the altar: for they offered them before the LORD, therefore they are hallowed: and they shall be a sign unto the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Eleazar the priest took the brasen censers, wherewith they that were burnt had offered; and they were made broad plates for a covering of the altar:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| To be a memorial unto the children of Israel, that no stranger, which is not of the seed of Aaron, come near to offer incense before the LORD; that he be not as Korah, and as his company: as the LORD said to him by the hand of Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But on the morrow all the congregation of the children of Israel murmured against Moses and against Aaron, saying, Ye have killed the people of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it came to pass, when the congregation was gathered against Moses and against Aaron, that they looked toward the tabernacle of the congregation: and, behold, the cloud covered it, and the glory of the LORD appeared.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Aaron came before the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Get you up from among this congregation, that I may consume them as in a moment. And they fell upon their faces. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses said unto Aaron, Take a censer, and put fire therein from off the altar, and put on incense, and go quickly unto the congregation, and make an atonement for them: for there is wrath gone out from the LORD; the plague is begun.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Aaron took as Moses commanded, and ran into the midst of the congregation; and, behold, the plague was begun among the people: and he put on incense, and made an atonement for the people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he stood between the dead and the living; and the plague was stayed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Now they that died in the plague were fourteen thousand and seven hundred, beside them that died about the matter of Korah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Aaron returned unto Moses unto the door of the tabernacle of the congregation: and the plague was stayed.}} ==Chapter 17== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and take of every one of them a rod according to the house of their fathers, of all their princes according to the house of their fathers twelve rods: write thou every man's name upon his rod.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt write Aaron's name upon the rod of Levi: for one rod shall be for the head of the house of their fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt lay them up in the tabernacle of the congregation before the testimony, where I will meet with you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it shall come to pass, that the man's rod, whom I shall choose, shall blossom: and I will make to cease from me the murmurings of the children of Israel, whereby they murmur against you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses spake unto the children of Israel, and every one of their princes gave him a rod apiece, for each prince one, according to their fathers' houses, even twelve rods: and the rod of Aaron was among their rods.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses laid up the rods before the LORD in the tabernacle of witness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it came to pass, that on the morrow Moses went into the tabernacle of witness; and, behold, the rod of Aaron for the house of Levi was budded, and brought forth buds, and bloomed blossoms, and yielded almonds.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses brought out all the rods from before the LORD unto all the children of Israel: and they looked, and took every man his rod.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Moses, Bring Aaron's rod again before the testimony, to be kept for a token against the rebels; and thou shalt quite take away their murmurings from me, that they die not.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses did so: as the LORD commanded him, so did he. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel spake unto Moses, saying, Behold, we die, we perish, we all perish.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Whosoever cometh any thing near unto the tabernacle of the LORD shall die: shall we be consumed with dying?}} ==Chapter 18== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Aaron, Thou and thy sons and thy father's house with thee shall bear the iniquity of the sanctuary: and thou and thy sons with thee shall bear the iniquity of your priesthood.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thy brethren also of the tribe of Levi, the tribe of thy father, bring thou with thee, that they may be joined unto thee, and minister unto thee: but thou and thy sons with thee shall minister before the tabernacle of witness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall keep thy charge, and the charge of all the tabernacle: only they shall not come nigh the vessels of the sanctuary and the altar, that neither they, nor ye also, die.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall be joined unto thee, and keep the charge of the tabernacle of the congregation, for all the service of the tabernacle: and a stranger shall not come nigh unto you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall keep the charge of the sanctuary, and the charge of the altar: that there be no wrath any more upon the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And I, behold, I have taken your brethren the Levites from among the children of Israel: to you they are given as a gift for the LORD, to do the service of the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Therefore thou and thy sons with thee shall keep your priest's office for everything of the altar, and within the vail; and ye shall serve: I have given your priest's office unto you as a service of gift: and the stranger that cometh nigh shall be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Aaron, Behold, I also have given thee the charge of mine heave offerings of all the hallowed things of the children of Israel; unto thee have I given them by reason of the anointing, and to thy sons, by an ordinance for ever.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This shall be thine of the most holy things, reserved from the fire: every oblation of their's, every meat offering of their's, and every sin offering of their's, and every trespass offering of their's which they shall render unto me, shall be most holy for thee and for thy sons.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| In the most holy place shalt thou eat it; every male shall eat it: it shall be holy unto thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this is thine; the heave offering of their gift, with all the wave offerings of the children of Israel: I have given them unto thee, and to thy sons and to thy daughters with thee, by a statute for ever: every one that is clean in thy house shall eat of it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the best of the oil, and all the best of the wine, and of the wheat, the firstfruits of them which they shall offer unto the LORD, them have I given thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And whatsoever is first ripe in the land, which they shall bring unto the LORD, shall be thine; every one that is clean in thine house shall eat of it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Every thing devoted in Israel shall be thine.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Every thing that openeth the matrix in all flesh, which they bring unto the LORD, whether it be of men or beasts, shall be thine: nevertheless the firstborn of man shalt thou surely redeem, and the firstling of unclean beasts shalt thou redeem.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that are to be redeemed from a month old shalt thou redeem, according to thine estimation, for the money of five shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary, which is twenty gerahs.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the firstling of a cow, or the firstling of a sheep, or the firstling of a goat, thou shalt not redeem; they are holy: thou shalt sprinkle their blood upon the altar, and shalt burn their fat for an offering made by fire, for a sweet savour unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the flesh of them shall be thine, as the wave breast and as the right shoulder are thine.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the heave offerings of the holy things, which the children of Israel offer unto the LORD, have I given thee, and thy sons and thy daughters with thee, by a statute for ever: it is a covenant of salt for ever before the LORD unto thee and to thy seed with thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Aaron, Thou shalt have no inheritance in their land, neither shalt thou have any part among them: I am thy part and thine inheritance among the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And, behold, I have given the children of Levi all the tenth in Israel for an inheritance, for their service which they serve, even the service of the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Neither must the children of Israel henceforth come nigh the tabernacle of the congregation, lest they bear sin, and die.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the Levites shall do the service of the tabernacle of the congregation, and they shall bear their iniquity: it shall be a statute for ever throughout your generations, that among the children of Israel they have no inheritance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the tithes of the children of Israel, which they offer as an heave offering unto the LORD, I have given to the Levites to inherit: therefore I have said unto them, Among the children of Israel they shall have no inheritance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Thus speak unto the Levites, and say unto them, When ye take of the children of Israel the tithes which I have given you from them for your inheritance, then ye shall offer up an heave offering of it for the LORD, even a tenth part of the tithe.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this your heave offering shall be reckoned unto you, as though it were the corn of the threshingfloor, and as the fulness of the winepress.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Thus ye also shall offer an heave offering unto the LORD of all your tithes, which ye receive of the children of Israel; and ye shall give thereof the LORD's heave offering to Aaron the priest.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Out of all your gifts ye shall offer every heave offering of the LORD, of all the best thereof, even the hallowed part thereof out of it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Therefore thou shalt say unto them, When ye have heaved the best thereof from it, then it shall be counted unto the Levites as the increase of the threshingfloor, and as the increase of the winepress.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall eat it in every place, ye and your households: for it is your reward for your service in the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall bear no sin by reason of it, when ye have heaved from it the best of it: neither shall ye pollute the holy things of the children of Israel, lest ye die.}} ==Chapter 19== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Aaron, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the ordinance of the law which the LORD hath commanded, saying, Speak unto the children of Israel, that they bring thee a red heifer without spot, wherein is no blemish, and upon which never came yoke:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall give her unto Eleazar the priest, that he may bring her forth without the camp, and one shall slay her before his face:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Eleazar the priest shall take of her blood with his finger, and sprinkle of her blood directly before the tabernacle of the congregation seven times:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And one shall burn the heifer in his sight; her skin, and her flesh, and her blood, with her dung, shall he burn:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the priest shall take cedar wood, and hyssop, and scarlet, and cast it into the midst of the burning of the heifer.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the priest shall wash his clothes, and he shall bathe his flesh in water, and afterward he shall come into the camp, and the priest shall be unclean until the even.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he that burneth her shall wash his clothes in water, and bathe his flesh in water, and shall be unclean until the even.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And a man that is clean shall gather up the ashes of the heifer, and lay them up without the camp in a clean place, and it shall be kept for the congregation of the children of Israel for a water of separation: it is a purification for sin.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he that gathereth the ashes of the heifer shall wash his clothes, and be unclean until the even: and it shall be unto the children of Israel, and unto the stranger that sojourneth among them, for a statute for ever.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| He that toucheth the dead body of any man shall be unclean seven days.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| He shall purify himself with it on the third day, and on the seventh day he shall be clean: but if he purify not himself the third day, then the seventh day he shall not be clean.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Whosoever toucheth the dead body of any man that is dead, and purifieth not himself, defileth the tabernacle of the LORD; and that soul shall be cut off from Israel: because the water of separation was not sprinkled upon him, he shall be unclean; his uncleanness is yet upon him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the law, when a man dieth in a tent: all that come into the tent, and all that is in the tent, shall be unclean seven days.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And every open vessel, which hath no covering bound upon it, is unclean.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And whosoever toucheth one that is slain with a sword in the open fields, or a dead body, or a bone of a man, or a grave, shall be unclean seven days.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And for an unclean person they shall take of the ashes of the burnt heifer of purification for sin, and running water shall be put thereto in a vessel:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And a clean person shall take hyssop, and dip it in the water, and sprinkle it upon the tent, and upon all the vessels, and upon the persons that were there, and upon him that touched a bone, or one slain, or one dead, or a grave:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the clean person shall sprinkle upon the unclean on the third day, and on the seventh day: and on the seventh day he shall purify himself, and wash his clothes, and bathe himself in water, and shall be clean at even.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But the man that shall be unclean, and shall not purify himself, that soul shall be cut off from among the congregation, because he hath defiled the sanctuary of the LORD: the water of separation hath not been sprinkled upon him; he is unclean.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it shall be a perpetual statute unto them, that he that sprinkleth the water of separation shall wash his clothes; and he that toucheth the water of separation shall be unclean until even.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And whatsoever the unclean person toucheth shall be unclean; and the soul that toucheth it shall be unclean until even.}} ==Chapter 20== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then came the children of Israel, even the whole congregation, into the desert of Zin in the first month:}} {{font|color=#008888| and the people abode in Kadesh; and Miriam died there, and was buried there.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And there was no water for the congregation: and they gathered themselves together against Moses and against Aaron.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the people chode with Moses, and spake, }} {{font|color=#888800|saying, Would God that we had died when our brethren died before the LORD!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And why have ye brought up the congregation of the LORD into this wilderness, that we and our cattle should die there?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And wherefore have ye made us to come up out of Egypt, to bring us in unto this evil place? it is no place of seed, or of figs, or of vines, or of pomegranates; neither is there any water to drink.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Aaron went from the presence of the assembly unto the door of the tabernacle of the congregation, and they fell upon their faces: and the glory of the LORD appeared unto them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the rod, and gather thou the assembly together, thou, and Aaron thy brother, and speak ye unto the rock before their eyes; and it shall give forth his water, and thou shalt bring forth to them water out of the rock: so thou shalt give the congregation and their beasts drink.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses took the rod from before the LORD, as he commanded him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Aaron gathered the congregation together before the rock, and he said unto them, Hear now, ye rebels; must we fetch you water out of this rock?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses lifted up his hand, and with his rod he smote the rock twice: and the water came out abundantly, and the congregation drank, and their beasts also.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and Aaron, Because ye believed me not, to sanctify me in the eyes of the children of Israel, therefore ye shall not bring this congregation into the land which I have given them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the water of Meribah; because the children of Israel strove with the LORD, and he was sanctified in them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses sent messengers from Kadesh unto the king of Edom, Thus saith thy brother Israel, Thou knowest all the travail that hath befallen us:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| How our fathers went down into Egypt, and we have dwelt in Egypt a long time; and the Egyptians vexed us, and our fathers:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And when we cried unto the LORD, he heard our voice, and sent an angel, and hath brought us forth out of Egypt: and, behold, we are in Kadesh, a city in the uttermost of thy border:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Let us pass, I pray thee, through thy country: we will not pass through the fields, or through the vineyards, neither will we drink of the water of the wells: we will go by the king's high way, we will not turn to the right hand nor to the left, until we have passed thy borders.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Edom said unto him, Thou shalt not pass by me, lest I come out against thee with the sword.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the children of Israel said unto him, We will go by the high way: and if I and my cattle drink of thy water, then I will pay for it: I will only, without doing anything else, go through on my feet.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And he said, Thou shalt not go through. And Edom came out against him with much people, and with a strong hand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Thus Edom refused to give Israel passage through his border: wherefore Israel turned away from him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel, even the whole congregation,}} {{font|color=#008888|journeyed from Kadesh, and}} {{font|color=#888800|came unto mount Hor.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses and Aaron in mount Hor, by the coast of the land of Edom, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Aaron shall be gathered unto his people: for he shall not enter into the land which I have given unto the children of Israel, because ye rebelled against my word at the water of Meribah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take Aaron and Eleazar his son, and bring them up unto mount Hor:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And strip Aaron of his garments, and put them upon Eleazar his son: and Aaron shall be gathered unto his people, and shall die there.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses did as the LORD commanded: and they went up into mount Hor in the sight of all the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses stripped Aaron of his garments, and put them upon Eleazar his son; and Aaron died there in the top of the mount: and Moses and Eleazar came down from the mount.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when all the congregation saw that Aaron was dead, they mourned for Aaron thirty days, even all the house of Israel.}} ==Chapter 21== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when king Arad the Canaanite, which dwelt in the south, heard tell that Israel came by the way of the spies; then he fought against Israel, and took some of them prisoners.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Israel vowed a vow unto the LORD, and said, If thou wilt indeed deliver this people into my hand, then I will utterly destroy their cities.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD hearkened to the voice of Israel, and delivered up the Canaanites; and they utterly destroyed them and their cities: and he called the name of the place Hormah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they journeyed from mount Hor by the way of the Red sea,}} {{font|color=#008888| to compass the land of Edom: and the soul of the people was much discouraged because of the way.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the people spake against God, and against Moses, Wherefore have ye brought us up out of Egypt to die in the wilderness? for there is no bread, neither is there any water;}} {{font|color=#880000|and our soul loatheth this light bread.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD sent fiery serpents among the people, and they bit the people; and much people of Israel died.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Therefore the people came to Moses, and said, We have sinned, for we have spoken against the LORD, and against thee; pray unto the LORD, that he take away the serpents from us. And Moses prayed for the people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the LORD said unto Moses, Make thee a fiery serpent, and set it upon a pole: and it shall come to pass, that every one that is bitten, when he looketh upon it, shall live.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses made a serpent of brass, and put it upon a pole, and it came to pass, that if a serpent had bitten any man, when he beheld the serpent of brass, he lived.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel set forward, and pitched in Oboth. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they journeyed from Oboth, and pitched at Ijeabarim, in the wilderness which is before Moab, toward the sunrising.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| From thence they removed, and pitched in the valley of Zared.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| From thence they removed, and pitched on the other side of Arnon, which is in the wilderness that cometh out of the coasts of the Amorites: for Arnon is the border of Moab, between Moab and the Amorites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Wherefore it is said in the book of the wars of the LORD, What he did in the Red sea, and in the brooks of Arnon,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And at the stream of the brooks that goeth down to the dwelling of Ar, and lieth upon the border of Moab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#000088|And from thence they went to Beer: that is the well whereof the LORD spake unto Moses, Gather the people together, and I will give them water.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Then Israel sang this song, Spring up, O well; sing ye unto it:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#000088|The princes digged the well, the nobles of the people digged it, by the direction of the lawgiver, with their staves. And from the wilderness they went to Mattanah: }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And from Mattanah to Nahaliel: and from Nahaliel to Bamoth:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And from Bamoth in the valley, that is in the country of Moab, to the top of Pisgah, which looketh toward Jeshimon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Israel sent messengers unto Sihon king of the Amorites, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Let me pass through thy land: we will not turn into the fields, or into the vineyards; we will not drink of the waters of the well: but we will go along by the king's high way, until we be past thy borders.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Sihon would not suffer Israel to pass through his border: but Sihon gathered all his people together, and went out against Israel into the wilderness: and he came to Jahaz, and fought against Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Israel smote him with the edge of the sword, and possessed his land from Arnon unto Jabbok, even unto the children of Ammon: for the border of the children of Ammon was strong.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Israel took all these cities: and Israel dwelt in all the cities of the Amorites, in Heshbon, and in all the villages thereof.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| For Heshbon was the city of Sihon the king of the Amorites, who had fought against the former king of Moab, and taken all his land out of his hand, even unto Arnon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Wherefore they that speak in proverbs say, Come into Heshbon, let the city of Sihon be built and prepared:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| For there is a fire gone out of Heshbon, a flame from the city of Sihon: it hath consumed Ar of Moab, and the lords of the high places of Arnon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Woe to thee, Moab! thou art undone, O people of Chemosh: he hath given his sons that escaped, and his daughters, into captivity unto Sihon king of the Amorites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| We have shot at them; Heshbon is perished even unto Dibon, and we have laid them waste even unto Nophah, which reacheth unto Medeba.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Thus Israel dwelt in the land of the Amorites. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses sent to spy out Jaazer, and they took the villages thereof, and drove out the Amorites that were there.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And they turned and went up by the way of Bashan: and Og the king of Bashan went out against them, he, and all his people, to the battle at Edrei.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And the LORD said unto Moses, Fear him not: for I have delivered him into thy hand, and all his people, and his land; and thou shalt do to him as thou didst unto Sihon king of the Amorites, which dwelt at Heshbon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| So they smote him, and his sons, and all his people, until there was none left him alive: and they possessed his land.}} ==Chapter 22== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel set forward, and pitched in the plains of Moab on this side Jordan by Jericho.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And Balak the son of Zippor saw all that Israel had done to the Amorites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#000088|And Moab was sore afraid of the people, because they were many: and Moab was distressed because of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#000088|And Moab said}} {{font|color=#880000| unto the elders of Midian,}} {{font|color=#000088|Now shall this company lick up all that are round about us, as the ox licketh up the grass of the field. And Balak the son of Zippor was king of the Moabites at that time.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| He sent messengers therefore unto Balaam the son of Beor to Pethor, which is by the river of the land of the children of his people, to call him, saying, Behold, there is a people come out from Egypt: behold, they cover the face of the earth, and they abide over against me:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Come now therefore, I pray thee, curse me this people; for they are too mighty for me: peradventure I shall prevail, that we may smite them, and that I may drive them out of the land: for I wot that he whom thou blessest is blessed, and he whom thou cursest is cursed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the elders of Moab}} {{font|color=#880000|and the elders of Midian}} {{font|color=#000088|departed with the rewards of divination in their hand; and they came unto Balaam, and spake unto him the words of Balak.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he said unto them, Lodge here this night, and I will bring you word again, as the LORD shall speak unto me: and the princes of Moab abode with Balaam.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And God came unto Balaam, and said, What men are these with thee?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto God, Balak the son of Zippor, king of Moab, hath sent unto me saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Behold, there is a people come out of Egypt, which covereth the face of the earth: come now, curse me them; peradventure I shall be able to overcome them, and drive them out.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And God said unto Balaam, Thou shalt not go with them; thou shalt not curse the people: for they are blessed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam rose up in the morning, and said unto the princes of Balak, Get you into your land: for the LORD refuseth to give me leave to go with you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the princes of Moab rose up, and they went unto Balak, and said, Balaam refuseth to come with us.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak sent yet again princes, more, and more honourable than they.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they came to Balaam, and said to him, Thus saith Balak the son of Zippor, Let nothing, I pray thee, hinder thee from coming unto me:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| For I will promote thee unto very great honour, and I will do whatsoever thou sayest unto me: come therefore, I pray thee, curse me this people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam answered and said unto the servants of Balak, If Balak would give me his house full of silver and gold, I cannot go beyond the word of the LORD my God, to do less or more.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Now therefore, I pray you, tarry ye also here this night, that I may know what the LORD will say unto me more.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And God came unto Balaam at night, and said unto him, If the men come to call thee, rise up, and go with them; but yet the word which I shall say unto thee, that shalt thou do.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam rose up in the morning, and saddled his ass, and went with the princes of Moab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And God's anger was kindled because he went:}} {{font|color=#000088|and the angel of the LORD stood in the way for an adversary against him. Now he was riding upon his ass, and his two servants were with him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the ass saw the angel of the LORD standing in the way, and his sword drawn in his hand: and the ass turned aside out of the way, and went into the field: and Balaam smote the ass, to turn her into the way.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But the angel of the LORD stood in a path of the vineyards, a wall being on this side, and a wall on that side.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when the ass saw the angel of the LORD, she thrust herself unto the wall, and crushed Balaam's foot against the wall: and he smote her again.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the angel of the LORD went further, and stood in a narrow place, where was no way to turn either to the right hand or to the left.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when the ass saw the angel of the LORD, she fell down under Balaam: and Balaam's anger was kindled, and he smote the ass with a staff.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD opened the mouth of the ass, and she said unto Balaam, What have I done unto thee, that thou hast smitten me these three times?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto the ass, Because thou hast mocked me: I would there were a sword in mine hand, for now would I kill thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the ass said unto Balaam, Am not I thine ass, upon which thou hast ridden ever since I was thine unto this day? was I ever wont to do so unto thee? And he said, Nay.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Then the LORD opened the eyes of Balaam, and he saw the angel of the LORD standing in the way, and his sword drawn in his hand: and he bowed down his head, and fell flat on his face.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the angel of the LORD said unto him, Wherefore hast thou smitten thine ass these three times? behold, I went out to withstand thee, because thy way is perverse before me:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the ass saw me, and turned from me these three times: unless she had turned from me, surely now also I had slain thee, and saved her alive.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto the angel of the LORD, I have sinned; for I knew not that thou stoodest in the way against me: now therefore, if it displease thee, I will get me back again.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the angel of the LORD said unto Balaam, Go with the men: but only the word that I shall speak unto thee, that thou shalt speak. So Balaam went with the princes of Balak.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when Balak heard that Balaam was come, he went out to meet him unto a city of Moab, which is in the border of Arnon, which is in the utmost coast.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak said unto Balaam, Did I not earnestly send unto thee to call thee? wherefore camest thou not unto me? am I not able indeed to promote thee to honour?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto Balak, Lo, I am come unto thee: have I now any power at all to say any thing? the word that God putteth in my mouth, that shall I speak.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam went with Balak, and they came unto Kirjathhuzoth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak offered oxen and sheep, and sent to Balaam, and to the princes that were with him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And it came to pass on the morrow, that Balak took Balaam, and brought him up into the high places of Baal, that thence he might see the utmost part of the people.}} ==Chapter 23== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto Balak, Build me here seven altars, and prepare me here seven oxen and seven rams.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak did as Balaam had spoken; and Balak and Balaam offered on every altar a bullock and a ram.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto Balak, Stand by thy burnt offering, and I will go: peradventure the LORD will come to meet me: and whatsoever he sheweth me I will tell thee. And he went to an high place.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And God met Balaam: and he said unto him, I have prepared seven altars, and I have offered upon every altar a bullock and a ram.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD put a word in Balaam's mouth, and said, Return unto Balak, and thus thou shalt speak.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he returned unto him, and, lo, he stood by his burnt sacrifice, he, and all the princes of Moab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he took up his parable, and said, Balak the king of Moab hath brought me from Aram, out of the mountains of the east, saying, Come, curse me Jacob, and come, defy Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| How shall I curse, whom God hath not cursed? or how shall I defy, whom the LORD hath not defied?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| For from the top of the rocks I see him, and from the hills I behold him: lo, the people shall dwell alone, and shall not be reckoned among the nations.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Who can count the dust of Jacob, and the number of the fourth part of Israel? Let me die the death of the righteous, and let my last end be like his!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak said unto Balaam, What hast thou done unto me? I took thee to curse mine enemies, and, behold, thou hast blessed them altogether.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he answered and said, Must I not take heed to speak that which the LORD hath put in my mouth?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak said unto him, Come, I pray thee, with me unto another place, from whence thou mayest see them: thou shalt see but the utmost part of them, and shalt not see them all: and curse me them from thence.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he brought him into the field of Zophim, to the top of Pisgah, and built seven altars, and offered a bullock and a ram on every altar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he said unto Balak, Stand here by thy burnt offering, while I meet the LORD yonder.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD met Balaam, and put a word in his mouth, and said, Go again unto Balak, and say thus.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when he came to him, behold, he stood by his burnt offering, and the princes of Moab with him. And Balak said unto him, What hath the LORD spoken?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he took up his parable, and said, Rise up, Balak, and hear; hearken unto me, thou son of Zippor:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| God is not a man, that he should lie; neither the son of man, that he should repent: hath he said, and shall he not do it? or hath he spoken, and shall he not make it good?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Behold, I have received commandment to bless: and he hath blessed; and I cannot reverse it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| He hath not beheld iniquity in Jacob, neither hath he seen perverseness in Israel: the LORD his God is with him, and the shout of a king is among them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| God brought them out of Egypt; he hath as it were the strength of an unicorn.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Surely there is no enchantment against Jacob, neither is there any divination against Israel: according to this time it shall be said of Jacob and of Israel, What hath God wrought!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Behold, the people shall rise up as a great lion, and lift up himself as a young lion: he shall not lie down until he eat of the prey, and drink the blood of the slain.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak said unto Balaam, Neither curse them at all, nor bless them at all.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But Balaam answered and said unto Balak, Told not I thee, saying, All that the LORD speaketh, that I must do?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak said unto Balaam, Come, I pray thee, I will bring thee unto another place; peradventure it will please God that thou mayest curse me them from thence.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak brought Balaam unto the top of Peor, that looketh toward Jeshimon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto Balak, Build me here seven altars, and prepare me here seven bullocks and seven rams.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak did as Balaam had said, and offered a bullock and a ram on every altar.}} ==Chapter 24== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And when Balaam saw that it pleased the LORD to bless Israel, he went not, as at other times, to seek for enchantments, but he set his face toward the wilderness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam lifted up his eyes, and he saw Israel abiding in his tents according to their tribes; and the spirit of God came upon him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And he took up his parable, and said, Balaam the son of Beor hath said, and the man whose eyes are open hath said:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| He hath said, which heard the words of God, which saw the vision of the Almighty, falling into a trance, but having his eyes open:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| How goodly are thy tents, O Jacob, and thy tabernacles, O Israel!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| As the valleys are they spread forth, as gardens by the river's side, as the trees of lign aloes which the LORD hath planted, and as cedar trees beside the waters.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| He shall pour the water out of his buckets, and his seed shall be in many waters, and his king shall be higher than Agag, and his kingdom shall be exalted.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| God brought him forth out of Egypt; he hath as it were the strength of an unicorn: he shall eat up the nations his enemies, and shall break their bones, and pierce them through with his arrows.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| He couched, he lay down as a lion, and as a great lion: who shall stir him up? Blessed is he that blesseth thee, and cursed is he that curseth thee.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balak's anger was kindled against Balaam, and he smote his hands together: and Balak said unto Balaam, I called thee to curse mine enemies, and, behold, thou hast altogether blessed them these three times.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Therefore now flee thou to thy place: I thought to promote thee unto great honour; but, lo, the LORD hath kept thee back from honour.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam said unto Balak, Spake I not also to thy messengers which thou sentest unto me, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| If Balak would give me his house full of silver and gold, I cannot go beyond the commandment of the LORD, to do either good or bad of mine own mind; but what the LORD saith, that will I speak?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And now, behold, I go unto my people: come therefore, and I will advertise thee what this people shall do to thy people in the latter days.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And he took up his parable, and said, Balaam the son of Beor hath said, and the man whose eyes are open hath said:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| He hath said, which heard the words of God, and knew the knowledge of the most High, which saw the vision of the Almighty, falling into a trance, but having his eyes open:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| I shall see him, but not now: I shall behold him, but not nigh: there shall come a Star out of Jacob, and a Sceptre shall rise out of Israel, and shall smite the corners of Moab, and destroy all the children of Sheth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And Edom shall be a possession, Seir also shall be a possession for his enemies; and Israel shall do valiantly.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| Out of Jacob shall come he that shall have dominion, and shall destroy him that remaineth of the city.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And when he looked on Amalek, he took up his parable, and said, Amalek was the first of the nations; but his latter end shall be that he perish for ever.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And he looked on the Kenites, and took up his parable, and said, Strong is thy dwellingplace, and thou puttest thy nest in a rock.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| Nevertheless the Kenite shall be wasted, until Asshur shall carry thee away captive.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And he took up his parable, and said, Alas, who shall live when God doeth this!}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And ships shall come from the coast of Chittim, and shall afflict Asshur, and shall afflict Eber, and he also shall perish for ever.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Balaam rose up, and went and returned to his place: and Balak also went his way.}} ==Chapter 25== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Israel abode in Shittim, }} {{font|color=#000088|and the people began to commit whoredom with the daughters of Moab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And they called the people unto the sacrifices of their gods: and the people did eat, and bowed down to their gods.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Israel joined himself unto Baalpeor: }} {{font|color=#000088|and the anger of the LORD was kindled against Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD said unto Moses, Take all the heads of the people, and hang them up before the LORD against the sun, that the fierce anger of the LORD may be turned away from Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses said unto the judges of Israel, Slay ye every one his men that were joined unto Baalpeor.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And, behold, one of the children of Israel came and brought unto his brethren a Midianitish woman in the sight of Moses, and in the sight of all the congregation of the children of Israel, who were weeping before the door of the tabernacle of the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when Phinehas, the son of Eleazar, the son of Aaron the priest, saw it, he rose up from among the congregation, and took a javelin in his hand;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he went after the man of Israel into the tent, and thrust both of them through, the man of Israel, and the woman through her belly. So the plague was stayed from the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that died in the plague were twenty and four thousand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Phinehas, the son of Eleazar, the son of Aaron the priest, hath turned my wrath away from the children of Israel, while he was zealous for my sake among them, that I consumed not the children of Israel in my jealousy.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Wherefore say, Behold, I give unto him my covenant of peace:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he shall have it, and his seed after him, even the covenant of an everlasting priesthood; because he was zealous for his God, and made an atonement for the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Now the name of the Israelite that was slain, even that was slain with the Midianitish woman, was Zimri, the son of Salu, a prince of a chief house among the Simeonites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the name of the Midianitish woman that was slain was Cozbi, the daughter of Zur; he was head over a people, and of a chief house in Midian.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Vex the Midianites, and smite them:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For they vex you with their wiles, wherewith they have beguiled you in the matter of Peor, and in the matter of Cozbi, the daughter of a prince of Midian, their sister, which was slain in the day of the plague for Peor's sake.}} ==Chapter 26== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And it came to pass after the plague, that the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Eleazar the son of Aaron the priest, saying, }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the sum of all the congregation of the children of Israel, from twenty years old and upward, throughout their fathers' house, all that are able to go to war in Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Eleazar the priest spake with them in the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the sum of the people, from twenty years old and upward; as the LORD commanded Moses and the children of Israel, which went forth out of the land of Egypt.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Reuben, the eldest son of Israel: the children of Reuben; Hanoch, of whom cometh the family of the Hanochites: of Pallu, the family of the Palluites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Hezron, the family of the Hezronites: of Carmi, the family of the Carmites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the Reubenites: and they that were numbered of them were forty and three thousand and seven hundred and thirty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Pallu; Eliab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And the sons of Eliab; Nemuel, and Dathan, and Abiram. This is that Dathan and Abiram, which were famous in the congregation, who strove against Moses and against Aaron in the company of Korah, when they strove against the LORD:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| And the earth opened her mouth, and swallowed them up together with Korah, when that company died, what time the fire devoured two hundred and fifty men: and they became a sign.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#880000| Notwithstanding the children of Korah died not.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The sons of Simeon after their families: of Nemuel, the family of the Nemuelites: of Jamin, the family of the Jaminites: of Jachin, the family of the Jachinites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Zerah, the family of the Zarhites: of Shaul, the family of the Shaulites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the Simeonites, twenty and two thousand and two hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The children of Gad after their families: of Zephon, the family of the Zephonites: of Haggi, the family of the Haggites: of Shuni, the family of the Shunites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Ozni, the family of the Oznites: of Eri, the family of the Erites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Arod, the family of the Arodites: of Areli, the family of the Arelites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the children of Gad according to those that were numbered of them, forty thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The sons of Judah were Er and Onan: and Er and Onan died in the land of Canaan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Judah after their families were; of Shelah, the family of the Shelanites: of Pharez, the family of the Pharzites: of Zerah, the family of the Zarhites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Pharez were; of Hezron, the family of the Hezronites: of Hamul, the family of the Hamulites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of Judah according to those that were numbered of them, threescore and sixteen thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the sons of Issachar after their families: of Tola, the family of the Tolaites: of Pua, the family of the Punites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Jashub, the family of the Jashubites: of Shimron, the family of the Shimronites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of Issachar according to those that were numbered of them, threescore and four thousand and three hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the sons of Zebulun after their families: of Sered, the family of the Sardites: of Elon, the family of the Elonites: of Jahleel, the family of the Jahleelites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the Zebulunites according to those that were numbered of them, threescore thousand and five hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The sons of Joseph after their families were Manasseh and Ephraim.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the sons of Manasseh: of Machir, the family of the Machirites: and Machir begat Gilead: of Gilead come the family of the Gileadites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the sons of Gilead: of Jeezer, the family of the Jeezerites: of Helek, the family of the Helekites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of Asriel, the family of the Asrielites: and of Shechem, the family of the Shechemites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of Shemida, the family of the Shemidaites: and of Hepher, the family of the Hepherites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Zelophehad the son of Hepher had no sons, but daughters: and the names of the daughters of Zelophehad were Mahlah, and Noah, Hoglah, Milcah, and Tirzah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of Manasseh, and those that were numbered of them, fifty and two thousand and seven hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the sons of Ephraim after their families: of Shuthelah, the family of the Shuthalhites: of Becher, the family of the Bachrites: of Tahan, the family of the Tahanites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these are the sons of Shuthelah: of Eran, the family of the Eranites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the sons of Ephraim according to those that were numbered of them, thirty and two thousand and five hundred. These are the sons of Joseph after their families.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The sons of Benjamin after their families: of Bela, the family of the Belaites: of Ashbel, the family of the Ashbelites: of Ahiram, the family of the Ahiramites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Shupham, the family of the Shuphamites: of Hupham, the family of the Huphamites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the sons of Bela were Ard and Naaman: of Ard, the family of the Ardites: and of Naaman, the family of the Naamites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the sons of Benjamin after their families: and they that were numbered of them were forty and five thousand and six hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the sons of Dan after their families: of Shuham, the family of the Shuhamites. These are the families of Dan after their families.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| All the families of the Shuhamites, according to those that were numbered of them, were threescore and four thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the children of Asher after their families: of Jimna, the family of the Jimnites: of Jesui, the family of the Jesuites: of Beriah, the family of the Beriites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the sons of Beriah: of Heber, the family of the Heberites: of Malchiel, the family of the Malchielites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the name of the daughter of Asher was Sarah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the sons of Asher according to those that were numbered of them; who were fifty and three thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the sons of Naphtali after their families: of Jahzeel, the family of the Jahzeelites: of Guni, the family of the Gunites:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of Jezer, the family of the Jezerites: of Shillem, the family of the Shillemites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of Naphtali according to their families: and they that were numbered of them were forty and five thousand and four hundred.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|51}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These were the numbered of the children of Israel, six hundred thousand and a thousand seven hundred and thirty.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|52}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|53}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Unto these the land shall be divided for an inheritance according to the number of names.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|54}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| To many thou shalt give the more inheritance, and to few thou shalt give the less inheritance: to every one shall his inheritance be given according to those that were numbered of him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|55}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Notwithstanding the land shall be divided by lot: according to the names of the tribes of their fathers they shall inherit.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|56}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| According to the lot shall the possession thereof be divided between many and few.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|57}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And these are they that were numbered of the Levites after their families: of Gershon, the family of the Gershonites: of Kohath, the family of the Kohathites: of Merari, the family of the Merarites.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|58}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the families of the Levites: the family of the Libnites, the family of the Hebronites, the family of the Mahlites, the family of the Mushites, the family of the Korathites. And Kohath begat Amram.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|59}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the name of Amram's wife was Jochebed, the daughter of Levi, whom her mother bare to Levi in Egypt: and she bare unto Amram Aaron and Moses, and Miriam their sister.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|60}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And unto Aaron was born Nadab, and Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|61}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Nadab and Abihu died, when they offered strange fire before the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|62}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And those that were numbered of them were twenty and three thousand, all males from a month old and upward: for they were not numbered among the children of Israel, because there was no inheritance given them among the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|63}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are they that were numbered by Moses and Eleazar the priest, who numbered the children of Israel in the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|64}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But among these there was not a man of them whom Moses and Aaron the priest numbered, when they numbered the children of Israel in the wilderness of Sinai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|65}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For the LORD had said of them, They shall surely die in the wilderness. And there was not left a man of them, save Caleb the son of Jephunneh, and Joshua the son of Nun.}} ==Chapter 27== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then came the daughters of Zelophehad, the son of Hepher, the son of Gilead, the son of Machir, the son of Manasseh, of the families of Manasseh the son of Joseph: and these are the names of his daughters; Mahlah, Noah, and Hoglah, and Milcah, and Tirzah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they stood before Moses, and before Eleazar the priest, and before the princes and all the congregation, by the door of the tabernacle of the congregation, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Our father died in the wilderness, and he was not in the company of them that gathered themselves together against the LORD in the company of Korah; but died in his own sin, and had no sons.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Why should the name of our father be done away from among his family, because he hath no son? Give unto us therefore a possession among the brethren of our father.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses brought their cause before the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The daughters of Zelophehad speak right: thou shalt surely give them a possession of an inheritance among their father's brethren; and thou shalt cause the inheritance of their father to pass unto them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt speak unto the children of Israel, saying, If a man die, and have no son, then ye shall cause his inheritance to pass unto his daughter.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if he have no daughter, then ye shall give his inheritance unto his brethren.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if he have no brethren, then ye shall give his inheritance unto his father's brethren.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if his father have no brethren, then ye shall give his inheritance unto his kinsman that is next to him of his family, and he shall possess it: and it shall be unto the children of Israel a statute of judgment, as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Moses, Get thee up into this mount Abarim, and see the land which I have given unto the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when thou hast seen it, thou also shalt be gathered unto thy people, as Aaron thy brother was gathered.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For ye rebelled against my commandment in the desert of Zin, in the strife of the congregation, to sanctify me at the water before their eyes: that is the water of Meribah in Kadesh in the wilderness of Zin.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses spake unto the LORD, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Let the LORD, the God of the spirits of all flesh, set a man over the congregation,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Which may go out before them, and which may go in before them, and which may lead them out, and which may bring them in; that the congregation of the LORD be not as sheep which have no shepherd.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD said unto Moses, Take thee Joshua the son of Nun, a man in whom is the spirit, and lay thine hand upon him;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And set him before Eleazar the priest, and before all the congregation; and give him a charge in their sight.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thou shalt put some of thine honour upon him, that all the congregation of the children of Israel may be obedient.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he shall stand before Eleazar the priest, who shall ask counsel for him after the judgment of Urim before the LORD: at his word shall they go out, and at his word they shall come in, both he, and all the children of Israel with him, even all the congregation.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses did as the LORD commanded him: and he took Joshua, and set him before Eleazar the priest, and before all the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And he laid his hands upon him, and gave him a charge, as the LORD commanded by the hand of Moses.}} ==Chapter 28== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Command the children of Israel, and say unto them, My offering, and my bread for my sacrifices made by fire, for a sweet savour unto me, shall ye observe to offer unto me in their due season.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And thou shalt say unto them, This is the offering made by fire which ye shall offer unto the LORD; two lambs of the first year without spot day by day, for a continual burnt offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| The one lamb shalt thou offer in the morning, and the other lamb shalt thou offer at even;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And a tenth part of an ephah of flour for a meat offering, mingled with the fourth part of an hin of beaten oil.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| It is a continual burnt offering, which was ordained in mount Sinai for a sweet savour, a sacrifice made by fire unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And the drink offering thereof shall be the fourth part of an hin for the one lamb: in the holy place shalt thou cause the strong wine to be poured unto the LORD for a drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And the other lamb shalt thou offer at even: as the meat offering of the morning, and as the drink offering thereof, thou shalt offer it, a sacrifice made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the sabbath day two lambs of the first year without spot, and two tenth deals of flour for a meat offering, mingled with oil, and the drink offering thereof:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| This is the burnt offering of every sabbath, beside the continual burnt offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And in the beginnings of your months ye shall offer a burnt offering unto the LORD; two young bullocks, and one ram, seven lambs of the first year without spot;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And three tenth deals of flour for a meat offering, mingled with oil, for one bullock; and two tenth deals of flour for a meat offering, mingled with oil, for one ram;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And a several tenth deal of flour mingled with oil for a meat offering unto one lamb; for a burnt offering of a sweet savour, a sacrifice made by fire unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their drink offerings shall be half an hin of wine unto a bullock, and the third part of an hin unto a ram, and a fourth part of an hin unto a lamb: this is the burnt offering of every month throughout the months of the year.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one kid of the goats for a sin offering unto the LORD shall be offered, beside the continual burnt offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And in the fourteenth day of the first month is the passover of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And in the fifteenth day of this month is the feast: seven days shall unleavened bread be eaten.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| In the first day shall be an holy convocation; ye shall do no manner of servile work therein:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| But ye shall offer a sacrifice made by fire for a burnt offering unto the LORD; two young bullocks, and one ram, and seven lambs of the first year: they shall be unto you without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering shall be of flour mingled with oil: three tenth deals shall ye offer for a bullock, and two tenth deals for a ram;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| A several tenth deal shalt thou offer for every lamb, throughout the seven lambs:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one goat for a sin offering, to make an atonement for you. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Ye shall offer these beside the burnt offering in the morning, which is for a continual burnt offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| After this manner ye shall offer daily, throughout the seven days, the meat of the sacrifice made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD: it shall be offered beside the continual burnt offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the seventh day ye shall have an holy convocation; ye shall do no servile work.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Also in the day of the firstfruits, when ye bring a new meat offering unto the LORD, after your weeks be out, ye shall have an holy convocation; ye shall do no servile work:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| But ye shall offer the burnt offering for a sweet savour unto the LORD; two young bullocks, one ram, seven lambs of the first year;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering of flour mingled with oil, three tenth deals unto one bullock, two tenth deals unto one ram,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| A several tenth deal unto one lamb, throughout the seven lambs;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one kid of the goats, to make an atonement for you. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Ye shall offer them beside the continual burnt offering, and his meat offering, (they shall be unto you without blemish) and their drink offerings.}} ==Chapter 29== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And in the seventh month, on the first day of the month, ye shall have an holy convocation; ye shall do no servile work it is a day of blowing the trumpets unto you.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And ye shall offer a burnt offering for a sweet savour unto the LORD; one young bullock, one ram, and seven lambs of the first year without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering shall be of flour mingled with oil, three tenth deals for a bullock, and two tenth deals for a ram,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one tenth deal for one lamb, throughout the seven lambs:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one kid of the goats for a sin offering, to make an atonement for you:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Beside the burnt offering of the month, and his meat offering, and the daily burnt offering, and his meat offering, and their drink offerings, according unto their manner, for a sweet savour, a sacrifice made by fire unto the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And ye shall have on the tenth day of this seventh month an holy convocation; and ye shall afflict your souls: ye shall not do any work therein:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| But ye shall offer a burnt offering unto the LORD for a sweet savour; one young bullock, one ram, and seven lambs of the first year; they shall be unto you without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering shall be of flour mingled with oil, three tenth deals to a bullock, and two tenth deals to one ram,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| A several tenth deal for one lamb, throughout the seven lambs:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| One kid of the goats for a sin offering; beside the sin offering of atonement, and the continual burnt offering, and the meat offering of it, and their drink offerings.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the fifteenth day of the seventh month ye shall have an holy convocation; ye shall do no servile work, and ye shall keep a feast unto the LORD seven days:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And ye shall offer a burnt offering, a sacrifice made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD; thirteen young bullocks, two rams, and fourteen lambs of the first year; they shall be without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering shall be of flour mingled with oil, three tenth deals unto every bullock of the thirteen bullocks, two tenth deals to each ram of the two rams,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And a several tenth deal to each lamb of the fourteen lambs:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one kid of the goats for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the second day ye shall offer twelve young bullocks, two rams, fourteen lambs of the first year without spot:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullocks, for the rams, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one kid of the goats for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, and the meat offering thereof, and their drink offerings.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the third day eleven bullocks, two rams, fourteen lambs of the first year without blemish;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullocks, for the rams, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one goat for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, and his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the fourth day ten bullocks, two rams, and fourteen lambs of the first year without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullocks, for the rams, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one kid of the goats for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the fifth day nine bullocks, two rams, and fourteen lambs of the first year without spot:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullocks, for the rams, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one goat for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, and his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the sixth day eight bullocks, two rams, and fourteen lambs of the first year without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullocks, for the rams, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one goat for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And on the seventh day seven bullocks, two rams, and fourteen lambs of the first year without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullocks, for the rams, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one goat for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| On the eighth day ye shall have a solemn assembly: ye shall do no servile work therein:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| But ye shall offer a burnt offering, a sacrifice made by fire, of a sweet savour unto the LORD: one bullock, one ram, seven lambs of the first year without blemish:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| Their meat offering and their drink offerings for the bullock, for the ram, and for the lambs, shall be according to their number, after the manner:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And one goat for a sin offering; beside the continual burnt offering, and his meat offering, and his drink offering.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| These things ye shall do unto the LORD in your set feasts, beside your vows, and your freewill offerings, for your burnt offerings, and for your meat offerings, and for your drink offerings, and for your peace offerings.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#880088| And Moses told the children of Israel according to all that the LORD commanded Moses.}} ==Chapter 30== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses spake unto the heads of the tribes concerning the children of Israel, saying, This is the thing which the LORD hath commanded.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| If a man vow a vow unto the LORD, or swear an oath to bind his soul with a bond; he shall not break his word, he shall do according to all that proceedeth out of his mouth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| If a woman also vow a vow unto the LORD, and bind herself by a bond, being in her father's house in her youth;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And her father hear her vow, and her bond wherewith she hath bound her soul, and her father shall hold his peace at her; then all her vows shall stand, and every bond wherewith she hath bound her soul shall stand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if her father disallow her in the day that he heareth; not any of her vows, or of her bonds wherewith she hath bound her soul, shall stand: and the LORD shall forgive her, because her father disallowed her.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if she had at all an husband, when she vowed, or uttered ought out of her lips, wherewith she bound her soul;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And her husband heard it, and held his peace at her in the day that he heard it: then her vows shall stand, and her bonds wherewith she bound her soul shall stand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if her husband disallowed her on the day that he heard it; then he shall make her vow which she vowed, and that which she uttered with her lips, wherewith she bound her soul, of none effect: and the LORD shall forgive her.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But every vow of a widow, and of her that is divorced, wherewith they have bound their souls, shall stand against her.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if she vowed in her husband's house, or bound her soul by a bond with an oath;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And her husband heard it, and held his peace at her, and disallowed her not: then all her vows shall stand, and every bond wherewith she bound her soul shall stand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if her husband hath utterly made them void on the day he heard them; then whatsoever proceeded out of her lips concerning her vows, or concerning the bond of her soul, shall not stand: her husband hath made them void; and the LORD shall forgive her.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Every vow, and every binding oath to afflict the soul, her husband may establish it, or her husband may make it void.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if her husband altogether hold his peace at her from day to day; then he establisheth all her vows, or all her bonds, which are upon her: he confirmeth them, because he held his peace at her in the day that he heard them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if he shall any ways make them void after that he hath heard them; then he shall bear her iniquity.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the statutes, which the LORD commanded Moses, between a man and his wife, between the father and his daughter, being yet in her youth in her father's house.}} ==Chapter 31== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Avenge the children of Israel of the Midianites: afterward shalt thou be gathered unto thy people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses spake unto the people, saying, Arm some of yourselves unto the war, and let them go against the Midianites, and avenge the LORD of Midian.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of every tribe a thousand, throughout all the tribes of Israel, shall ye send to the war.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So there were delivered out of the thousands of Israel, a thousand of every tribe, twelve thousand armed for war.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses sent them to the war, a thousand of every tribe, them and Phinehas the son of Eleazar the priest, to the war, with the holy instruments, and the trumpets to blow in his hand.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they warred against the Midianites, as the LORD commanded Moses; and they slew all the males.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they slew the kings of Midian, beside the rest of them that were slain; namely, Evi, and Rekem, and Zur, and Hur, and Reba, five kings of Midian: Balaam also the son of Beor they slew with the sword.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Israel took all the women of Midian captives, and their little ones, and took the spoil of all their cattle, and all their flocks, and all their goods.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they burnt all their cities wherein they dwelt, and all their goodly castles, with fire.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they took all the spoil, and all the prey, both of men and of beasts.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they brought the captives, and the prey, and the spoil, unto Moses, and Eleazar the priest, and unto the congregation of the children of Israel, unto the camp at the plains of Moab, which are by Jordan near Jericho.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses, and Eleazar the priest, and all the princes of the congregation, went forth to meet them without the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses was wroth with the officers of the host, with the captains over thousands, and captains over hundreds, which came from the battle.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses said unto them, Have ye saved all the women alive?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Behold, these caused the children of Israel, through the counsel of Balaam, to commit trespass against the LORD in the matter of Peor, and there was a plague among the congregation of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Now therefore kill every male among the little ones, and kill every woman that hath known man by lying with him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But all the women children, that have not known a man by lying with him, keep alive for yourselves.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And do ye abide without the camp seven days: whosoever hath killed any person, and whosoever hath touched any slain, purify both yourselves and your captives on the third day, and on the seventh day.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And purify all your raiment, and all that is made of skins, and all work of goats' hair, and all things made of wood.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Eleazar the priest said unto the men of war which went to the battle, This is the ordinance of the law which the LORD commanded Moses;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Only the gold, and the silver, the brass, the iron, the tin, and the lead,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Every thing that may abide the fire, ye shall make it go through the fire, and it shall be clean: nevertheless it shall be purified with the water of separation: and all that abideth not the fire ye shall make go through the water.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall wash your clothes on the seventh day, and ye shall be clean, and afterward ye shall come into the camp.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take the sum of the prey that was taken, both of man and of beast, thou, and Eleazar the priest, and the chief fathers of the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And divide the prey into two parts; between them that took the war upon them, who went out to battle, and between all the congregation:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And levy a tribute unto the LORD of the men of war which went out to battle: one soul of five hundred, both of the persons, and of the beeves, and of the asses, and of the sheep:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Take it of their half, and give it unto Eleazar the priest, for an heave offering of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of the children of Israel's half, thou shalt take one portion of fifty, of the persons, of the beeves, of the asses, and of the flocks, of all manner of beasts, and give them unto the Levites, which keep the charge of the tabernacle of the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Eleazar the priest did as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the booty, being the rest of the prey which the men of war had caught, was six hundred thousand and seventy thousand and five thousand sheep,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And threescore and twelve thousand beeves,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And threescore and one thousand asses,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thirty and two thousand persons in all, of women that had not known man by lying with him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the half, which was the portion of them that went out to war, was in number three hundred thousand and seven and thirty thousand and five hundred sheep:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD's tribute of the sheep was six hundred and threescore and fifteen.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the beeves were thirty and six thousand; of which the LORD's tribute was threescore and twelve.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the asses were thirty thousand and five hundred; of which the LORD's tribute was threescore and one.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the persons were sixteen thousand; of which the LORD's tribute was thirty and two persons.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses gave the tribute, which was the LORD's heave offering, unto Eleazar the priest, as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of the children of Israel's half, which Moses divided from the men that warred,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| (Now the half that pertained unto the congregation was three hundred thousand and thirty thousand and seven thousand and five hundred sheep,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thirty and six thousand beeves,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And thirty thousand asses and five hundred,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And sixteen thousand persons;)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even of the children of Israel's half, Moses took one portion of fifty, both of man and of beast, and gave them unto the Levites, which kept the charge of the tabernacle of the LORD; as the LORD commanded Moses.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the officers which were over thousands of the host, the captains of thousands, and captains of hundreds, came near unto Moses:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they said unto Moses, Thy servants have taken the sum of the men of war which are under our charge, and there lacketh not one man of us.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| We have therefore brought an oblation for the LORD, what every man hath gotten, of jewels of gold, chains, and bracelets, rings, earrings, and tablets, to make an atonement for our souls before the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|51}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Eleazar the priest took the gold of them, even all wrought jewels.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|52}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And all the gold of the offering that they offered up to the LORD, of the captains of thousands, and of the captains of hundreds, was sixteen thousand seven hundred and fifty shekels.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|53}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| (For the men of war had taken spoil, every man for himself.)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|54}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses and Eleazar the priest took the gold of the captains of thousands and of hundreds, and brought it into the tabernacle of the congregation, for a memorial for the children of Israel before the LORD.}} ==Chapter 32== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Now the children of Reuben and the children of Gad had a very great multitude of cattle: }}{{font|color=#000088|and when they saw the land of Jazer, and the land of Gilead, that, behold, the place was a place for cattle;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The children of Gad and the children of Reuben came and spake unto Moses, and to Eleazar the priest, and unto the princes of the congregation, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Ataroth, and Dibon, and Jazer, and Nimrah, and Heshbon, and Elealeh, and Shebam, and Nebo, and Beon,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even the country which the LORD smote before the congregation of Israel, is a land for cattle, and thy servants have cattle:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Wherefore, said they, if we have found grace in thy sight, let this land be given unto thy servants for a possession, and bring us not over Jordan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Moses said unto the children of Gad and to the children of Reuben, Shall your brethren go to war, and shall ye sit here?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And wherefore discourage ye the heart of the children of Israel from going over into the land which the LORD hath given them?}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Thus did your fathers, when I sent them from Kadeshbarnea to see the land.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| For when they went up unto the valley of Eshcol, and saw the land, they discouraged the heart of the children of Israel, that they should not go into the land which the LORD had given them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD's anger was kindled the same time, and he sware, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Surely none of the men that came up out of Egypt, from twenty years old and upward, shall see the land which I sware unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto Jacob; because they have not wholly followed me:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Save Caleb the son of Jephunneh the Kenezite, and Joshua the son of Nun: for they have wholly followed the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the LORD's anger was kindled against Israel, and he made them wander in the wilderness forty years, until all the generation, that had done evil in the sight of the LORD, was consumed.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And, behold, ye are risen up in your fathers' stead, an increase of sinful men, to augment yet the fierce anger of the LORD toward Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| For if ye turn away from after him, he will yet again leave them in the wilderness; and ye shall destroy all this people.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And they came near unto him, and said, We will build sheepfolds here for our cattle, and cities for our little ones:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| But we ourselves will go ready armed before the children of Israel, until we have brought them unto their place: and our little ones shall dwell in the fenced cities because of the inhabitants of the land.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| We will not return unto our houses, until the children of Israel have inherited every man his inheritance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| For we will not inherit with them on yonder side Jordan, or forward; because our inheritance is fallen to us on this side Jordan eastward.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses said unto them,}}{{font|color=#000088| If ye will do this thing, if ye will go armed before the LORD to war,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And will go all of you armed over Jordan before the LORD, until he hath driven out his enemies from before him,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the land be subdued before the LORD: then afterward ye shall return, and be guiltless before the LORD, and before Israel; and this land shall be your possession before the LORD.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But if ye will not do so, behold, ye have sinned against the LORD: and be sure your sin will find you out.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| Build you cities for your little ones, and folds for your sheep; and do that which hath proceeded out of your mouth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the children of Gad and the children of Reuben spake unto Moses, saying, Thy servants will do as my lord commandeth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| Our little ones, our wives, our flocks, and all our cattle, shall be there in the cities of Gilead:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| But thy servants will pass over, every man armed for war, before the Lord to battle, as my lord saith.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So concerning them Moses commanded Eleazar the priest, and Joshua the son of Nun, and the chief fathers of the tribes of the children of Israel:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses said unto them, If the children of Gad and the children of Reuben will pass with you over Jordan, every man armed to battle, before the LORD, and the land shall be subdued before you; then ye shall give them the land of Gilead for a possession:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if they will not pass over with you armed, they shall have possessions among you in the land of Canaan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the children of Gad and the children of Reuben answered, saying, As the LORD hath said unto thy servants, so will we do.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| We will pass over armed before the LORD into the land of Canaan, that the possession of our inheritance on this side Jordan may be our's.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses gave unto them, even to the children of Gad, and to the children of Reuben, and unto half the tribe of Manasseh the son of Joseph, the kingdom of Sihon king of the Amorites, and the kingdom of Og king of Bashan, the land, with the cities thereof in the coasts, even the cities of the country round about.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the children of Gad built Dibon, and Ataroth, and Aroer,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Atroth, Shophan, and Jaazer, and Jogbehah,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Bethnimrah, and Bethharan, fenced cities: and folds for sheep.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And the children of Reuben built Heshbon, and Elealeh, and Kirjathaim,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Nebo, and Baalmeon, (their names being changed,) and Shibmah: and gave other names unto the cities which they builded.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And the children of Machir the son of Manasseh went to Gilead, and took it, and dispossessed the Amorite which was in it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#008888| And Moses gave Gilead unto Machir the son of Manasseh; and he dwelt therein.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Jair the son of Manasseh went and took the small towns thereof, and called them Havothjair.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#000088| And Nobah went and took Kenath, and the villages thereof, and called it Nobah, after his own name.}} ==Chapter 33== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| These are the journeys of the children of Israel, which went forth out of the land of Egypt with their armies under the hand of Moses and Aaron.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And Moses wrote their goings out according to their journeys by the commandment of the LORD: and these are their journeys according to their goings out.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Rameses in the first month, on the fifteenth day of the first month; on the morrow after the passover the children of Israel went out with an high hand in the sight of all the Egyptians.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| For the Egyptians buried all their firstborn, which the LORD had smitten among them: upon their gods also the LORD executed judgments.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And the children of Israel removed from Rameses, and pitched in Succoth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Succoth, and pitched in Etham, which is in the edge of the wilderness.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Etham, and turned again unto Pihahiroth, which is before Baalzephon: and they pitched before Migdol.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from before Pihahiroth, and passed through the midst of the sea into the wilderness, and went three days' journey in the wilderness of Etham, and pitched in Marah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Marah, and came unto Elim: and in Elim were twelve fountains of water, and threescore and ten palm trees; and they pitched there.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Elim, and encamped by the Red sea.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from the Red sea, and encamped in the wilderness of Sin.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they took their journey out of the wilderness of Sin, and encamped in Dophkah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Dophkah, and encamped in Alush. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Alush, and encamped at Rephidim, where was no water for the people to drink.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Rephidim, and pitched in the wilderness of Sinai.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from the desert of Sinai, and pitched at Kibrothhattaavah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Kibrothhattaavah, and encamped at Hazeroth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Hazeroth, and pitched in Rithmah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Rithmah, and pitched at Rimmonparez.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Rimmonparez, and pitched in Libnah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Libnah, and pitched at Rissah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they journeyed from Rissah, and pitched in Kehelathah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they went from Kehelathah, and pitched in mount Shapher.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from mount Shapher, and encamped in Haradah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Haradah, and pitched in Makheloth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Makheloth, and encamped at Tahath.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Tahath, and pitched at Tarah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Tarah, and pitched in Mithcah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they went from Mithcah, and pitched in Hashmonah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Hashmonah, and encamped at Moseroth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Moseroth, and pitched in Benejaakan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Benejaakan, and encamped at Horhagidgad.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they went from Horhagidgad, and pitched in Jotbathah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Jotbathah, and encamped at Ebronah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|35}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Ebronah, and encamped at Eziongaber.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|36}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Eziongaber, and pitched in the wilderness of Zin, which is Kadesh.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|37}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Kadesh, and pitched in mount Hor, in the edge of the land of Edom.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|38}}</small>{{font|color=#FF0000| And Aaron the priest went up into mount Hor at the commandment of the LORD, and died there, in the fortieth year after the children of Israel were come out of the land of Egypt, in the first day of the fifth month.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|39}}</small>{{font|color=#FF0000| And Aaron was an hundred and twenty and three years old when he died in mount Hor.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|40}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And king Arad the Canaanite, which dwelt in the south in the land of Canaan, heard of the coming of the children of Israel.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|41}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from mount Hor, and pitched in Zalmonah.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|42}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Zalmonah, and pitched in Punon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|43}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Punon, and pitched in Oboth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|44}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Oboth, and pitched in Ijeabarim, in the border of Moab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|45}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from Iim, and pitched in Dibongad. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|46}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Dibongad, and encamped in Almondiblathaim.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|47}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they removed from Almondiblathaim, and pitched in the mountains of Abarim, before Nebo.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|48}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they departed from the mountains of Abarim, and pitched in the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|color=#FF8800| And they pitched by Jordan, from Bethjesimoth even unto Abelshittim in the plains of Moab.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|50}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses in the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|51}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When ye are passed over Jordan into the land of Canaan;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|52}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then ye shall drive out all the inhabitants of the land from before you, and destroy all their pictures, and destroy all their molten images, and quite pluck down all their high places:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|53}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall dispossess the inhabitants of the land, and dwell therein: for I have given you the land to possess it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|54}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall divide the land by lot for an inheritance among your families: and to the more ye shall give the more inheritance, and to the fewer ye shall give the less inheritance: every man's inheritance shall be in the place where his lot falleth; according to the tribes of your fathers ye shall inherit.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|55}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if ye will not drive out the inhabitants of the land from before you; then it shall come to pass, that those which ye let remain of them shall be pricks in your eyes, and thorns in your sides, and shall vex you in the land wherein ye dwell.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|56}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Moreover it shall come to pass, that I shall do unto you, as I thought to do unto them.}} ==Chapter 34== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Command the children of Israel, and say unto them, When ye come into the land of Canaan; (this is the land that shall fall unto you for an inheritance, even the land of Canaan with the coasts thereof:)}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then your south quarter shall be from the wilderness of Zin along by the coast of Edom, and your south border shall be the outmost coast of the salt sea eastward:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And your border shall turn from the south to the ascent of Akrabbim, and pass on to Zin: and the going forth thereof shall be from the south to Kadeshbarnea, and shall go on to Hazaraddar, and pass on to Azmon:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the border shall fetch a compass from Azmon unto the river of Egypt, and the goings out of it shall be at the sea.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And as for the western border, ye shall even have the great sea for a border: this shall be your west border. }} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And this shall be your north border: from the great sea ye shall point out for you mount Hor:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| From mount Hor ye shall point out your border unto the entrance of Hamath; and the goings forth of the border shall be to Zedad:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the border shall go on to Ziphron, and the goings out of it shall be at Hazarenan: this shall be your north border.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall point out your east border from Hazarenan to Shepham:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the coast shall go down from Shepham to Riblah, on the east side of Ain; and the border shall descend, and shall reach unto the side of the sea of Chinnereth eastward:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the border shall go down to Jordan, and the goings out of it shall be at the salt sea: this shall be your land with the coasts thereof round about.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses commanded the children of Israel, saying, This is the land which ye shall inherit by lot, which the LORD commanded to give unto the nine tribes, and to the half tribe:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For the tribe of the children of Reuben according to the house of their fathers, and the tribe of the children of Gad according to the house of their fathers, have received their inheritance; and half the tribe of Manasseh have received their inheritance:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The two tribes and the half tribe have received their inheritance on this side Jordan near Jericho eastward, toward the sunrising.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the names of the men which shall divide the land unto you: Eleazar the priest, and Joshua the son of Nun.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall take one prince of every tribe, to divide the land by inheritance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the names of the men are these: Of the tribe of Judah, Caleb the son of Jephunneh.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of the tribe of the children of Simeon, Shemuel the son of Ammihud.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Of the tribe of Benjamin, Elidad the son of Chislon.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the prince of the tribe of the children of Dan, Bukki the son of Jogli.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The prince of the children of Joseph, for the tribe of the children of Manasseh, Hanniel the son of Ephod.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the prince of the tribe of the children of Ephraim, Kemuel the son of Shiphtan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the prince of the tribe of the children of Zebulun, Elizaphan the son of Parnach.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the prince of the tribe of the children of Issachar, Paltiel the son of Azzan.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the prince of the tribe of the children of Asher, Ahihud the son of Shelomi.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the prince of the tribe of the children of Naphtali, Pedahel the son of Ammihud.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are they whom the LORD commanded to divide the inheritance unto the children of Israel in the land of Canaan.}} ==Chapter 35== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses in the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Command the children of Israel, that they give unto the Levites of the inheritance of their possession cities to dwell in; and ye shall give also unto the Levites suburbs for the cities round about them.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the cities shall they have to dwell in; and the suburbs of them shall be for their cattle, and for their goods, and for all their beasts.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the suburbs of the cities, which ye shall give unto the Levites, shall reach from the wall of the city and outward a thousand cubits round about.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall measure from without the city on the east side two thousand cubits, and on the south side two thousand cubits, and on the west side two thousand cubits, and on the north side two thousand cubits; and the city shall be in the midst: this shall be to them the suburbs of the cities.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And among the cities which ye shall give unto the Levites there shall be six cities for refuge, which ye shall appoint for the manslayer, that he may flee thither: and to them ye shall add forty and two cities.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So all the cities which ye shall give to the Levites shall be forty and eight cities: them shall ye give with their suburbs.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the cities which ye shall give shall be of the possession of the children of Israel: from them that have many ye shall give many; but from them that have few ye shall give few: every one shall give of his cities unto the Levites according to his inheritance which he inheriteth.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Speak unto the children of Israel, and say unto them, When ye be come over Jordan into the land of Canaan;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then ye shall appoint you cities to be cities of refuge for you; that the slayer may flee thither, which killeth any person at unawares.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they shall be unto you cities for refuge from the avenger; that the manslayer die not, until he stand before the congregation in judgment.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And of these cities which ye shall give six cities shall ye have for refuge.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|14}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Ye shall give three cities on this side Jordan, and three cities shall ye give in the land of Canaan, which shall be cities of refuge.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|15}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These six cities shall be a refuge, both for the children of Israel, and for the stranger, and for the sojourner among them: that every one that killeth any person unawares may flee thither.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|16}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if he smite him with an instrument of iron, so that he die, he is a murderer: the murderer shall surely be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|17}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if he smite him with throwing a stone, wherewith he may die, and he die, he is a murderer: the murderer shall surely be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|18}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Or if he smite him with an hand weapon of wood, wherewith he may die, and he die, he is a murderer: the murderer shall surely be put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|19}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| The revenger of blood himself shall slay the murderer: when he meeteth him, he shall slay him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|20}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if he thrust him of hatred, or hurl at him by laying of wait, that he die;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|21}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Or in enmity smite him with his hand, that he die: he that smote him shall surely be put to death; for he is a murderer: the revenger of blood shall slay the murderer, when he meeteth him.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|22}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if he thrust him suddenly without enmity, or have cast upon him any thing without laying of wait,}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|23}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Or with any stone, wherewith a man may die, seeing him not, and cast it upon him, that he die, and was not his enemy, neither sought his harm:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|24}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Then the congregation shall judge between the slayer and the revenger of blood according to these judgments:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|25}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the congregation shall deliver the slayer out of the hand of the revenger of blood, and the congregation shall restore him to the city of his refuge, whither he was fled: and he shall abide in it unto the death of the high priest, which was anointed with the holy oil.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|26}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| But if the slayer shall at any time come without the border of the city of his refuge, whither he was fled;}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|27}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the revenger of blood find him without the borders of the city of his refuge, and the revenger of blood kill the slayer; he shall not be guilty of blood:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|28}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Because he should have remained in the city of his refuge until the death of the high priest: but after the death of the high priest the slayer shall return into the land of his possession.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|29}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So these things shall be for a statute of judgment unto you throughout your generations in all your dwellings.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|30}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Whoso killeth any person, the murderer shall be put to death by the mouth of witnesses: but one witness shall not testify against any person to cause him to die.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|31}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Moreover ye shall take no satisfaction for the life of a murderer, which is guilty of death: but he shall be surely put to death.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|32}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And ye shall take no satisfaction for him that is fled to the city of his refuge, that he should come again to dwell in the land, until the death of the priest.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|33}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So ye shall not pollute the land wherein ye are: for blood it defileth the land: and the land cannot be cleansed of the blood that is shed therein, but by the blood of him that shed it.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|34}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Defile not therefore the land which ye shall inhabit, wherein I dwell: for I the LORD dwell among the children of Israel.}} ==Chapter 36== <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And the chief fathers of the families of the children of Gilead, the son of Machir, the son of Manasseh, of the families of the sons of Joseph, came near, and spake before Moses, and before the princes, the chief fathers of the children of Israel:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|2}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they said, The LORD commanded my lord to give the land for an inheritance by lot to the children of Israel: and my lord was commanded by the LORD to give the inheritance of Zelophehad our brother unto his daughters.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|3}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And if they be married to any of the sons of the other tribes of the children of Israel, then shall their inheritance be taken from the inheritance of our fathers, and shall be put to the inheritance of the tribe whereunto they are received: so shall it be taken from the lot of our inheritance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|4}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And when the jubile of the children of Israel shall be, then shall their inheritance be put unto the inheritance of the tribe whereunto they are received: so shall their inheritance be taken away from the inheritance of the tribe of our fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|5}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And Moses commanded the children of Israel according to the word of the LORD, saying, The tribe of the sons of Joseph hath said well.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|6}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| This is the thing which the LORD doth command concerning the daughters of Zelophehad, saying, Let them marry to whom they think best; only to the family of the tribe of their father shall they marry.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|7}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| So shall not the inheritance of the children of Israel remove from tribe to tribe: for every one of the children of Israel shall keep himself to the inheritance of the tribe of his fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|8}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And every daughter, that possesseth an inheritance in any tribe of the children of Israel, shall be wife unto one of the family of the tribe of her father, that the children of Israel may enjoy every man the inheritance of his fathers.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|9}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Neither shall the inheritance remove from one tribe to another tribe; but every one of the tribes of the children of Israel shall keep himself to his own inheritance.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|10}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| Even as the LORD commanded Moses, so did the daughters of Zelophehad:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|11}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| For Mahlah, Tirzah, and Hoglah, and Milcah, and Noah, the daughters of Zelophehad, were married unto their father's brothers' sons:}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|12}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| And they were married into the families of the sons of Manasseh the son of Joseph, and their inheritance remained in the tribe of the family of their father.}} <small>{{font|color=#0000FF|13}}</small>{{font|color=#888800| These are the commandments and the judgments, which the LORD commanded by the hand of Moses unto the children of Israel in the plains of Moab by Jordan near Jericho.}} [[Category:Documentary hypothesis]] aabmsjt1scgjoc1hh2tqfzy6v7i1cjp 0 54735 2415562 2404567 2022-08-16T12:29:59Z Huz and Buz 2928717 /* The Flood */ wikitext text/x-wiki According to the [[w:documentary hypothesis|documentary hypothesis]], the [[w:Torah|Torah]] is composed from a number of originally independent sources joined by a [[w:redaction|redactor]]. One of these supposed sources is named the [[w:Priestly source|"Priestly Source"]], due to the considerable prevalence of material within it that would concern a priest. Although the Priestly source is generally regarded as a single source text, it is believed that a small part within it, known as the [[w:Holiness Code|Holiness Code]], due to its repeated mentions of the word ''holy'', was an earlier text that the creator of the Priestly Source embedded within it. Aside from the narrative, the text contains a number of other types of material, which may derive from other separate documents. *The original P document is highlighted in {{font|color=#000000|black}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|([[Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, Priestly source, Narrative|view in isolation]])}} *The H layer is highlighted in {{font|color=#008800|dark green}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|([[Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, Priestly source, Holiness code|view in isolation]])}} *Late supplements to the original P document are highlighted in {{Font|color=#880000|text=maroon red}} *Interpolated sections, believed to be removed by a redactor, are included in [brackets] *Sections moved from their place in the final text to their original location are surrounded by *asterisks* ''Due simply to its size, it has been divided into 4 divisions of approximately similar size, for the purposes of easy downloading. These divisions do not knowingly reflect the content of the text, or the original divisions, in any way.'' There follows the content of the first division (of four) of the reconstructed text of the Priestly source, using the of the Torah. ''Although the text is arranged as it appears in the bible, the partitions do not reflect, in any way, the original partitioning of the text, and simply exists for the ease of modern readership'' ==Creation== {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|1}}{{font|color=#000000| In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|2}}{{font|color=#000000| And the earth was without form, and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|3}}{{font|color=#000000| And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|4}}{{font|color=#000000| And God said, Let there be light: and there was light.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|5}}{{font|color=#000000| And God saw the light, that it was good: and God divided the light from the darkness.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|6}}{{font|color=#000000| And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|7}}{{font|color=#000000| And the evening and the morning were the first day.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|8}}{{font|color=#000000| And God said, Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters, and let it divide the waters from the waters.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|8}}{{font|color=#000000| And God made the firmament, and divided the waters which were under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament: and it was so.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|9}}{{font|color=#000000| And God called the firmament Heaven.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|10}}{{font|color=#000000| And the evening and the morning were the second day.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|11}}{{font|color=#000000| And God said, Let the waters under the heaven be gathered together unto one place, and let the dry land appear: and it was so.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|12}}{{font|color=#000000| And God called the dry land Earth; and the gathering together of the waters called he Seas: and God saw that it was good.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|13}}{{font|color=#000000| And God said, Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb yielding seed, and the fruit tree yielding fruit after his kind, whose seed is in itself, upon the earth: and it was so.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|14}}{{font|color=#000000| And the earth brought forth grass, and herb yielding seed after his kind, and the tree yielding fruit, whose seed was in itself, after his kind: and God saw that it was good.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|15}}{{font|color=#000000| And the evening and the morning were the third day.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|16}}{{font|color=#000000| And God said, Let there be lights in the firmament of the heaven to divide the day from the night; and let them be for signs, and for seasons, and for days, and years:}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|17}}{{font|color=#000000| And let them be for lights in the firmament of the heaven to give light upon the earth: and it was so.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|18}}{{font|color=#000000| And God made two great lights; the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night: he made the stars also.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|19}}{{font|color=#000000| And God set them in the firmament of the heaven to give light upon the earth,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|20}}{{font|color=#000000| And to rule over the day and over the night, and to divide the light from the darkness: and God saw that it was good.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|21}}{{font|color=#000000| And the evening and the morning were the fourth day.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|22}}{{font|color=#000000| And God said, Let the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creature that hath life, and fowl that may fly above the earth in the open firmament of heaven.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|23}}{{font|color=#000000| And God created great whales, and every living creature that moveth, which the waters brought forth abundantly, after their kind, and every winged fowl after his kind: and God saw that it was good.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|24}}{{font|color=#000000| And God blessed them, saying, Be fruitful, and multiply, and fill the waters in the seas, and let fowl multiply in the earth.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|25}}{{font|color=#000000| And the evening and the morning were the fifth day.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|26}}{{font|color=#000000| And God said, Let the earth bring forth the living creature after his kind, cattle, and creeping thing, and beast of the earth after his kind: and it was so.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|27}}{{font|color=#000000| And God made the beast of the earth after his kind, and cattle after their kind, and every thing that creepeth upon the earth after his kind: and God saw that it was good.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|28}}{{font|color=#000000| And God said, Let us make man in our image, after our likeness: and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|29}}{{font|color=#000000| So God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him; male and female created he them.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|30}}{{font|color=#000000| And God blessed them, and God said unto them, Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it:}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|31}}{{font|color=#000000| And have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every living thing that moveth upon the earth.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|32}}{{font|color=#000000| And God said, Behold, I have given you every herb bearing seed, which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree, in the which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed; to you it shall be for meat.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|33}}{{font|color=#000000| And to every beast of the earth, and to every fowl of the air, and to every thing that creepeth upon the earth, wherein there is life, I have given every green herb for meat: and it was so.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|34}}{{font|color=#000000| And God saw every thing that he had made, and, behold, it was very good.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|35}}{{font|color=#000000| And the evening and the morning were the sixth day.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|36}}{{font|color=#000000| Thus the heavens and the earth were finished, and all the host of them.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|37}}{{font|color=#000000| And on the seventh day God ended his work which he had made;}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|38}}{{font|color=#000000| And he rested on the seventh day from all his work which he had made.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|39}}{{font|color=#000000| And God blessed the seventh day, and sanctified it: because that in it he had rested from all his work which God created and made.}} {{font|40|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|These are the generations of the heavens and of the earth when they were created.|color=#000000}} ==Primeval Genealogy== {{font|1|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|This is the book of the generations of Adam. In the day that God created man, in the likeness of God made he him;|color=#000000}} {{font|2|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|Male and female created he them; and blessed them, and called their name Adam, in the day when they were created.|color=#000000}} {{font|3|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Adam lived an hundred and thirty years, and begat a son in his own likeness, after his image; and called his name Seth:|color=#000000}} {{font|4|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And the days of Adam after he had begotten Seth were eight hundred years: and he begat sons and daughters:|color=#000000}} {{font|5|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And all the days that Adam lived were nine hundred and thirty years: and he died.|color=#000000}} {{font|6|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Seth lived an hundred and five years, and begat Enos:|color=#000000}} {{font|7|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Seth lived after he begat Enos eight hundred and seven years, and begat sons and daughters:|color=#000000}} {{font|8|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And all the days of Seth were nine hundred and twelve years: and he died.|color=#000000}} {{font|9|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Enos lived ninety years, and begat Cainan:|color=#000000}} {{font|10|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Enos lived after he begat Cainan eight hundred and fifteen years, and begat sons and daughters:|color=#000000}} {{font|11|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And all the days of Enos were nine hundred and five years: and he died.|color=#000000}} {{font|12|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Cainan lived seventy years, and begat Mahalaleel:|color=#000000}} {{font|13|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Cainan lived after he begat Mahalaleel eight hundred and forty years, and begat sons and daughters:|color=#000000}} {{font|14|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And all the days of Cainan were nine hundred and ten years: and he died.|color=#000000}} {{font|15|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Mahalaleel lived sixty and five years, and begat Jared:|color=#000000}} {{font|16|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Mahalaleel lived after he begat Jared eight hundred and thirty years, and begat sons and daughters:|color=#000000}} {{font|17|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And all the days of Mahalaleel were eight hundred ninety and five years: and he died.|color=#000000}} {{font|18|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Jared lived an hundred sixty and two years, and he begat Enoch:|color=#000000}} {{font|19|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Jared lived after he begat Enoch eight hundred years, and begat sons and daughters:|color=#000000}} {{font|20|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And all the days of Jared were nine hundred sixty and two years: and he died.|color=#000000}} {{font|21|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Enoch lived sixty and five years, and begat Methuselah:|color=#000000}} {{font|22|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Enoch walked with God after he begat Methuselah three hundred years, and begat sons and daughters:|color=#000000}} {{font|23|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And all the days of Enoch were three hundred sixty and five years:|color=#000000}} {{font|24|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Enoch walked with God: and he was not; for God took him.|color=#000000}} {{font|25|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Methuselah lived an hundred eighty and seven years, and begat Lamech:|color=#000000}} {{font|26|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Methuselah lived after he begat Lamech seven hundred eighty and two years, and begat sons and daughters:|color=#000000}} {{font|27|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And all the days of Methuselah were nine hundred sixty and nine years: and he died.|color=#000000}} {{font|28|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Lamech lived an hundred eighty and two years, and begat|color=#000000}} {{font|[Noah].|color=#000000}} {{font|29|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Lamech lived after he begat Noah five hundred ninety and five years, and begat sons and daughters:|color=#000000}} {{font|30|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And all the days of Lamech were seven hundred seventy and seven years: and he died.|color=#000000}} {{font|31|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Noah was five hundred years old: and Noah begat Shem, Ham, and Japheth.|color=#000000}} ==The Flood == {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|1}}{{font|color=#000000|These are the generations of Noah: and Noah walked with God.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|2}}{{font|color=#000000| And Noah begat three sons, Shem, Ham, and Japheth.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|3}}{{font|color=#000000| The earth also was corrupt before God, and the earth was filled with violence.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|4}}{{font|color=#000000| And God looked upon the earth, and, behold, it was corrupt; for all flesh had corrupted his way upon the earth.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|5}}{{font|color=#000000| And God said unto Noah, The end of all flesh is come before me; for the earth is filled with violence through them; and, behold, I will destroy them with the earth.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|6}}{{font|color=#000000| Make thee an ark of gopher wood; rooms shalt thou make in the ark, and shalt pitch it within and without with pitch.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|7}}{{font|color=#000000| And this is the fashion which thou shalt make it of:}} {{font|color=#000000| The length of the ark shall be three hundred cubits, the breadth of it fifty cubits, and the height of it thirty cubits.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|8}}{{font|color=#000000| A window shalt thou make to the ark, and in a cubit shalt thou finish it above;}} {{font|color=#000000|and the door of the ark shalt thou set in the side thereof; with lower, second, and third stories shalt thou make it.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|9}}{{font|color=#000000| And, behold, I, even I, do bring a flood of waters upon the earth, to destroy all flesh, wherein is the breath of life, from under heaven; and every thing that is in the earth shall die.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|10}}{{font|color=#000000| But with thee will I establish my covenant; and thou shalt come into the ark, thou, and thy sons, and thy wife, and thy sons' wives with thee.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|11}}{{font|color=#000000| And of every living thing of all flesh, two of every sort shalt thou bring into the ark, to keep them alive with thee; they shall be male and female.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|12}}{{font|color=#000000| Of fowls after their kind, and of cattle after their kind, of every creeping thing of the earth after his kind, two of every sort shall come unto thee, to keep them alive.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|13}}{{font|color=#000000| And take thou unto thee of all food that is eaten, and thou shalt gather it to thee; and it shall be for food for thee, and for them.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|14}}{{font|color=#000000| Thus did Noah; according to all that God commanded him, so did he.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|15}}{{font|And Noah was six hundred years old when the flood of waters was upon the earth.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|16}}{{font|color=#000000|And Noah went in, and his sons, and his wife, and his sons' wives with him, into the ark, because of the waters of the flood, and every thing that creepeth upon the earth.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|17}}{{font|color=#000000| There went in two and two unto Noah into the ark, the male and the female, as God had commanded Noah.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|18}}{{font|color=#000000| In the six hundredth year of Noah's life, in the second month, the seventeenth day of the month, the same day were all the fountains of the great deep broken up, and the windows of heaven were opened.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|19}}{{font|color=#000000| In the selfsame day entered Noah, and Shem, and Ham, and Japheth, the sons of Noah, and Noah's wife, and the three wives of his sons with them, into the ark;}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|20}}{{font|color=#000000| They, and every beast after his kind, and all the cattle after their kind, and every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth after his kind, and every fowl after his kind, every bird of every sort.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|21}}{{font|color=#000000| And they went in unto Noah into the ark, two and two of all flesh, wherein is the breath of life.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|22}}{{font|color=#000000| And they that went in, went in male and female of all flesh, as God had commanded him:}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|23}}{{font|color=#000000|And the waters increased, and bare up the ark, and it was lift up above the earth.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|24}}{{font|color=#000000|And the waters prevailed, and were increased greatly upon the earth; and the ark went upon the face of the waters.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|25}}{{font|color=#000000|And the waters prevailed exceedingly upon the earth; and all the high hills, that were under the whole heaven, were covered.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|26}}{{font|color=#000000|Fifteen cubits upward did the waters prevail; and the mountains were covered.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|27}}{{font|color=#000000|And all flesh died that moved upon the earth, both of fowl, and of cattle, and of beast, and of every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth, and every man:}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|28}}{{font|color=#000000|All in whose nostrils was the breath of life, of all that was in the dry land, died.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|29}}{{font|color=#000000| And the waters prevailed upon the earth an hundred and fifty days.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|30}}{{font|color=#000000| And God remembered Noah, and every living thing, and all the cattle that was with him in the ark:}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|31}}{{font|color=#000000|And God remembered Noah, and every living thing, and all the cattle that was with him in the ark: and God made a wind to pass over the earth, and the waters asswaged;}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|32}}{{font|color=#000000| The fountains also of the deep and the windows of heaven were stopped,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|33}}{{font|color=#000000| And after the end of the hundred and fifty days the waters were abated.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|34}}{{font|color=#000000| And the ark rested in the seventh month, on the seventeenth day of the month, upon the mountains of Ararat.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|35}}{{font|color=#000000| And the waters decreased continually... were the tops of the mountains seen.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|36}}{{font|color=#000000|That Noah opened the window of the ark which he had made:}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|37}}{{font|color=#000000| And he sent forth a raven, which went forth to and fro, until the waters were dried up from off the earth.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|38}}{{font|color=#000000| And it came to pass in the six hundredth and first year, in the first month, the first day of the month, the waters were dried up from off the earth:}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|39}}{{font|color=#000000| And in the second month, on the seven and twentieth day of the month, was the earth dried.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|40}}{{font|color=#000000| And God spake unto Noah, saying,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|41}}{{font|color=#000000| Go forth of the ark, thou, and thy wife, and thy sons, and thy sons' wives with thee.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|42}}{{font|color=#000000| Bring forth with thee every living thing that is with thee, of all flesh, both of fowl, and of cattle, and of every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth; that they may breed abundantly in the earth, and be fruitful, and multiply upon the earth.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|43}}{{font|color=#000000| And Noah went forth, and his sons, and his wife, and his sons' wives with him:}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|44}}{{font|color=#000000| Every beast, every creeping thing, and every fowl, and whatsoever creepeth upon the earth, after their kinds, went forth out of the ark.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|45}}{{font|color=#000000| And God blessed Noah and his sons, and said unto them, Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|46}}{{font|color=#000000| And the fear of you and the dread of you shall be upon every beast of the earth, and upon every fowl of the air, upon all that moveth upon the earth, and upon all the fishes of the sea; into your hand are they delivered.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|47}}{{font|color=#000000| Every moving thing that liveth shall be meat for you; even as the green herb have I given you all things.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|48}}{{font|color=#000000| But flesh with the life thereof, which is the blood thereof, shall ye not eat.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|49}}{{font|color=#000000| And surely your blood of your lives will I require; at the hand of every beast will I require it, and at the hand of man;}} {{font|color=#000000|at the hand of every man's brother will I require the life of man.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|50}}{{font|color=#000000| Whoso sheddeth man's blood, by man shall his blood be shed: for in the image of God made he man.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|51}}{{font|color=#000000| And you, be ye fruitful, and multiply; bring forth abundantly in the earth, and multiply therein.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|52}}{{font|color=#000000| And God spake unto Noah, and to his sons with him, saying,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|53}}{{font|color=#000000| And I, behold, I establish my covenant with you, and with your seed after you;}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|54}}{{font|color=#000000| And with every living creature that is with you, of the fowl, of the cattle, and of every beast of the earth with you; from all that go out of the ark, to every beast of the earth.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|55}}{{font|color=#000000| And I will establish my covenant with you; neither shall all flesh be cut off any more by the waters of a flood; neither shall there any more be a flood to destroy the earth.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|56}}{{font|color=#000000| And God said, This is the token of the covenant which I make between me and you and every living creature that is with you, for perpetual generations:}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|57}}{{font|color=#000000| I do set my bow in the cloud, and it shall be for a token of a covenant between me and the earth.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|58}}{{font|color=#000000| And it shall come to pass, when I bring a cloud over the earth, that the bow shall be seen in the cloud:}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|59}}{{font|color=#000000| And I will remember my covenant, which is between me and you and every living creature of all flesh; and the waters shall no more become a flood to destroy all flesh.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|60}}{{font|color=#000000| And the bow shall be in the cloud; and I will look upon it, that I may remember the everlasting covenant between God and every living creature of all flesh that is upon the earth.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|61}}{{font|color=#000000| And God said unto Noah, This is the token of the covenant, which I have established between me and all flesh that is upon the earth.}} {{font|62|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And the sons of Noah, that went forth of the ark, were Shem, and Ham, and Japheth:|color=#000000}} {{font|63|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|These are the three sons of Noah: and of them was the whole earth overspread.|color=#000000}} {{font|64|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Noah lived after the flood three hundred and fifty years.|color=#000000}} {{font|65|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And all the days of Noah were nine hundred and fifty years: and he died.|color=#000000}} ==The Table Of Nations == {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|1}}{{font|color=#000000|Now these are the generations of the sons of Noah, Shem, Ham, and Japheth: and unto them were sons born after the flood.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|2}}{{font|color=#000000| The sons of Japheth; Gomer, and Magog, and Madai, and Javan, and Tubal, and Meshech, and Tiras.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|3}}{{font|color=#000000| And the sons of Gomer; Ashkenaz, and Riphath, and Togarmah.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|4}}{{font|color=#000000| And the sons of Javan; Elishah, and Tarshish, Kittim, and Dodanim.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|5}}{{font|color=#000000| By these were the isles of the Gentiles divided in their lands; every one after his tongue, after their families, in their nations.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|6}}{{font|color=#000000| And the sons of Ham; Cush, and Mizraim, and Phut, and Canaan.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|7}}{{font|color=#000000| And the sons of Cush; Seba, and Havilah, and Sabtah, and Raamah, and Sabtechah: and the sons of Raamah; Sheba, and Dedan.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|8}}{{font|color=#000000| These are the sons of Ham, after their families, after their tongues, in their countries, and in their nations.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|9}}{{font|color=#000000| The children of Shem; Elam, and Asshur, and Arphaxad, and Lud, and Aram.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|10}}{{font|color=#000000| And the children of Aram; Uz, and Hul, and Gether, and Mash.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|11}}{{font|color=#000000| These are the sons of Shem, after their families, after their tongues, in their lands, after their nations.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|12}}{{font|color=#000000| These are the families of the sons of Noah, after their generations, in their nations: and by these were the nations divided in the earth after the flood.}} ==The Migration of Abram == {{font|1|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|These are the generations of Shem: Shem was an hundred years old, and begat Arphaxad two years after the flood:|color=#000000}} {{font|2|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Shem lived after he begat Arphaxad five hundred years, and begat sons and daughters.|color=#000000}} {{font|3|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Arphaxad lived five and thirty years, and begat Salah:|color=#000000}} {{font|4|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Arphaxad lived after he begat Salah four hundred and three years, and begat sons and daughters.|color=#000000}} {{font|5|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Salah lived thirty years, and begat Eber:|color=#000000}} {{font|6|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Salah lived after he begat Eber four hundred and three years, and begat sons and daughters.|color=#000000}} {{font|7|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Eber lived four and thirty years, and begat Peleg:|color=#000000}} {{font|8|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Eber lived after he begat Peleg four hundred and thirty years, and begat sons and daughters.|color=#000000}} {{font|9|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Peleg lived thirty years, and begat Reu:|color=#000000}} {{font|10|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Peleg lived after he begat Reu two hundred and nine years, and begat sons and daughters.|color=#000000}} {{font|11|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Reu lived two and thirty years, and begat Serug:|color=#000000}} {{font|12|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Reu lived after he begat Serug two hundred and seven years, and begat sons and daughters.|color=#000000}} {{font|13|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Serug lived thirty years, and begat Nahor:|color=#000000}} {{font|14|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Serug lived after he begat Nahor two hundred years, and begat sons and daughters.|color=#000000}} {{font|15|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Nahor lived nine and twenty years, and begat Terah:|color=#000000}} {{font|16|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Nahor lived after he begat Terah an hundred and nineteen years, and begat sons and daughters.|color=#000000}} {{font|17|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Terah lived seventy years, and begat Abram and Haran.|color=#000000}} {{font|18|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|Now these are the generations of Terah: Terah begat Abram and Haran; and Haran begat Lot.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|19}}{{font|color=#000000| And Haran died before his father Terah in the land of his nativity, in Ur of the Chaldees.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|20}}{{font|color=#000000|And Terah took Abram his son, and Lot the son of Haran his son's son, and Sarai his daughter in law, his son Abram's wife; and they went forth with them from Ur of the Chaldees, to go into the land of Canaan; and they came unto Haran, and dwelt there.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|21}}{{font|color=#000000|And the days of Terah were two hundred and five years: and Terah died in Haran.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|22}}{{font|color=#000000| And Abram was seventy and five years old when he departed out of Haran.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|23}}{{font|color=#000000| And Abram took Sarai his wife, and Lot his brother's son, and all their substance that they had gathered, and the souls that they had gotten in Haran; and they went forth to go into the land of Canaan; and into the land of Canaan they came.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|24}}{{font|color=#000000| And the land was not able to bear them, that they might dwell together: for their substance was great, so that they could not dwell together.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|25}}{{font|color=#000000| And they separated themselves the one from the other.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|26}}{{font|color=#000000| Abram dwelled in the land of Canaan, and Lot dwelled in the cities of the plain.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|26}}{{font|color=#000000|*And it came to pass, when God destroyed the cities of the plain, that God remembered Abram, and sent Lot out of the midst of the overthrow, when he overthrew the cities in the which Lot dwelt.*}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1296045454615105536|title=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1296045454615105536|website=Twitter|language=en|access-date=2021-10-11}}</ref> ==The Abrahamic Covenant== {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|1}}{{font|Now Sarai Abram's wife bare him no children: and she had an handmaid, an Egyptian, whose name was Hagar.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|2}}{{font|color=#000000| And Sarai Abram's wife took Hagar her maid the Egyptian, after Abram had dwelt ten years in the land of Canaan, and gave her to her husband Abram to be his wife.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|3}}{{font|color=#000000| And Hagar bare Abram a son: and Abram called his son's name, which Hagar bare, Ishmael.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|4}}{{font|color=#000000| And Abram was fourscore and six years old, when Hagar bare Ishmael to Abram.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|5}}{{font|color=#000000|And when Abram was ninety years old and nine, the LORD appeared to Abram, and said unto him, I am the Almighty God; walk before me, and be thou perfect.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|6}}{{font|color=#000000| And I will make my covenant between me and thee, and will multiply thee exceedingly.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|7}}{{font|color=#000000| And Abram fell on his face: and God talked with him, saying,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|8}}{{font|color=#000000| As for me, behold, my covenant is with thee, and thou shalt be a father of many nations.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|9}}{{font|color=#000000| Neither shall thy name any more be called Abram, but thy name shall be Abraham; for a father of many nations have I made thee.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|10}}{{font|color=#000000| And I will make thee exceeding fruitful, and I will make nations of thee, and kings shall come out of thee.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|11}}{{font|color=#000000| And I will establish my covenant between me and thee and thy seed after thee in their generations for an everlasting covenant, to be a God unto thee, and to thy seed after thee.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|12}}{{font|color=#000000| And I will give unto thee, and to thy seed after thee, the land wherein thou art a stranger, all the land of Canaan, for an everlasting possession; and I will be their God.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|13}}{{font|color=#000000| And God said unto Abraham, Thou shalt keep my covenant therefore, thou, and thy seed after thee in their generations.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|14}}{{font|color=#000000| This is my covenant, which ye shall keep, between me and you and thy seed after thee; every man child among you shall be circumcised.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|15}}{{font|color=#000000| And ye shall circumcise the flesh of your foreskin; and it shall be a token of the covenant betwixt me and you.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|16}}{{font|color=#000000| And he that is eight days old shall be circumcised among you, every man child in your generations, he that is born in the house, or bought with money of any stranger, which is not of thy seed.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|17}}{{font|color=#000000| He that is born in thy house, and he that is bought with thy money, must needs be circumcised: and my covenant shall be in your flesh for an everlasting covenant.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|18}}{{font|color=#008800| And the uncircumcised man child whose flesh of his foreskin is not circumcised, that soul shall be cut off from his people; he hath broken my covenant.}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1293884546505736192|title=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1293884546505736192|website=Twitter|language=en|access-date=2021-10-10}}</ref> {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|19}}{{font|color=#000000| And God said unto Abraham, As for Sarai thy wife, thou shalt not call her name Sarai, but Sarah shall her name be.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|20}}{{font|color=#000000| And I will bless her, and give thee a son also of her: yea, I will bless her, and she shall be a mother of nations; kings of people shall be of her.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|21}}{{font|color=#000000| Then Abraham fell upon his face, and laughed, and said in his heart, Shall a child be born unto him that is an hundred years old? and shall Sarah, that is ninety years old, bear?}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|22}}{{font|color=#000000| And Abraham said unto God, O that Ishmael might live before thee!}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|23}}{{font|color=#000000| And God said, Sarah thy wife shall bear thee a son indeed; and thou shalt call his name Isaac: and I will establish my covenant with him for an everlasting covenant, and with his seed after him.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|24}}{{font|color=#000000| And as for Ishmael, I have heard thee: Behold, I have blessed him, and will make him fruitful, and will multiply him exceedingly; twelve princes shall he beget, and I will make him a great nation.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|25}}{{font|color=#000000| But my covenant will I establish with Isaac, which Sarah shall bear unto thee at this set time in the next year.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|26}}{{font|color=#000000| And he left off talking with him, and God went up from Abraham.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|27}}{{font|color=#000000| And Abraham took Ishmael his son, and all that were born in his house, and all that were bought with his money, every male among the men of Abraham's house; And circumcised the flesh of their foreskin in the selfsame day, as God had said unto him.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|28}}{{font|color=#000000| And Abraham was ninety years old and nine, when he was circumcised in the flesh of his foreskin.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|29}}{{font|color=#000000| And Ishmael his son was thirteen years old, when he was circumcised in the flesh of his foreskin.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|30}}{{font|color=#000000| In the selfsame day was Abraham circumcised, and Ishmael his son.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|31}}{{font|color=#000000| And all the men of his house, born in the house, and bought with money of the stranger, were circumcised with him.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|32}}{{font|color=#000000|[And Sarah conceived, and bare Abraham a son],}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1297141601723199488|title=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1297141601723199488|website=Twitter|language=en|access-date=2021-10-11}}</ref> {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|33}}{{font|color=#000000| At the set time of which God had spoken to him.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|34}}{{font|color=#000000| And Abraham called the name of his son that was born unto him, whom Sarah bare to him, Isaac.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|35}}{{font|color=#000000| And Abraham circumcised his son Isaac being eight days old, as God had commanded him.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|36}}{{font|color=#000000| And Abraham was an hundred years old, when his son Isaac was born unto him.}} ==The Cave Of Machpelah == {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|1}}{{font|color=#000000| And Sarah was an hundred and seven and twenty years old: these were the years of the life of Sarah.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|2}}{{font|color=#000000| And Sarah died in Kirjatharba; the same is Hebron in the land of Canaan: and Abraham came to mourn for Sarah, and to weep for her.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|3}}{{font|color=#000000| And Abraham stood up from before his dead, and spake unto the sons of Heth, saying,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|4}}{{font|color=#000000| I am a stranger and a sojourner with you: give me a possession of a buryingplace with you, that I may bury my dead out of my sight.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|5}}{{font|color=#000000| And the children of Heth answered Abraham, saying unto him,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|6}}{{font|color=#000000| Hear us, my lord: thou art a mighty prince among us: in the choice of our sepulchres bury thy dead; none of us shall withhold from thee his sepulchre, but that thou mayest bury thy dead.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|7}}{{font|color=#000000| And Abraham stood up, and bowed himself to the people of the land, even to the children of Heth.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|8}}{{font|color=#000000| And he communed with them, saying, If it be your mind that I should bury my dead out of my sight; hear me, and intreat for me to Ephron the son of Zohar,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|9}}{{font|color=#000000| That he may give me the cave of Machpelah, which he hath, which is in the end of his field; for as much money as it is worth he shall give it me for a possession of a buryingplace amongst you.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|10}}{{font|color=#000000| And Ephron dwelt among the children of Heth: and Ephron the Hittite answered Abraham in the audience of the children of Heth, even of all that went in at the gate of his city, saying,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|11}}{{font|color=#000000| Nay, my lord, hear me: the field give I thee, and the cave that is therein, I give it thee; in the presence of the sons of my people give I it thee: bury thy dead.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|12}}{{font|color=#000000| And Abraham bowed down himself before the people of the land.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|13}}{{font|color=#000000| And he spake unto Ephron in the audience of the people of the land, saying, But if thou wilt give it, I pray thee, hear me: I will give thee money for the field; take it of me, and I will bury my dead there.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|14}}{{font|color=#000000| And Ephron answered Abraham, saying unto him,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|15}}{{font|color=#000000| My lord, hearken unto me: the land is worth four hundred shekels of silver; what is that betwixt me and thee? bury therefore thy dead.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|16}}{{font|color=#000000| And Abraham hearkened unto Ephron; and Abraham weighed to Ephron the silver, which he had named in the audience of the sons of Heth, four hundred shekels of silver, current money with the merchant.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|17}}{{font|color=#000000| And the field of Ephron, which was in Machpelah, which was before Mamre, the field, and the cave which was therein, and all the trees that were in the field, that were in all the borders round about, were made sure}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|18}}{{font|color=#000000| Unto Abraham for a possession in the presence of the children of Heth, before all that went in at the gate of his city.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|19}}{{font|color=#000000| And after this, Abraham buried Sarah his wife in the cave of the field of Machpelah before Mamre: the same is Hebron in the land of Canaan.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|20}}{{font|color=#000000| And the field, and the cave that is therein, were made sure unto Abraham for a possession of a buryingplace by the sons of Heth.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|21}}{{font|color=#000000| And these are the days of the years of Abraham's life which he lived, an hundred threescore and fifteen years.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|22}}{{font|color=#000000|Then Abraham gave up the ghost, and died, an old man, and full of years; and was gathered to his people.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|23}}{{font|color=#000000| And his sons Isaac and Ishmael buried him in the cave of Machpelah, in the field of Ephron the son of Zohar the Hittite, which is before Mamre;}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|24}}{{font|color=#000000| The field which Abraham purchased of the sons of Heth: there was Abraham buried, and Sarah his wife.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|25}}{{font|color=#000000| And it came to pass after the death of Abraham, that God blessed his son Isaac.}} ==Ishmael's Descendants == {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|1}}{{font|Now these are the generations of Ishmael, Abraham's son, whom Hagar the Egyptian, Sarah's handmaid, bare unto Abraham:|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|2}}{{font|color=#000000| And these are the names of the sons of Ishmael, by their names, according to their generations: the firstborn of Ishmael, Nebajoth; and Kedar, and Adbeel, and Mibsam,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|3}}{{font|color=#000000| And Mishma, and Dumah, and Massa,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|4}}{{font|color=#000000| Hadar, and Tema, Jetur, Naphish, and Kedemah:}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|5}}{{font|color=#000000| These are the sons of Ishmael, and these are their names, by their towns, and by their castles; twelve princes according to their nations.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|6}}{{font|color=#000000| And these are the years of the life of Ishmael, an hundred and thirty and seven years: and he gave up the ghost and died; and was gathered unto his people.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|7}}{{font|color=#000000| And they dwelt from Havilah unto Shur, that is before Egypt, as thou goest toward Assyria: and he died in the presence of all his brethren.}} ==Isaac == {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|1}}{{font|And these are the generations of Isaac, Abraham's son: Abraham begat Isaac:|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|2}}{{font|color=#000000|And Isaac was forty years old when he took Rebekah to wife, the daughter of Bethuel the Syrian of Padanaram, the sister to Laban the Syrian.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|3}}{{font|color=#000000|[And Rebekah bare twin sons, Esau and Jacob, to Isaac,]}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1302559271457099777|title=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1302559271457099777|website=Twitter|language=en|access-date=2021-10-12}}</ref> {{font|color=#000000|and Isaac was threescore years old when she bare them.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|4}}{{font|And the man waxed great, and went forward, and grew until he became very great:|color=#000000}} {{font|5|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|For he had possession of flocks, and possession of herds, and great store of servants: and the Philistines envied him.|color=#000000}} {{font|6|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|For all the wells which his father's servants had digged in the days of Abraham his father, the Philistines had stopped them, and filled them with earth.|color=#000000}} {{font|7|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|And Isaac digged again the wells of water, which they had digged in the days of Abraham his father; for the Philistines had stopped them after the death of Abraham: and he called their names after the names by which his father had called them.|color=#000000}} {{font|8|size=smaller|color=#0000FF}}{{font|color=#000000| And Esau was forty years old when he took to wife Judith the daughter of Beeri the Hittite, and Bashemath the daughter of Elon the Hittite:}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|9}}{{font|color=#000000| Which were a grief of mind unto Isaac and to Rebekah.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|10}}{{font|color=#000000| And Rebekah said to Isaac, I am weary of my life because of the daughters of Heth: if Jacob take a wife of the daughters of Heth, such as these which are of the daughters of the land, what good shall my life do me?}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|11}}{{font|color=#000000| And Isaac called Jacob, and blessed him, and charged him, and said unto him, Thou shalt not take a wife of the daughters of Canaan.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|12}}{{font|color=#000000| Arise, go to Padanaram, to the house of Bethuel thy mother's father; and take thee a wife from thence of the daughters of Laban thy mother's brother.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|13}}{{font|color=#000000| And God Almighty bless thee, and make thee fruitful, and multiply thee, that thou mayest be a multitude of people;}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|14}}{{font|color=#000000| And give thee the blessing of Abraham, to thee, and to thy seed with thee; that thou mayest inherit the land wherein thou art a stranger, which God gave unto Abraham.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|15}}{{font|color=#000000| And Isaac sent away Jacob: and he went to Padanaram unto Laban, son of Bethuel the Syrian, the brother of Rebekah, Jacob's and Esau's mother.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|16}}{{font|color=#000000| When Esau saw that Isaac had blessed Jacob, and sent him away to Padanaram, to take him a wife from thence; and that as he blessed him he gave him a charge, saying, Thou shalt not take a wife of the daughters of Canaan;}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|17}}{{font|color=#000000| And that Jacob obeyed his father and his mother, and was gone to Padanaram;}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|18}}{{font|color=#000000| And Esau seeing that the daughters of Canaan pleased not Isaac his father;}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|19}}{{font|color=#000000| Then went Esau unto Ishmael, and took unto the wives which he had Mahalath the daughter of Ishmael Abraham's son, the sister of Nebajoth, to be his wife.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|20}}*{{font|color=#000000|Now the sons of Jacob were twelve:}}* {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|21}}*{{font|color=#000000| The sons of Leah; Reuben, Jacob's firstborn, and Simeon, and Levi, and Judah, and Issachar, and Zebulun:}}* {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|22}}*{{font|color=#000000| The sons of Rachel; Joseph, and Benjamin:}}* {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|23}}*{{font|color=#000000| And the sons of Bilhah, Rachel's handmaid; Dan, and Naphtali:}}* {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|24}}*{{font|color=#000000| And the sons of Zilpah, Leah's handmaid; Gad, and Asher: these are the sons of Jacob, which were born to him in Padanaram.}}*<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1313448457273856006|title=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1313448457273856006|website=Twitter|language=en|access-date=2021-10-15}}</ref> {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|25}}{{font|color=#000000|And the man increased exceedingly, and had much cattle, and maidservants, and menservants, and camels, and asses.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|26}}{{font|color=#000000|Then Jacob rose up, and set his sons and his wives upon camels;}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|27}}{{font|color=#000000|And he carried away all his cattle, and all his goods which he had gotten, the cattle of his getting, which he had gotten in Padanaram, for to go to Isaac his father in the land of Canaan.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|28}}{{font|color=#000000|So Jacob came to Luz, which is in the land of Canaan, when he came from Padanaram;}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|29}}{{font|color=#000000| And God appeared unto Jacob again, when he came out of Padanaram, and blessed him.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|30}}{{font|color=#000000| And God said unto him, Thy name is Jacob: thy name shall not be called any more Jacob, but Israel shall be thy name: and he called his name Israel.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|31}}{{font|color=#000000| And God said unto him, I am God Almighty: be fruitful and multiply; a nation and a company of nations shall be of thee, and kings shall come out of thy loins;}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|32}}{{font|color=#000000| And the land which I gave Abraham and Isaac, to thee I will give it, and to thy seed after thee will I give the land.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|33}}{{font|color=#000000| And God went up from him. And Jacob called the name of the place where God spake with him, Bethel.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|34}}{{font|color=#000000|And they journeyed from Bethel; and there was but a little way to come to Ephrath:}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|35}}{{font|color=#000000|And Rachel died, and was buried in the way to Ephrath, which is Bethlehem.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|36}}{{font|color=#000000| And Jacob came unto Isaac his father unto Mamre, unto the city of Arbah, which is Hebron, where Abraham and Isaac sojourned.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|37}}{{font|color=#000000| And the days of Isaac were an hundred and fourscore years.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|38}}{{font|color=#000000| And Isaac gave up the ghost, and died, and was gathered unto his people, being old and full of days: and his sons Esau and Jacob buried him.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|39}}{{font|color=#000000| And Jacob dwelt in the land wherein his father was a stranger, in the land of Canaan.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|40}}{{font|Now these are the generations of Esau, who is Edom.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|41}}{{font|color=#000000|Esau took his wives of the daughters of Canaan; Adah the daughter of Elon the Hittite, And Aholibamah the daughter of Anah the daughter of Zibeon the Hivite;}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|42}}{{font|color=#000000| And Bashemath Ishmael's daughter, sister of Nebajoth.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|43}}{{font|color=#000000| And Adah bare to Esau Eliphaz; and Bashemath bare Reuel;}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|44}}{{font|color=#000000| And Aholibamah bare Jeush, and Jaalam, and Korah: These are the sons of Esau, which were born unto him in the land of Canaan.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|45}}{{font|And Esau took his wives, and his sons, and his daughters, and all the persons of his house, and his cattle, and all his beasts, and all his substance, which he had got in the land of Canaan; and went into the country from the face of his brother Jacob.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|46}}{{font|For their riches were more than that they might dwell together; and the land wherein they were strangers could not bear them because of their cattle.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|47}}{{font|Thus dwelt Esau in mount Seir: Esau is Edom.|color=#000000}} ==The Move to Egypt == {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|1}}{{font|And Jacob dwelt in the land wherein his father was a stranger, in the land of Canaan. These are the generations of Jacob.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|2}}{{font|And Pharaoh said unto Joseph, I am Pharaoh, and without thee shall no man lift up his hand or foot in all the land of Egypt.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|3}}{{font|And Pharaoh called Joseph's name Zaphnathpaaneah; and he gave him to wife Asenath the daughter of Potipherah priest of On.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|4}}{{font|And Joseph was thirty years old when he stood before Pharaoh king of Egypt.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|5}}{{font|color=#000000| And they took their cattle, and their goods, which they had gotten in the land of Canaan, and came into Egypt, Jacob, and all his seed with him:}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|6}}{{font|color=#000000| His sons, and his sons' sons with him, his daughters, and his sons' daughters, and all his seed brought he with him into Egypt.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|7}}{{font|color=#000000| And these are the names of the children of Israel, which came into Egypt, Jacob and his sons: Reuben, Jacob's firstborn.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|8}}{{font|color=#000000| And the sons of Reuben; Hanoch, and Phallu, and Hezron, and Carmi.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|9}}{{font|color=#000000| And the sons of Simeon; Jemuel, and Jamin, and Ohad, and Jachin, and Zohar, and Shaul the son of a Canaanitish woman.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|10}}{{font|color=#000000| And the sons of Levi; Gershon, Kohath, and Merari.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|11}}{{font|color=#000000| And the sons of Judah; Er, and Onan, and Shelah, and Pharez, and Zarah. And the sons of Pharez were Hezron and Hamul.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|12}}{{font|color=#000000| And the sons of Issachar; Tola, and Phuvah, and Job, and Shimron.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|13}}{{font|color=#000000| And the sons of Zebulun; Sered, and Elon, and Jahleel.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|14}}{{font|color=#000000| These be the sons of Leah, which she bare unto Jacob in Padanaram: all the souls of his sons and his daughters were thirty and three.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|15}}{{font|color=#000000| And the sons of Gad; Ziphion, and Haggi, Shuni, and Ezbon, Eri, and Arodi, and Areli.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|16}}{{font|color=#000000| And the sons of Asher; Jimnah, and Ishuah, and Isui, and Beriah, and Serah their sister: and the sons of Beriah; Heber, and Malchiel.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|17}}{{font|color=#000000| These are the sons of Zilpah, whom Laban gave to Leah his daughter, and these she bare unto Jacob, even sixteen souls.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|18}}{{font|color=#000000| The sons of Rachel Jacob's wife; Joseph, and Benjamin.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|19}}{{font|color=#000000| And unto Joseph in the land of Egypt were born Manasseh and Ephraim, which Asenath the daughter of Potipherah priest of On bare unto him.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|20}}{{font|color=#000000| And the sons of Benjamin were Belah, and Becher, and Ashbel, Gera, and Naaman, Ehi, and Rosh, Muppim, and Huppim, and Ard.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|21}}{{font|color=#000000| These are the sons of Rachel, which were born to Jacob: all the souls were fourteen.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|22}}{{font|color=#000000| And the sons of Dan; Hushim.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|23}}{{font|color=#000000| And the sons of Naphtali; Jahzeel, and Guni, and Jezer, and Shillem.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|24}}{{font|color=#000000| These are the sons of Bilhah, which Laban gave unto Rachel his daughter, and she bare these unto Jacob: all the souls were seven.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|25}}{{font|color=#000000| All the souls that came with Jacob into Egypt, which came out of his loins, besides Jacob's sons' wives, all the souls were threescore and six;}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|26}}{{font|color=#000000| And the sons of Joseph, which were born him in Egypt, were two souls: all the souls of the house of Jacob, which came into Egypt, were threescore and ten.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|27}}{{font|And Pharaoh spake unto Joseph, saying, Thy father and thy brethren are come unto thee:|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|28}}{{font|The land of Egypt is before thee; in the best of the land make thy father and brethren to dwell;|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|29}}{{font|And Joseph brought in Jacob his father, and set him before Pharaoh: and Jacob blessed Pharaoh.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|30}}{{font|And Pharaoh said unto Jacob, How old art thou?|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|31}}{{font|And Jacob said unto Pharaoh, The days of the years of my pilgrimage are an hundred and thirty years: few and evil have the days of the years of my life been, and have not attained unto the days of the years of the life of my fathers in the days of their pilgrimage.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|32}}{{font|And Jacob blessed Pharaoh, and went out from before Pharaoh.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|33}}{{font|And Joseph placed his father and his brethren, and gave them a possession in the land of Egypt, in the best of the land, in the land of Rameses, as Pharaoh had commanded.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|34}}{{font|color=#000000|And Israel dwelt in the land of Egypt, and they had possessions therein, and grew, and multiplied exceedingly.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|35}}{{font|color=#000000| And Jacob lived in the land of Egypt seventeen years: so the whole age of Jacob was an hundred forty and seven years.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|36}}{{font|color=#000000| And said unto me, Behold, I will make thee fruitful, and multiply thee, and I will make of thee a multitude of people; and will give this land to thy seed after thee for an everlasting possession.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|37}}{{font|color=#000000| And now thy two sons, Ephraim and Manasseh, which were born unto thee in the land of Egypt before I came unto thee into Egypt, are mine; as Reuben and Simeon, they shall be mine.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|38}}{{font|color=#000000| And thy issue, which thou begettest after them, shall be thine, and shall be called after the name of their brethren in their inheritance.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|39}}{{font|And as for me, when I came from Padan, Rachel died by me in the land of Canaan in the way, when yet there was but a little way to come unto Ephrath: and I buried her there in the way of Ephrath; the same is Bethlehem.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|40}}{{font|And he blessed them that day, saying, In thee shall Israel bless,|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|41}}{{font|color=#000000| And he charged them, and said unto them, I am to be gathered unto my people: bury me with my fathers in the cave that is in the field of Ephron the Hittite,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|42}}{{font|color=#000000| In the cave that is in the field of Machpelah, which is before Mamre, in the land of Canaan, which Abraham bought with the field of Ephron the Hittite for a possession of a buryingplace.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|43}}{{font|color=#000000| There they buried Abraham and Sarah his wife; there they buried Isaac and Rebekah his wife; and there I buried Leah.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|44}}{{font|color=#000000| The purchase of the field and of the cave that is therein was from the children of Heth.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|45}}{{font|color=#000000| And when Jacob had made an end of commanding his sons, he gathered up his feet into the bed, and yielded up the ghost, and was gathered unto his people.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|46}}{{font|color=#000000| And his sons did unto him according as he commanded them:}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|47}}{{font|color=#000000| For his sons carried him into the land of Canaan, and buried him in the cave of the field of Machpelah, which Abraham bought with the field for a possession of a buryingplace of Ephron the Hittite, before Mamre.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|48}}{{font|Now these are the names of the children of Israel, which came into Egypt; every man and his household came with Jacob.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|49}}</small>{{font|Reuben, Simeon, Levi, and Judah,|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|50|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Issachar, Zebulun, and Benjamin,|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|51|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Dan, and Naphtali, Gad, and Asher.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|52|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And all the souls that came out of the loins of Jacob were seventy souls: for Joseph was in Egypt already.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|53|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|color=#000000| And the children of Israel were fruitful, and increased abundantly, and multiplied, and waxed exceeding mighty; and the land was filled with them.}} ==The Commission of Moses == {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|1}}{{font|color=#000000| And the Egyptians made the children of Israel to serve with rigour:}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|2}}{{font|color=#000000| And they made their lives bitter with hard bondage, in morter, and in brick, and in all manner of service in the field: all their service, wherein they made them serve, was with rigour.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|3}}{{font|color=#000000| And the children of Israel sighed by reason of the bondage, and they cried, and their cry came up unto God by reason of the bondage.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|4}}{{font|color=#000000| And God heard their groaning, and God remembered his covenant with Abraham, with Isaac, and with Jacob.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|5}}{{font|color=#000000| And God looked upon the children of Israel, and God had respect unto them.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|6}}{{font|color=#000000| And God spake unto Moses, and said unto him, I am the LORD:}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|7}}{{font|color=#000000| And I appeared unto Abraham, unto Isaac, and unto Jacob, by the name of God Almighty, but by my name JEHOVAH was I not known to them.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|8}}{{font|color=#000000| And I have also established my covenant with them, to give them the land of Canaan, the land of their pilgrimage, wherein they were strangers.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|9}}{{font|color=#000000| And I have also heard the groaning of the children of Israel, whom the Egyptians keep in bondage; and I have remembered my covenant.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|10}}{{font|color=#000000| Wherefore say unto the children of Israel, I am the LORD, and I will bring you out from under the burdens of the Egyptians, and I will rid you out of their bondage, and I will redeem you with a stretched out arm, and with great judgments:}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|11}}{{font|color=#000000| And I will take you to me for a people, and I will be to you a God: and ye shall know that I am the LORD your God, which bringeth you out from under the burdens of the Egyptians.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|12}}{{font|color=#000000| And I will bring you in unto the land, concerning the which I did swear to give it to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob; And I will give it you for an heritage: I am the LORD.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|13}}{{font|color=#000000| And Moses spake so unto the children of Israel: but they hearkened not unto Moses for anguish of spirit, and for cruel bondage.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|14}}{{font|color=#000000| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|15}}{{font|color=#000000| Go in, speak unto Pharaoh king of Egypt, that he let the children of Israel go out of his land.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|16}}{{font|color=#000000| And Moses spake before the LORD, saying, Behold, the children of Israel have not hearkened unto me; how then shall Pharaoh hear me, who am of uncircumcised lips?}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|17}}{{font|And the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Aaron, and gave them a charge unto the children of Israel, and unto Pharaoh king of Egypt, to bring the children of Israel out of the land of Egypt.|color=#880000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|18}}{{font|These be the heads of their fathers' houses: The sons of Reuben the firstborn of Israel; Hanoch, and Pallu, Hezron, and Carmi: these be the families of Reuben.|color=#880000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|19}}{{font|And the sons of Simeon; Jemuel, and Jamin, and Ohad, and Jachin, and Zohar, and Shaul the son of a Canaanitish woman: these are the families of Simeon.|color=#880000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|20}}{{font|And these are the names of the sons of Levi according to their generations; Gershon, and Kohath, and Merari: and the years of the life of Levi were an hundred thirty and seven years.|color=#880000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|21}}{{font|The sons of Gershon; Libni, and Shimi, according to their families.|color=#880000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|22}}{{font|And the sons of Kohath; Amram, and Izhar, and Hebron, and Uzziel: and the years of the life of Kohath were an hundred thirty and three years.|color=#880000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|23}}{{font|And the sons of Merari; Mahali and Mushi: these are the families of Levi according to their generations.|color=#880000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|23}}{{font|And Amram took him Jochebed his father's sister to wife; and she bare him Aaron and Moses: and the years of the life of Amram were an hundred and thirty and seven years.|color=#880000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|24}}{{font|And the sons of Izhar; Korah, and Nepheg, and Zichri.|color=#880000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|25}}{{font|And the sons of Uzziel; Mishael, and Elzaphan, and Zithri.|color=#880000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|26}}{{font|And Aaron took him Elisheba, daughter of Amminadab, sister of Naashon, to wife; and she bare him Nadab, and Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar.|color=#880000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|27}}{{font|And the sons of Korah; Assir, and Elkanah, and Abiasaph: these are the families of the Korhites.|color=#880000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|28}}{{font|And Eleazar Aaron's son took him one of the daughters of Putiel to wife; and she bare him Phinehas: these are the heads of the fathers of the Levites according to their families.|color=#880000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|29}}{{font|These are that Aaron and Moses, to whom the LORD said, Bring out the children of Israel from the land of Egypt according to their armies.|color=#880000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|30}}{{font|These are they which spake to Pharaoh king of Egypt, to bring out the children of Israel from Egypt: these are that Moses and Aaron.|color=#880000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|31}}{{font|And it came to pass on the day when the LORD spake unto Moses in the land of Egypt,|color=#880000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|32}}{{font|That the LORD spake unto Moses, saying, I am the LORD: speak thou unto Pharaoh king of Egypt all that I say unto thee.|color=#880000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|33}}{{font|And Moses said before the LORD, Behold, I am of uncircumcised lips, and how shall Pharaoh hearken unto me?|color=#880000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|34}}{{font|color=#000000| And the LORD said unto Moses, See, I have made thee a god to Pharaoh: and Aaron thy brother shall be thy prophet.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|35}}{{font|color=#000000| Thou shalt speak all that I command thee: and Aaron thy brother shall speak unto Pharaoh, that he send the children of Israel out of his land.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|36}}{{font|color=#000000| And I will harden Pharaoh's heart, and multiply my signs and my wonders in the land of Egypt.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|37}}{{font|color=#000000| But Pharaoh shall not hearken unto you, that I may lay my hand upon Egypt, and bring forth mine armies, and my people the children of Israel, out of the land of Egypt by great judgments.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|38}}{{font|color=#000000| And the Egyptians shall know that I am the LORD, when I stretch forth mine hand upon Egypt, and bring out the children of Israel from among them.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|39}}{{font|color=#000000| And Moses and Aaron did as the LORD commanded them, so did they.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|40}}{{font|color=#000000| And Moses was fourscore years old, and Aaron fourscore and three years old, when they spake unto Pharaoh.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|41}}{{font|color=#000000| And the LORD spake unto Moses and unto Aaron, saying,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|42}}{{font|color=#000000| When Pharaoh shall speak unto you, saying, Shew a miracle for you: then thou shalt say unto Aaron, Take thy rod, and cast it before Pharaoh, and it shall become a serpent.}} ==The Plagues in Egypt== {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|1}}{{font|color=#000000| And Moses and Aaron went in unto Pharaoh, and they did so as the LORD had commanded: and Aaron cast down his rod before Pharaoh, and before his servants, and it became a serpent.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|2}}{{font|color=#000000| Then Pharaoh also called the wise men and the sorcerers: now the magicians of Egypt, They also did in like manner with their enchantments.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|3}}{{font|color=#000000| For they cast down every man his rod, and they became serpents: but Aaron's rod swallowed up their rods.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|4}}{{font|color=#000000| And he hardened Pharaoh's heart, that he hearkened not unto them; as the LORD had said.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|5}}{{font|color=#000000| And the LORD spake unto Moses, Say unto Aaron, Take thy rod, and stretch out thine hand upon the waters of Egypt, upon their streams, upon their rivers, and upon their ponds, and upon all their pools of water, that they may become blood; and that there may be blood throughout all the land of Egypt, both in vessels of wood, and in vessels of stone.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|6}}{{font|color=#000000| And Moses and Aaron did so, as the LORD commanded, and there was blood throughout all the land of Egypt.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|7}}{{font|color=#000000| And the magicians of Egypt did so with their enchantments: and Pharaoh's heart was hardened, neither did he hearken unto them; as the LORD had said.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|8}}{{font|color=#000000| And the LORD spake unto Moses, Say unto Aaron, Stretch forth thine hand with thy rod over the streams, over the rivers, and over the ponds, and cause frogs to come up upon the land of Egypt.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|9}}{{font|color=#000000| And Aaron stretched out his hand over the waters of Egypt; [and the frogs came up].}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|10}}{{font|color=#000000| And the magicians did so with their enchantments, and brought up frogs upon the land of Egypt.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|11}}{{font|color=#000000| [And Pharaoh] hearkened not unto them; as the LORD had said.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|12}}{{font|color=#000000| And the LORD said unto Moses, Say unto Aaron, Stretch out thy rod, and smite the dust of the land, that it may become lice throughout all the land of Egypt.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|13}}{{font|color=#000000| And they did so; for Aaron stretched out his hand with his rod, and smote the dust of the earth, and it became lice in man, and in beast; all the dust of the land became lice throughout all the land of Egypt.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|14}}{{font|color=#000000| And the magicians did so with their enchantments to bring forth lice, but they could not.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|15}}{{font|color=#000000| Then the magicians said unto Pharaoh, This is the finger of God: and Pharaoh's heart was hardened, and he hearkened not unto them; as the LORD had said.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|16}}{{font|color=#000000| And the LORD said unto Moses and unto Aaron, Take to you handfuls of ashes of the furnace, and let Moses sprinkle it toward the heaven in the sight of Pharaoh.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|17}}{{font|color=#000000|And it shall become small dust in all the land of Egypt, and shall be a boil breaking forth with blains upon man, and upon beast, throughout all the land of Egypt.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|18}}{{font|color=#000000| And they took ashes of the furnace, and stood before Pharaoh; and Moses sprinkled it up toward heaven; and it became a boil breaking forth with blains upon man, and upon beast.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|19}}{{font|color=#000000| And the magicians could not stand before Moses because of the boils; for the boil was upon the magicians, and upon all the Egyptians.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|20}}{{font|color=#000000| And the LORD hardened the heart of Pharaoh, and he hearkened not unto them; as the LORD had spoken unto Moses.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|21}}{{font|And the LORD said unto Moses, Stretch forth thine hand toward heaven, that there may be hail in all the land of Egypt, upon man, and upon beast, and upon every herb of the field, throughout the land of Egypt.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|22}}{{font|And Moses stretched forth his rod toward heaven: and the LORD sent thunder and hail, and the fire ran along upon the ground; so there was hail, and fire mingled with the hail, very grievous.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|23}}{{font|And the hail smote throughout all the land of Egypt all that was in the field, both man and beast; and the hail smote every herb of the field, and brake every tree of the field.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|24}}{{font|And the flax and the barley was smitten: for the barley was in the ear, and the flax was bolled.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|25}}{{font|But the wheat and the rie were not smitten: for they were not grown up.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|26}}{{font|And the heart of Pharaoh was hardened, neither would he let the children of Israel go; as the LORD had spoken by Moses.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|27}}{{font|And the LORD said unto Moses, Stretch out thine hand over the land of Egypt for the locusts, that they may come up upon the land of Egypt, and eat every herb of the land, even all that the hail hath left.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|28}}{{font|And Moses stretched forth his rod over the land of Egypt, and the locust went up over all the land of Egypt, and rested in all the coasts of Egypt.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|29}}{{font|And they did eat every herb of the land, and all the fruit of the trees which the hail had left: and there remained not any green thing in the trees, or in the herbs of the field, through all the land of Egypt.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|30}}{{font|But the LORD hardened Pharaoh's heart, so that he would not let the children of Israel go.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|31}}{{font|And the LORD said unto Moses, Stretch out thine hand toward heaven, that there may be darkness over the land of Egypt, even darkness which may be felt.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|32}}{{font|And Moses stretched forth his hand toward heaven; and there was a thick darkness in all the land of Egypt three days:|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|33}}{{font|They saw not one another, neither rose any from his place for three days: but all the children of Israel had light in their dwellings.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|34}}{{font|But the LORD hardened Pharaoh's heart, and he would not let them go.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|35|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And the LORD said unto Moses, Pharaoh shall not hearken unto you; that my wonders may be multiplied in the land of Egypt.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|36|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And Moses and Aaron did all these wonders before Pharaoh: and the LORD hardened Pharaoh's heart, so that he would not let the children of Israel go out of his land.|color=#000000}} ==The Passover == <small>{{font|1|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And the LORD spake unto Moses and Aaron in the land of Egypt saying,|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|2|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|This month shall be unto you the beginning of months: it shall be the first month of the year to you.|color=#008800}}<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1347502589659795457|title=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1347502589659795457|website=Twitter|language=en|access-date=2021-10-26}}</ref> <small>{{font|3|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Speak ye unto all the congregation of Israel, saying, In the tenth day of this month they shall take to them every man a lamb, according to the house of their fathers, a lamb for an house:|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|4|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And if the household be too little for the lamb, let him and his neighbour next unto his house take it according to the number of the souls; every man according to his eating shall make your count for the lamb.|color=#008800}} <small>{{font|5|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Your lamb shall be without blemish, a male of the first year: ye shall take it out from the sheep, or from the goats:|color=#008800}} <small>{{font|6|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And ye shall keep it up until the fourteenth day of the same month:|color=#008800}}<ref name=":0" /> {{font|and the whole assembly of the congregation of Israel shall kill it in the evening.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|7|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And they shall take of the blood, and strike it on the two side posts and on the upper door post of the houses,|color=#000000}} {{font|wherein they shall eat it.|color=#008800}}<ref name=":0" /> <small>{{font|8|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And they shall eat the flesh in that night,|color=#000000}} {{font|roast with fire, and unleavened bread; and with bitter herbs they shall eat it.|color=#008800}} <small>{{font|9|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Eat not of it raw, nor sodden at all with water, but roast with fire; his head with his legs, and with the purtenance thereof.|color=#008800}} <small>{{font|10|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And ye shall let nothing of it remain until the morning; and that which remaineth of it until the morning ye shall burn with fire.|color=#008800}} <small>{{font|11|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thus shall ye eat it; with your loins girded, your shoes on your feet, and your staff in your hand; and ye shall eat it in haste: it is the LORD's passover.|color=#008800}}<ref name=":0" /> <small>{{font|12|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|For I will pass through the land of Egypt this night, and will smite all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, both man and beast; and against all the gods of Egypt I will execute judgment: I am the LORD.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|13|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And the blood shall be to you for a token upon the houses where ye are: and when I see the blood, I will pass over you, and the plague shall not be upon you to destroy you, when I smite the land of Egypt.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|14|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And this day shall be unto you for a memorial; and ye shall keep it a feast to the LORD throughout your generations; ye shall keep it a feast by an ordinance for ever.|color=#008800}} <small>{{font|15|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Seven days shall ye eat unleavened bread; even the first day ye shall put away leaven out of your houses: for whosoever eateth leavened bread from the first day until the seventh day, that soul shall be cut off from Israel.|color=#008800}} <small>{{font|16|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And in the first day there shall be an holy convocation, and in the seventh day there shall be an holy convocation to you; no manner of work shall be done in them, save that which every man must eat, that only may be done of you.|color=#008800}} <small>{{font|17|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And ye shall observe the feast of unleavened bread; for in this selfsame day have I brought your armies out of the land of Egypt: therefore shall ye observe this day in your generations by an ordinance for ever.|color=#008800}} <small>{{font|18|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|In the first month, on the fourteenth day of the month at even, ye shall eat unleavened bread, until the one and twentieth day of the month at even.|color=#008800}} <small>{{font|19|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Seven days shall there be no leaven found in your houses: for whosoever eateth that which is leavened, even that soul shall be cut off from the congregation of Israel, whether he be a stranger, or born in the land.|color=#008800}} <small>{{font|20|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Ye shall eat nothing leavened; in all your habitations shall ye eat unleavened bread.|color=#008800}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1347900468081676290|title=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1347900468081676290|website=Twitter|language=en|access-date=2021-10-26}}</ref> {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|21}}{{font|Draw out and take you a lamb according to your families, and kill the passover.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|22|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And ye shall take a bunch of hyssop, and dip it in the blood that is in the bason, and strike the lintel and the two side posts with the blood that is in the bason; and none of you shall go out at the door of his house until the morning.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|23|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|For the LORD will pass through to smite the Egyptians; and when he seeth the blood upon the lintel, and on the two side posts, the LORD will pass over the door, and will not suffer the destroyer to come in unto your houses to smite you.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|24|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And ye shall observe this thing for an ordinance to thee and to thy sons for ever.|color=#008800}} <small>{{font|25|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And it shall come to pass, when ye be come to the land which the LORD will give you, according as he hath promised, that ye shall keep this service.|color=#008800}} <small>{{font|26|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And it shall come to pass, when your children shall say unto you, What mean ye by this service?|color=#008800}} <small>{{font|27|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|That ye shall say, It is the sacrifice of the LORD's passover, who passed over the houses of the children of Israel in Egypt, when he smote the Egyptians, and delivered our houses.|color=#008800}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1348260974546083843|title=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1348260974546083843|website=Twitter|language=en|access-date=2021-10-26}}</ref> {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|28}}{{font|color=#000000| And the children of Israel went away, and did as the LORD had commanded Moses and Aaron, so did they.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|29}}{{font|color=#000000|And the children of Israel journeyed from Rameses to Succoth. Now the sojourning of the children of Israel, who dwelt in Egypt, was four hundred and thirty years.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|30}}{{font|color=#000000| And it came to pass at the end of the four hundred and thirty years, even the selfsame day it came to pass, that all the hosts of the LORD went out from the land of Egypt.}} <small>{{font|31|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|It is a night to be much observed unto the LORD for bringing them out from the land of Egypt: this is that night of the LORD to be observed of all the children of Israel in their generations.|color=#008800}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|32}}{{font|color=#008800| And the LORD said unto Moses and Aaron, This is the ordinance of the passover: There shall no stranger eat thereof:}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|33}}{{font|color=#008800| But every man's servant that is bought for money, when thou hast circumcised him, then shall he eat thereof.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|34}}{{font|color=#008800| A foreigner and an hired servant shall not eat thereof.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|35}}{{font|color=#008800| In one house shall it be eaten; thou shalt not carry forth ought of the flesh abroad out of the house; neither shall ye break a bone thereof.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|36}}{{font|color=#008800| All the congregation of Israel shall keep it.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|37}}{{font|color=#008800| And when a stranger shall sojourn with thee, and will keep the passover to the LORD, let all his males be circumcised, and then let him come near and keep it; and he shall be as one that is born in the land: for no uncircumcised person shall eat thereof.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|38}}{{font|color=#008800| One law shall be to him that is homeborn, and unto the stranger that sojourneth among you.}} <small>{{font|39|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Thus did all the children of Israel; as the LORD commanded Moses and Aaron, so did they.|color=#008800}} <small>{{font|40|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And it came to pass the selfsame day, that the LORD did bring the children of Israel out of the land of Egypt by their armies.|color=#008800}}<ref name=":14">{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1348982080701689857|title=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1348982080701689857|website=Twitter|language=en|access-date=2021-10-27}}</ref> ==The Escape from Egypt == {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|1}}{{font|And they took their journey from Succoth, and encamped in Etham, in the edge of the wilderness.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|2}}{{font|color=#000000| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|3}}{{font|color=#000000| Speak unto the children of Israel, that they turn and encamp before Pihahiroth, between Migdol and the sea, over against Baalzephon: before it shall ye encamp by the sea.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|4}}{{font|color=#000000| For Pharaoh will say of the children of Israel, They are entangled in the land, the wilderness hath shut them in.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|5}}{{font|color=#000000|And I will harden Pharaoh's heart, that he shall follow after them; and I will be honoured upon Pharaoh, and upon all his host; that the Egyptians may know that I am the LORD. And they did so.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|6}}{{font|color=#000000|And the LORD hardened the heart of Pharaoh king of Egypt, and he pursued after the children of Israel: and the children of Israel went out with an high hand.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|7}}{{font|But the Egyptians pursued after them, all the horses and chariots of Pharaoh, and his horsemen, and his army, and overtook them encamping by the sea, beside Pihahiroth, before Baalzephon.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|8}}{{font|color=#000000|And the children of Israel cried out unto the LORD. And the LORD said unto Moses, Wherefore criest thou unto me? speak unto the children of Israel, that they go forward:}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|9}}{{font|color=#000000|But lift thou up thy rod, and stretch out thine hand over the sea, and divide it: and the children of Israel shall go on dry ground through the midst of the sea.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|10}}{{font|color=#000000|And I, behold, I will harden the hearts of the Egyptians, and they shall follow them: and I will get me honour upon Pharaoh, and upon all his host, upon his chariots, and upon his horsemen.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|11}}{{font|color=#000000|And the Egyptians shall know that I am the LORD, when I have gotten me honour upon Pharaoh, upon his chariots, and upon his horsemen.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|12}}{{font|color=#000000|And Moses stretched out his hand over the sea, and made the sea dry land, and the waters were divided.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|13}}{{font|color=#000000|And the children of Israel went into the midst of the sea upon the dry ground: and the waters were a wall unto them on their right hand, and on their left.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|14}}{{font|color=#000000|And the Egyptians pursued, and went in after them to the midst of the sea, even all Pharaoh's horses, his chariots, and his horsemen.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|15}}{{font|color=#000000|And the LORD said unto Moses, Stretch out thine hand over the sea, that the waters may come again upon the Egyptians, upon their chariots, and upon their horsemen.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|16}}{{font|color=#000000|And Moses stretched forth his hand over the sea, and the waters returned, and covered the chariots, and the horsemen, and all the host of Pharaoh that came into the sea after them; there remained not so much as one of them.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|17}}{{font|color=#000000|But the children of Israel walked upon dry land in the midst of the sea; and the waters were a wall unto them on their right hand, and on their left.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|18}}{{font|And they went three days in the wilderness, and found no water. And they came to Elim, where were twelve wells of water, and threescore and ten palm trees: and they encamped there by the waters.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|19}}{{font|And they took their journey from Elim, and all the congregation of the children of Israel came unto the wilderness of Sin, which is between Elim and Sinai, on the fifteenth day of the second month after their departing out of the land of Egypt.|color=#000000}} ==God's Appearance at Mount Sinai== {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|1}}{{font|color=#000000|And all the congregation of the children of Israel journeyed from the wilderness of Sin, after their journeys, according to the commandment of the LORD, and pitched in Rephidim: and there was no water for the people to drink.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|2}}{{font|color=#000000|In the third month, when the children of Israel were gone forth out of the land of Egypt, the same day came they into the wilderness of Sinai.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|3}}{{font|For they were departed from Rephidim, and were come to the desert of Sinai, and had pitched in the wilderness.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|4}}{{font|color=#000000| And the glory of the LORD abode upon mount Sinai, and the cloud covered it six days: and the seventh day he called unto Moses out of the midst of the cloud.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|5}}{{font|color=#000000| And the sight of the glory of the LORD was like devouring fire on the top of the mount in the eyes of the children of Israel.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|6}}{{font|color=#000000| And Moses went into the midst of the cloud, and gat him up into the mount.}} ==Instructions for the Tabernacle == <small>{{font|1|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|2|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Speak unto the children of Israel, that they bring me an offering: of every man that giveth it willingly with his heart ye shall take my offering.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|3|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And this is the offering which ye shall take of them; gold, and silver, and brass,|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|4|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine linen, and goats' hair,|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|5|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And rams' skins dyed red, and badgers' skins, and shittim wood,|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|6|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Oil for the light, spices for anointing oil, and for sweet incense,|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|7|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Onyx stones, and stones to be set in the ephod, and in the breastplate.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|8|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And let them make me a sanctuary; that I may dwell among them.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|9|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|According to all that I shew thee, after the pattern of the tabernacle, and the pattern of all the instruments thereof, even so shall ye make it.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|10|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And they shall make an ark of shittim wood: two cubits and a half shall be the length thereof, and a cubit and a half the breadth thereof, and a cubit and a half the height thereof.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|11|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt overlay it with pure gold, within and without shalt thou overlay it, and shalt make upon it a crown of gold round about.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|12|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt cast four rings of gold for it, and put them in the four corners thereof; and two rings shall be in the one side of it, and two rings in the other side of it.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|13|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make staves of shittim wood, and overlay them with gold.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|14|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt put the staves into the rings by the sides of the ark, that the ark may be borne with them.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|15|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|The staves shall be in the rings of the ark: they shall not be taken from it.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|16|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt put into the ark the testimony which I shall give thee.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|17|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make a mercy seat of pure gold: two cubits and a half shall be the length thereof, and a cubit and a half the breadth thereof.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|18|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make two cherubims of gold, of beaten work shalt thou make them, in the two ends of the mercy seat.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|19|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And make one cherub on the one end, and the other cherub on the other end: even of the mercy seat shall ye make the cherubims on the two ends thereof.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|20|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And the cherubims shall stretch forth their wings on high, covering the mercy seat with their wings, and their faces shall look one to another; toward the mercy seat shall the faces of the cherubims be.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|21|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt put the mercy seat above upon the ark; and in the ark thou shalt put the testimony that I shall give thee.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|22|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And there I will meet with thee, and I will commune with thee from above the mercy seat, from between the two cherubims which are upon the ark of the testimony, of all things which I will give thee in commandment unto the children of Israel.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|23|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Thou shalt also make a table of shittim wood: two cubits shall be the length thereof, and a cubit the breadth thereof, and a cubit and a half the height thereof.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|24|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt overlay it with pure gold, and make thereto a crown of gold round about.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|25|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make unto it a border of an hand breadth round about, and thou shalt make a golden crown to the border thereof round about.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|26|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make for it four rings of gold, and put the rings in the four corners that are on the four feet thereof.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|27|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Over against the border shall the rings be for places of the staves to bear the table.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|28|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make the staves of shittim wood, and overlay them with gold, that the table may be borne with them.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|29|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make the dishes thereof, and spoons thereof, and covers thereof, and bowls thereof, to cover withal: of pure gold shalt thou make them.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|30|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt set upon the table shewbread before me alway.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|31|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make a candlestick of pure gold: of beaten work shall the candlestick be made: his shaft, and his branches, his bowls, his knops, and his flowers, shall be of the same.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|32|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And six branches shall come out of the sides of it; three branches of the candlestick out of the one side, and three branches of the candlestick out of the other side:|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|33|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Three bowls made like unto almonds, with a knop and a flower in one branch; and three bowls made like almonds in the other branch, with a knop and a flower: so in the six branches that come out of the candlestick.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|34|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And in the candlesticks shall be four bowls made like unto almonds, with their knops and their flowers.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|35|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And there shall be a knop under two branches of the same, and a knop under two branches of the same, and a knop under two branches of the same, according to the six branches that proceed out of the candlestick.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|36|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Their knops and their branches shall be of the same: all it shall be one beaten work of pure gold.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|37|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make the seven lamps thereof: and they shall light the lamps thereof, that they may give light over against it.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|38|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And the tongs thereof, and the snuffdishes thereof, shall be of pure gold.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|39|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Of a talent of pure gold shall he make it, with all these vessels.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|40|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And look that thou make them after their pattern, which was shewed thee in the mount.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|41|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Moreover thou shalt make the tabernacle with ten curtains of fine twined linen, and blue, and purple, and scarlet: with cherubims of cunning work shalt thou make them.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|42|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|The length of one curtain shall be eight and twenty cubits, and the breadth of one curtain four cubits: and every one of the curtains shall have one measure.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|43|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|The five curtains shall be coupled together one to another; and other five curtains shall be coupled one to another.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|44|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make loops of blue upon the edge of the one curtain from the selvedge in the coupling; and likewise shalt thou make in the uttermost edge of another curtain, in the coupling of the second.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|45|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Fifty loops shalt thou make in the one curtain, and fifty loops shalt thou make in the edge of the curtain that is in the coupling of the second; that the loops may take hold one of another.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|46|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make fifty taches of gold, and couple the curtains together with the taches: and it shall be one tabernacle.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|47|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make curtains of goats' hair to be a covering upon the tabernacle: eleven curtains shalt thou make.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|48|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|The length of one curtain shall be thirty cubits, and the breadth of one curtain four cubits: and the eleven curtains shall be all of one measure.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|49|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt couple five curtains by themselves, and six curtains by themselves, and shalt double the sixth curtain in the forefront of the tabernacle.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|50|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make fifty loops on the edge of the one curtain that is outmost in the coupling, and fifty loops in the edge of the curtain which coupleth the second.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|51|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make fifty taches of brass, and put the taches into the loops, and couple the tent together, that it may be one.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|52|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And the remnant that remaineth of the curtains of the tent, the half curtain that remaineth, shall hang over the backside of the tabernacle.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|53|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And a cubit on the one side, and a cubit on the other side of that which remaineth in the length of the curtains of the tent, it shall hang over the sides of the tabernacle on this side and on that side, to cover it.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|54|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make a covering for the tent of rams' skins dyed red, and a covering above of badgers' skins.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|55|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make boards for the tabernacle of shittim wood standing up.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|56|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Ten cubits shall be the length of a board, and a cubit and a half shall be the breadth of one board.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|57|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Two tenons shall there be in one board, set in order one against another: thus shalt thou make for all the boards of the tabernacle.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|58|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make the boards for the tabernacle, twenty boards on the south side southward.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|59|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make forty sockets of silver under the twenty boards; two sockets under one board for his two tenons, and two sockets under another board for his two tenons.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|60|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And for the second side of the tabernacle on the north side there shall be twenty boards:|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|61|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And their forty sockets of silver; two sockets under one board, and two sockets under another board.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|62|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And for the sides of the tabernacle westward thou shalt make six boards.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|63|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And two boards shalt thou make for the corners of the tabernacle in the two sides.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|64|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And they shall be coupled together beneath, and they shall be coupled together above the head of it unto one ring: thus shall it be for them both; they shall be for the two corners.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|65|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And they shall be eight boards, and their sockets of silver, sixteen sockets; two sockets under one board, and two sockets under another board.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|66|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make bars of shittim wood; five for the boards of the one side of the tabernacle,|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|67|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And five bars for the boards of the other side of the tabernacle, and five bars for the boards of the side of the tabernacle, for the two sides westward.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|68|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And the middle bar in the midst of the boards shall reach from end to end.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|69|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt overlay the boards with gold, and make their rings of gold for places for the bars: and thou shalt overlay the bars with gold.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|70|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt rear up the tabernacle according to the fashion thereof which was shewed thee in the mount.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|71|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make a vail of blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine twined linen of cunning work: with cherubims shall it be made:|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|72|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt hang it upon four pillars of shittim wood overlaid with gold: their hooks shall be of gold, upon the four sockets of silver.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|73|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt hang up the vail under the taches, that thou mayest bring in thither within the vail the ark of the testimony: and the vail shall divide unto you between the holy place and the most holy.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|74|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt put the mercy seat upon the ark of the testimony in the most holy place.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|75|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt set the table without the vail, and the candlestick over against the table on the side of the tabernacle toward the south: and thou shalt put the table on the north side.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|76|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make an hanging for the door of the tent, of blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine twined linen, wrought with needlework.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|77|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make for the hanging five pillars of shittim wood, and overlay them with gold, and their hooks shall be of gold: and thou shalt cast five sockets of brass for them.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|78|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make an altar of shittim wood, five cubits long, and five cubits broad; the altar shall be foursquare: and the height thereof shall be three cubits.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|79|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make the horns of it upon the four corners thereof: his horns shall be of the same: and thou shalt overlay it with brass.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|80|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make his pans to receive his ashes, and his shovels, and his basons, and his fleshhooks, and his firepans: all the vessels thereof thou shalt make of brass.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|81|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make for it a grate of network of brass; and upon the net shalt thou make four brasen rings in the four corners thereof.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|82|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt put it under the compass of the altar beneath, that the net may be even to the midst of the altar.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|83|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make staves for the altar, staves of shittim wood, and overlay them with brass.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|84|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And the staves shall be put into the rings, and the staves shall be upon the two sides of the altar, to bear it.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|85|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Hollow with boards shalt thou make it: as it was shewed thee in the mount, so shall they make it.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|86|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make the court of the tabernacle: for the south side southward there shall be hangings for the court of fine twined linen of an hundred cubits long for one side:|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|87|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And the twenty pillars thereof and their twenty sockets shall be of brass; the hooks of the pillars and their fillets shall be of silver.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|88|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And likewise for the north side in length there shall be hangings of an hundred cubits long, and his twenty pillars and their twenty sockets of brass; the hooks of the pillars and their fillets of silver.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|89|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And for the breadth of the court on the west side shall be hangings of fifty cubits: their pillars ten, and their sockets ten.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|90|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And the breadth of the court on the east side eastward shall be fifty cubits.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|91|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|The hangings of one side of the gate shall be fifteen cubits: their pillars three, and their sockets three.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|92|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And on the other side shall be hangings fifteen cubits: their pillars three, and their sockets three.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|93|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And for the gate of the court shall be an hanging of twenty cubits, of blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine twined linen, wrought with needlework: and their pillars shall be four, and their sockets four.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|94|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|All the pillars round about the court shall be filleted with silver; their hooks shall be of silver, and their sockets of brass.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|95|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|The length of the court shall be an hundred cubits, and the breadth fifty every where, and the height five cubits of fine twined linen, and their sockets of brass.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|96|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|All the vessels of the tabernacle in all the service thereof, and all the pins thereof, and all the pins of the court, shall be of brass.|color=#000000}} ==Instructions for Priesty Vestments== <small>{{font|1|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And take thou unto thee Aaron thy brother, and his sons with him, from among the children of Israel, that he may minister unto me in the priest's office, even Aaron, Nadab and Abihu, Eleazar and Ithamar, Aaron's sons.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|2|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make holy garments for Aaron thy brother for glory and for beauty.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|3|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt speak unto all that are wise hearted, whom I have filled with the spirit of wisdom, that they may make Aaron's garments to consecrate him, that he may minister unto me in the priest's office.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|4|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And these are the garments which they shall make; a breastplate, and an ephod, and a robe, and a broidered coat, a mitre, and a girdle: and they shall make holy garments for Aaron thy brother, and his sons, that he may minister unto me in the priest's office.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|5|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And they shall take gold, and blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine linen.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|6|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And they shall make the ephod of gold, of blue, and of purple, of scarlet, and fine twined linen, with cunning work.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|7|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|It shall have the two shoulderpieces thereof joined at the two edges thereof; and so it shall be joined together.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|8|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And the curious girdle of the ephod, which is upon it, shall be of the same, according to the work thereof; even of gold, of blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine twined linen.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|9|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt take two onyx stones, and grave on them the names of the children of Israel:|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|10|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Six of their names on one stone, and the other six names of the rest on the other stone, according to their birth.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|11|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|With the work of an engraver in stone, like the engravings of a signet, shalt thou engrave the two stones with the names of the children of Israel: thou shalt make them to be set in ouches of gold.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|12|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt put the two stones upon the shoulders of the ephod for stones of memorial unto the children of Israel: and Aaron shall bear their names before the LORD upon his two shoulders for a memorial.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|13|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make ouches of gold;|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|14|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And two chains of pure gold at the ends; of wreathen work shalt thou make them, and fasten the wreathen chains to the ouches.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|15|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make the breastplate of judgment with cunning work; after the work of the ephod thou shalt make it; of gold, of blue, and of purple, and of scarlet, and of fine twined linen, shalt thou make it.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|16|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Foursquare it shall be being doubled; a span shall be the length thereof, and a span shall be the breadth thereof.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|17|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt set in it settings of stones, even four rows of stones: the first row shall be a sardius, a topaz, and a carbuncle: this shall be the first row.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|18|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And the second row shall be an emerald, a sapphire, and a diamond.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|19|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And the third row a ligure, an agate, and an amethyst.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|20|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And the fourth row a beryl, and an onyx, and a jasper: they shall be set in gold in their inclosings.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|21|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And the stones shall be with the names of the children of Israel, twelve, according to their names, like the engravings of a signet; every one with his name shall they be according to the twelve tribes.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|22|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make upon the breastplate chains at the ends of wreathen work of pure gold.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|23|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make upon the breastplate two rings of gold, and shalt put the two rings on the two ends of the breastplate.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|24|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt put the two wreathen chains of gold in the two rings which are on the ends of the breastplate.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|25|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And the other two ends of the two wreathen chains thou shalt fasten in the two ouches, and put them on the shoulderpieces of the ephod before it.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|26|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make two rings of gold, and thou shalt put them upon the two ends of the breastplate in the border thereof, which is in the side of the ephod inward.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|27|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And two other rings of gold thou shalt make, and shalt put them on the two sides of the ephod underneath, toward the forepart thereof, over against the other coupling thereof, above the curious girdle of the ephod.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|28|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And they shall bind the breastplate by the rings thereof unto the rings of the ephod with a lace of blue, that it may be above the curious girdle of the ephod, and that the breastplate be not loosed from the ephod.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|29|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And Aaron shall bear the names of the children of Israel in the breastplate of judgment upon his heart, when he goeth in unto the holy place, for a memorial before the LORD continually.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|30|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt put in the breastplate of judgment the Urim and the Thummim; and they shall be upon Aaron's heart, when he goeth in before the LORD: and Aaron shall bear the judgment of the children of Israel upon his heart before the LORD continually.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|31|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make the robe of the ephod all of blue.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|32|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And there shall be an hole in the top of it, in the midst thereof: it shall have a binding of woven work round about the hole of it, as it were the hole of an habergeon, that it be not rent.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|33|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And beneath upon the hem of it thou shalt make pomegranates of blue, and of purple, and of scarlet, round about the hem thereof; and bells of gold between them round about:|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|34|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|A golden bell and a pomegranate, a golden bell and a pomegranate, upon the hem of the robe round about.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|35|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And it shall be upon Aaron to minister: and his sound shall be heard when he goeth in unto the holy place before the LORD, and when he cometh out, that he die not.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|36|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make a plate of pure gold, and grave upon it, like the engravings of a signet, HOLINESS TO THE LORD.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|37|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt put it on a blue lace, that it may be upon the mitre; upon the forefront of the mitre it shall be.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|38|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And it shall be upon Aaron's forehead, that Aaron may bear the iniquity of the holy things, which the children of Israel shall hallow in all their holy gifts; and it shall be always upon his forehead, that they may be accepted before the LORD.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|39|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt embroider the coat of fine linen, and thou shalt make the mitre of fine linen, and thou shalt make the girdle of needlework.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|40|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And for Aaron's sons thou shalt make coats, and thou shalt make for them girdles, and bonnets shalt thou make for them, for glory and for beauty.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|41|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt put them upon Aaron thy brother, and his sons with him; and shalt anoint them, and consecrate them, and sanctify them, that they may minister unto me in the priest's office.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|42|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make them linen breeches to cover their nakedness; from the loins even unto the thighs they shall reach:|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|43|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And they shall be upon Aaron, and upon his sons, when they come in unto the tabernacle of the congregation, or when they come near unto the altar to minister in the holy place; that they bear not iniquity, and die: it shall be a statute for ever unto him and his seed after him.|color=#000000}} ==Instructions for Consecrating Priests and the Altar== <small>{{font|1|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And this is the thing that thou shalt do unto them to hallow them, to minister unto me in the priest's office: Take one young bullock, and two rams without blemish,|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|2|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And unleavened bread, and cakes unleavened tempered with oil, and wafers unleavened anointed with oil: of wheaten flour shalt thou make them.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|3|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt put them into one basket, and bring them in the basket, with the bullock and the two rams.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|4|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And Aaron and his sons thou shalt bring unto the door of the tabernacle of the congregation, and shalt wash them with water.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|5|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt take the garments, and put upon Aaron the coat, and the robe of the ephod, and the ephod, and the breastplate, and gird him with the curious girdle of the ephod:|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|6|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt put the mitre upon his head, and put the holy crown upon the mitre.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|7|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Then shalt thou take the anointing oil, and pour it upon his head, and anoint him.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|8|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt bring his sons, and put coats upon them.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|9|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt gird them with girdles, Aaron and his sons, and put the bonnets on them: and the priest's office shall be theirs for a perpetual statute: and thou shalt consecrate Aaron and his sons.|color=#000000}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1380870091877793800|title=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1380870091877793800|website=Twitter|language=en|access-date=2021-11-10}}</ref> <small>{{font|10|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt cause a bullock to be brought before the tabernacle of the congregation: and Aaron and his sons shall put their hands upon the head of the bullock.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|11|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt kill the bullock before the LORD, by the door of the tabernacle of the congregation.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|12|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt take of the blood of the bullock, and put it upon the horns of the altar with thy finger, and pour all the blood beside the bottom of the altar.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|13|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt take all the fat that covereth the inwards, and the caul that is above the liver, and the two kidneys, and the fat that is upon them, and burn them upon the altar.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|14|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|But the flesh of the bullock, and his skin, and his dung, shalt thou burn with fire without the camp: it is a sin offering.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|15|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Thou shalt also take one ram; and Aaron and his sons shall put their hands upon the head of the ram.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|16|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt slay the ram, and thou shalt take his blood, and sprinkle it round about upon the altar.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|17|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt cut the ram in pieces, and wash the inwards of him, and his legs, and put them unto his pieces, and unto his head.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|18|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt burn the whole ram upon the altar: it is a burnt offering unto the LORD: it is a sweet savour, an offering made by fire unto the LORD.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|19|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt take the other ram; and Aaron and his sons shall put their hands upon the head of the ram.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|20|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Then shalt thou kill the ram, and take of his blood, and put it upon the tip of the right ear of Aaron, and upon the tip of the right ear of his sons, and upon the thumb of their right hand, and upon the great toe of their right foot, and sprinkle the blood upon the altar round about.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|21|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt take of the blood that is upon the altar, and of the anointing oil, and sprinkle it upon Aaron, and upon his garments, and upon his sons, and upon the garments of his sons with him: and he shall be hallowed, and his garments, and his sons, and his sons' garments with him.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|22|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Also thou shalt take of the ram the fat and the rump, and the fat that covereth the inwards, and the caul above the liver, and the two kidneys, and the fat that is upon them, and the right shoulder; for it is a ram of consecration:|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|23|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And one loaf of bread, and one cake of oiled bread, and one wafer out of the basket of the unleavened bread that is before the LORD:|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|24|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt put all in the hands of Aaron, and in the hands of his sons; and shalt wave them for a wave offering before the LORD.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|25|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt receive them of their hands, and burn them upon the altar for a burnt offering, for a sweet savour before the LORD: it is an offering made by fire unto the LORD.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|26|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt take the breast of the ram of Aaron's consecration, and wave it for a wave offering before the LORD: and it shall be thy part.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|27|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt sanctify the breast of the wave offering, and the shoulder of the heave offering, which is waved, and which is heaved up, of the ram of the consecration, even of that which is for Aaron, and of that which is for his sons:|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|28|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And it shall be Aaron's and his sons' by a statute for ever from the children of Israel: for it is an heave offering: and it shall be an heave offering from the children of Israel of the sacrifice of their peace offerings, even their heave offering unto the LORD.|color=#000000}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1381231082922672131|title=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1381231082922672131|website=Twitter|language=en|access-date=2021-11-10}}</ref> <small>{{font|29|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And the holy garments of Aaron shall be his sons' after him, to be anointed therein, and to be consecrated in them.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|30|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And that son that is priest in his stead shall put them on seven days, when he cometh into the tabernacle of the congregation to minister in the holy place.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|31|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt take the ram of the consecration, and seethe his flesh in the holy place.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|32|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And Aaron and his sons shall eat the flesh of the ram, and the bread that is in the basket by the door of the tabernacle of the congregation.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|33|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And they shall eat those things wherewith the atonement was made, to consecrate and to sanctify them: but a stranger shall not eat thereof, because they are holy.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|34|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And if ought of the flesh of the consecrations, or of the bread, remain unto the morning, then thou shalt burn the remainder with fire: it shall not be eaten, because it is holy.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|35|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thus shalt thou do unto Aaron, and to his sons, according to all things which I have commanded thee: seven days shalt thou consecrate them.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|36|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt offer every day a bullock for a sin offering for atonement: and thou shalt cleanse the altar, when thou hast made an atonement for it, and thou shalt anoint it, to sanctify it.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|37|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Seven days thou shalt make an atonement for the altar, and sanctify it; and it shall be an altar most holy: whatsoever toucheth the altar shall be holy.|color=#000000}} == Instructions for Continual Burnt Offerings == <small>{{font|1|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Now this is that which thou shalt offer upon the altar; two lambs of the first year day by day continually.|color=#880000}} <small>{{font|2|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|The one lamb thou shalt offer in the morning; and the other lamb thou shalt offer at even:|color=#880000}} <small>{{font|3|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And with the one lamb a tenth deal of flour mingled with the fourth part of an hin of beaten oil; and the fourth part of an hin of wine for a drink offering.|color=#880000}} <small>{{font|4|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And the other lamb thou shalt offer at even, and shalt do thereto according to the meat offering of the morning, and according to the drink offering thereof, for a sweet savour, an offering made by fire unto the LORD.|color=#880000}} <small>{{font|5|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|This shall be a continual burnt offering throughout your generations at the door of the tabernacle of the congregation before the LORD:|color=#880000}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1381956173683953667|title=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1381956173683953667|website=Twitter|language=en|access-date=2021-11-10}}</ref> {{font|where I will meet you, to speak there unto thee.|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|6}}{{font|color=#000000| And there I will meet with the children of Israel, and the tabernacle shall be sanctified by my glory.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|7}}{{font|color=#000000| And I will sanctify the tabernacle of the congregation, and the altar: I will sanctify also both Aaron and his sons, to minister to me in the priest's office.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|8}}{{font|color=#000000| And I will dwell among the children of Israel, and will be their God.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|9}}{{font|color=#000000| And they shall know that I am the LORD their God, that brought them forth out of the land of Egypt, that I may dwell among them: I am the LORD their God.}} ==Instructions for the Use of Incense== <small>{{font|1|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make an altar to burn incense upon: of shittim wood shalt thou make it.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|2|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|A cubit shall be the length thereof, and a cubit the breadth thereof; foursquare shall it be: and two cubits shall be the height thereof: the horns thereof shall be of the same.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|3|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt overlay it with pure gold, the top thereof, and the sides thereof round about, and the horns thereof; and thou shalt make unto it a crown of gold round about.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|4|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And two golden rings shalt thou make to it under the crown of it, by the two corners thereof, upon the two sides of it shalt thou make it; and they shall be for places for the staves to bear it withal.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|5|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt make the staves of shittim wood, and overlay them with gold.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|6|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt put it before the vail that is by the ark of the testimony, before the mercy seat that is over the testimony, where I will meet with thee.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|7|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And Aaron shall burn thereon sweet incense every morning: when he dresseth the lamps, he shall burn incense upon it.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|8|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And when Aaron lighteth the lamps at even, he shall burn incense upon it, a perpetual incense before the LORD throughout your generations.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|9|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Ye shall offer no strange incense thereon, nor burnt sacrifice, nor meat offering; neither shall ye pour drink offering thereon.|color=#000000}} <small>{{font|10|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And Aaron shall make an atonement upon the horns of it once in a year with the blood of the sin offering of atonements: once in the year shall he make atonement upon it throughout your generations: it is most holy unto the LORD.|color=#880000}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1382686928659755021|title=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1382686928659755021|website=Twitter|language=en|access-date=2021-11-10}}</ref> ==Instructions for a Tithe == <small>{{font|1|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,|color=#880000}} <small>{{font|2|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|When thou takest the sum of the children of Israel after their number, then shall they give every man a ransom for his soul unto the LORD, when thou numberest them; that there be no plague among them, when thou numberest them.|color=#880000}} <small>{{font|3|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|This they shall give, every one that passeth among them that are numbered, half a shekel after the shekel of the sanctuary: (a shekel is twenty gerahs:) an half shekel shall be the offering of the LORD.|color=#880000}} <small>{{font|4|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|Every one that passeth among them that are numbered, from twenty years old and above, shall give an offering unto the LORD.|color=#880000}} <small>{{font|5|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|The rich shall not give more, and the poor shall not give less than half a shekel, when they give an offering unto the LORD, to make an atonement for your souls.|color=#880000}} <small>{{font|6|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And thou shalt take the atonement money of the children of Israel, and shalt appoint it for the service of the tabernacle of the congregation; that it may be a memorial unto the children of Israel before the LORD, to make an atonement for your souls.|color=#880000}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1383059723231105030|title=https://twitter.com/joelbaden/status/1383059723231105030|website=Twitter|language=en|access-date=2021-11-10}}</ref> ==Instructions for a Wash Basin == <small>{{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|1}}</small>{{font|And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,|color=#000000}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|2}}{{font|color=#000000| Thou shalt also make a laver of brass, and his foot also of brass, to wash withal: and thou shalt put it between the tabernacle of the congregation and the altar, and thou shalt put water therein.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|3}}{{font|color=#000000| For Aaron and his sons shall wash their hands and their feet thereat:}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|4}}{{font|color=#000000| When they go into the tabernacle of the congregation, they shall wash with water, that they die not; or when they come near to the altar to minister, to burn offering made by fire unto the LORD:}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|5}}{{font|color=#000000| So they shall wash their hands and their feet, that they die not: and it shall be a statute for ever to them, even to him and to his seed throughout their generations.}} ==Instructions for Holy Ointment and Perfume == {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|1}}{{font|color=#000000| Moreover the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|2}}{{font|color=#000000| Take thou also unto thee principal spices, of pure myrrh five hundred shekels, and of sweet cinnamon half so much, even two hundred and fifty shekels, and of sweet calamus two hundred and fifty shekels,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|3}}{{font|color=#000000| And of cassia five hundred shekels, after the shekel of the sanctuary, and of oil olive an hin:}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|4}}{{font|color=#000000| And thou shalt make it an oil of holy ointment, an ointment compound after the art of the apothecary: it shall be an holy anointing oil.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|5}}{{font|color=#000000| And thou shalt anoint the tabernacle of the congregation therewith, and the ark of the testimony,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|6}}{{font|color=#000000| And the table and all his vessels, and the candlestick and his vessels, and the altar of incense,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|7}}{{font|color=#000000| And the altar of burnt offering with all his vessels, and the laver and his foot.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|8}}{{font|color=#000000| And thou shalt sanctify them, that they may be most holy: whatsoever toucheth them shall be holy.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|9}}{{font|color=#000000| And thou shalt anoint Aaron and his sons, and consecrate them, that they may minister unto me in the priest's office.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|10}}{{font|color=#000000| And thou shalt speak unto the children of Israel, saying, This shall be an holy anointing oil unto me throughout your generations.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|11}}{{font|color=#000000| Upon man's flesh shall it not be poured, neither shall ye make any other like it, after the composition of it: it is holy, and it shall be holy unto you.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|12}}{{font|color=#000000| Whosoever compoundeth any like it, or whosoever putteth any of it upon a stranger, shall even be cut off from his people.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|13}}{{font|color=#000000| And the LORD said unto Moses, Take unto thee sweet spices, stacte, and onycha, and galbanum; these sweet spices with pure frankincense: of each shall there be a like weight:}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|14}}{{font|color=#000000| And thou shalt make it a perfume, a confection after the art of the apothecary, tempered together, pure and holy:}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|15}}{{font|color=#000000| And thou shalt beat some of it very small, and put of it before the testimony in the tabernacle of the congregation, where I will meet with thee: it shall be unto you most holy.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|16}}{{font|color=#000000| And as for the perfume which thou shalt make, ye shall not make to yourselves according to the composition thereof: it shall be unto thee holy for the LORD.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|17}}{{font|color=#000000| Whosoever shall make like unto that, to smell thereto, shall even be cut off from his people.}} ==Appointing Craftsmen == {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|1}}{{font|color=#000000| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|2}}{{font|color=#000000| See, I have called by name Bezaleel the son of Uri, the son of Hur, of the tribe of Judah:}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|3}}{{font|color=#000000| And I have filled him with the spirit of God, in wisdom, and in understanding, and in knowledge, and in all manner of workmanship,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|4}}{{font|color=#000000| To devise cunning works, to work in gold, and in silver, and in brass,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|5}}{{font|color=#000000| And in cutting of stones, to set them, and in carving of timber, to work in all manner of workmanship.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|6}}{{font|color=#000000| And I, behold, I have given with him Aholiab, the son of Ahisamach, of the tribe of Dan: and in the hearts of all that are wise hearted I have put wisdom, that they may make all that I have commanded thee;}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|7}}{{font|color=#000000| The tabernacle of the congregation, and the ark of the testimony, and the mercy seat that is thereupon, and all the furniture of the tabernacle,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|8}}{{font|color=#000000| And the table and his furniture, and the pure candlestick with all his furniture, and the altar of incense,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|9}}{{font|color=#000000| And the altar of burnt offering with all his furniture, and the laver and his foot,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|10}}{{font|color=#000000| And the cloths of service, and the holy garments for Aaron the priest, and the garments of his sons, to minister in the priest's office,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|11}}{{font|color=#000000| And the anointing oil, and sweet incense for the holy place: according to all that I have commanded thee shall they do.}} ==The Importance of the Sabbath == {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|1}}{{font|color=#000000| And the LORD spake unto Moses, saying,}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|2}}{{font|color=#000000| Speak thou also unto the children of Israel, saying, Verily my sabbaths ye shall keep: for it is a sign between me and you throughout your generations; that ye may know that I am the LORD that doth sanctify you.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|3}}{{font|color=#000000| Ye shall keep the sabbath therefore; for it is holy unto you: every one that defileth it shall surely be put to death: for whosoever doeth any work therein, that soul shall be cut off from among his people.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|4}}{{font|color=#000000| Six days may work be done; but in the seventh is the sabbath of rest, holy to the LORD: whosoever doeth any work in the sabbath day, he shall surely be put to death.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|5}}{{font|color=#000000| Wherefore the children of Israel shall keep the sabbath, to observe the sabbath throughout their generations, for a perpetual covenant.}} {{font|size=smaller|color=#0000FF|6}}{{font|color=#000000| It is a sign between me and the children of Israel for ever: for in six days the LORD made heaven and earth, and on the seventh day he rested, and was refreshed.}} <small>{{font|7|color=#0000FF}}</small>{{font|And he gave unto Moses, when he had made an end of communing with him upon mount Sinai, the testimony,|color=#000000}} ==Parts 2-4== ''Due simply to the document's size, it has been divided into 4 divisions of approximately similar size, for the purposes of easy downloading. These divisions do not knowingly reflect the content of the text, or the original divisions, in any way.'' *[[Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, Priestly source (Division 2 of 4)|Second division of four - Parts 26 - 50]] *[[Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, Priestly source (Division 3 of 4)|Third division of four - Parts 51 - 75]] *[[Bible, English, King James, Documentary Hypothesis, Priestly source (Division 4 of 4)|Fourth division of four - Parts 76 - 98 (the end)]] [[Category:Documentary hypothesis]] h2bos3bnoueazmjodu8nagl3dhr80ln 10 55694 2415596 2415426 2022-08-16T15:34:47Z Dave Braunschweig 426084 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/Ady8822!|Ady8822!]] ([[User_talk:Ady8822!|talk]]) to last version by [[User:Hasley|Hasley]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]] wikitext text/x-wiki <includeonly>{{userbox|#0000CD|#ADD8E6|{{#switch:{{{1}}} | Arabic = [[Image:Nuvola Saudi flag.svg|40px]] | Esperanto = [[Image:Globe of letters.svg|40px]] | French = [[Image:Nuvola France flag.svg|40px]] | Italian = [[Image:Nuvola Italy flag.svg|40px]] | Japanese = [[Image:Nuvola Japan flag.svg|40px]] | Portuguese = [[Image:Nuvola Portugese flag.svg|40px]] | Spanish = [[Image:Nuvola Spain flag.svg|40px]] | Swedish = [[Image:Nuvola Swedish flag.svg|40px]] | Urdu = [[Image:Nuvola Pakistani flag.svg|40px]] | Hebrew = [[Image:Nuvola Israeli flag.svg|40px]] | [[Image:Help-browser.svg|40px]]}} | This user is a '''[[User:{{PAGENAME}}/{{{1}}}|student]]''' of the '''[[Portal:{{{1}}}|{{{1}}} Language Division]]'''.}} [[Category:{{{1}}} Student|{{PAGENAME}}]]</includeonly><noinclude>__NOTOC__ == Usage == This template must be located in the user page. It adds the '''language student''' category and two links: to the personal exercises page of the user (User:<name>/<language>), and to the language division. == Syntax == <pre>{{student|Language}}</pre> ===Parameters=== :*<code>Language</code> - Name of the language, such as French, Spanish or Esperanto. ===Examples=== {{student|Arabic}} {{student|Esperanto}} {{student|French}} {{student|Hebrew}} {{student|Italian}} {{student|Japanese}} {{student|Portuguese}} </noinclude> b1qphiyns0rqot8zqucqu81gpxqg4xo 0 60288 2415674 2346199 2022-08-17T02:18:43Z 147.41.128.35 i thought it was juky so i worded it bettetr wikitext text/x-wiki '''Night vision''' is the ability to see in (relative) darkness. All natural vision involves reception of some light by the eye. This is true even in the dark; vision is possible only when light is present. Often, what appears to be total darkness is not the absence of light but rather the poor reception of available light. To see well in the dark, humans either enhance reception of limited available light, or provide more light. ==Light in the dark== Many techniques and technologies for improving night vision ve reception of certain frequency bands (colors) of light. These frequency bands include: *infrared light (heat) *i suked my dad off ===Infrared light=== [[Image:Wiki deer.jpg|thumb|left|A deer's pelt is insulating, keeping the animal warm and limiting the amount of IR light emitted; the eyes and mouth, uninsulated, glow with IR light]] Because the human eye does not detect IR light, our visual detection of this light requires some kind of electronic imaging device. Many military and civilian SAR helicopters are equipped with forward looking infra red (FLIR)<ref>Wikipedia: [[w:Forward looking infrared|Forward looking infrared]]</ref> devices. Infrared (IR) imaging is used to search for clues that are expected to have a temperature far above ambient. Thus IR imaging is used most often at night (when ambient temperatures are lower) but also may be used in daylight, especially in cold weather. IR-detectable clues include hot engines, campfires, and live subjects. IR imaging cannot detect a clue that is not above ambient temperature, due to lack of contrast between clue and background. Thus, IR imaging may be ineffective during early night in hot deserts, and when the subject is under cover, dressed in heavy winter clothes, or deceased. <!-- extra images [[Image:Wiki ringtailed lemur.jpg|thumb|right|A lemur viewed in infrared light, using a thermographic device]] [[Image:AN-PAS-13B (V2) Thermal Weapon Sight (TWS).jpg|thumb|left|A thermal monocular scope]] --> ===Red light=== <!-- mention [[w:Safelight]]? --> [[Image:Cone-response-en.svg|thumb|left|Spectra of the three human photopsins (red, green, and blue) and of human rhodopsin (dashed)]] In humans, the rod cells that provide normal night vision are not sensitive to red light. Thus, a source of red light (such as a flashlight with a red filter) can be used to provide sufficient light for the cone cells without "blinding" the rod cells. ===Black light=== [[Image:Sorpion Under Blacklight.jpg|thumb|Scorpion under black light]] Scorpions appear black in daylight but under black light they glow blue. Black light flashlights are used to find scorpions in the wild. [[Image:Airman Battle Uniform washing effects.jpg|thumb|left|Airman Battle Uniform]] Humans normally do not glow under black light, but often our clothing does. Most laundry detergents contain optical brighteners<ref>Wikipedia: [[w:Optical brightener|Optical brightener]]</ref>, fluorescent dyes that absorb black light and emit blue light. These dyes make clothing appear brighter under daylight; under black light, they glow (fluoresce<ref>Wikipedia: [[w:Fluorescence|Fluorescence]]</ref>) blue. Black light may be used at night to search for a subject's clothing. Because these dyes are in most laundry detergents, even in those labeled "no dyes", it may be not helpful to ask the subject's household members what brand of laundry detergent they use. Shining a black light on a sample of the subject's clothing may be helpful. In 2007, the United States Air Force distributed laundry instructions for camouflage uniforms that included the instruction to use no detergents containing these dyes.<ref>''[http://www.vandenberg.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123065881 Optical brightners make ABUs dangerously easy to see]'', Vandenberg Air Force Base, 24 August 2007</ref> The Air Force later rescinded this instruction on the ground that research by the US Army found the effect was not important in the context of military combat.<ref>[http://archive.is/20121212202932/http://www.af.mil/news/story.asp?id=123099665 Airmen can use regular detergent on ABUs], Air Force Link, 21 May 2008</ref> Because horses' eyes are highly receptive for blue light, the combination of black light flashlights and mounted SAR field teams may be particularly effective. ==Seeing in the dark== Reception of limited available light can be enhanced by using advanced technology and/or ancient behaviors most widely used by trackers and hunters. *electronics [[Image:Nightvision.jpg|thumb|Scene viewed through an image intensifier]] *larger lenses: animals with very large eyes (eyeballs) tend to have very large lenses. Thus, horses have far better night vision than humans do. Humans can enhance their own night vision by using binoculars or scopes with lenses of very large diameter. All else being equal, due to the high cost of manufacturing large high quality lenses, these devices are far more expensive than others. [[Image:Night_Scope_on_M249.jpg|thumb|A night scope mounted on a military weapon]] *rods instead of cones *peripheral instead of central vision [[Image:Netzhautlk-augekorp.jpg|thumb|right|Left eye scene on retina (simulation)]] [[Image:Auge Hund Diagramm engl.jpg|thumb|Human vs dog]] ==Human dog horse== <gallery> Image:Eye iris.jpg|Human pupils are round Image:Siberian Husky heterchromia edit.jpg|Dogs pupils are round Image:Rokvitt oga.jpg|Horse pupils are horizontal ovals </gallery> [[Image:Netzhautlk-polarp.jpg|thumb|Left eye field of view]] ==External links== *Wikipedia: [[w:Eye|eye]] ==Questions== #Why is the US military not concerned about dyes on camouflage uniforms? Because the effect of these dyes occurs only when illuminated with black light, and for combat use artificial illumination has limited tactical advantage and greater tactical disadvantage. #Does this lack of concern mean black light is not useful for SAR? Why? No, because for SAR black light illumination has more tactical advantages than disadvantages. ==References== {{reflist|2}} [[Category:Search and rescue]] [[Category:Freshly started resources]] ffwfv3shr2yoc2oxdiqjah59e9ak9bs 10 82515 2415791 2089683 2022-08-17T09:14:00Z 174.251.164.12 wikitext text/x-wiki {{documentation subpage}} <!-- PLEASE ADD CATEGORIES AND INTERWIKIS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. --> This template is intended as a meta-template, that is, a template that's used when constructing other templates. It's not meant for use directly in an article. See [[W:Help:Infobox|Help:Infobox]] for information on how to craft infoboxes in general. === Usage === Usage is similar to {{tl|navbox}}, but with an additional distinction. Each row on the table can either be a "header", or it can have a label/data pair, or it can just be a data cell. These are mutually exclusive states so if you define a row to be both a header and a label/data pair, the label/data pair is overridden. Note that if you want to insert an image elsewhere other than the top of the infobox, or insert other "freeform" data, use a row with just a "data" field allows for that sort of thing. === Parameters === ====View/discuss/edit links==== ;name : The template page name that the "view/discuss/edit" links should point to. You can use <nowiki>{{subst:PAGENAME}}</nowiki>. If this parameter is omitted the view/discuss/edit links will not be displayed. ====Title==== {{Infobox |title = Text in caption over infobox |data1 = (the rest of the infobox goes here) }} {{Infobox |above = Text in uppermost cell of infobox |data1 = (the rest of the infobox goes here) }} There are two different ways to put a title on an infobox. One contains the title inside the infobox's border, the other puts it on top as a caption. You can use both of them together if you like, or just one or the other, or even neither (though this is not recommended). ;title : Text to put in the caption over top of the table. ;above : Text to put within the uppermost cell of the table. ====Optional content==== ;subheader1, subheader2: additional title fields which fit between {{{title}}} and {{{above}}}. ;image1, image2: images to display at the top of the template. Use full image syntax, for example <nowiki>[[Image:example.png|200px]]</nowiki>. Image is centered by default. ;caption1, caption2 : Text to put underneath the images. ;header(n) : Text to use as a header in row n. ;label(n): Text to use as a label in row n. ;data(n): Text to display as data in row n. ;below: Text to put in the bottom cell. The bottom cell is intended for footnotes, see-also, and other such information. ====Optional CSS styling==== ;bodystyle : Applies to the infobox table as a whole ;titlestyle : Applies only to the title caption. Adding a background color is usually inadvisable since the text is rendered "outside" the infobox. ;abovestyle : Applies only to the "above" cell at the top. The default style has font-size:large; since this cell is usually used for a title, if you want to use the above cell for regular-sized text include "font-size:medium;" in the abovestyle. ;imagestyle : Applies to the cell the image is in. This includes the text of the image caption, but you should set text properties with captionstyle instead of imagestyle in case the caption is moved out of this cell in the future. ;captionstyle : Applies to the text of the image caption. ;headerstyle : Applies to all header cells ;labelstyle : Applies to all label cells ;datastyle : Applies to all data cells ;belowstyle : Applies only to the below cell ====Microformats==== ;bodyclass: This parameter is inserted into the "class" attribute for the infobox as a whole ;imageclass: This parameter is inserted into the "class" attribute for the image; it is in particular used in conjunction with {{tl|Image class names}}. ;class(n): This parameter is inserted into the "class" attribute for the data cell of the specified row. If there's no data cell it has no effect. ;titleclass: This parameter is inserted into the "class" attribute for the infobox's title caption. ;aboveclass: This parameter is inserted into the "class" attribute for the infobox's above cell. This template supports the addition of microformat information. This is done by adding "class" attributes to various data cells, indicating what kind of information is contained within. To flag an infobox as containing hCard information, for example, add the following parameter: <pre> |bodyclass = vcard </pre> And for each row containing a data cell that's part of the vcard, add a corresponding class parameter: <pre> |class1 = fn |class2 = org |class3 = tel </pre> ...and so forth. "above" and "title" can also be given classes, since these are usually used to display the name of the subject of the infobox. See [[w:WikiProject Microformats]] for more information on adding microformat information to Wikipedia, and [http://microformats.org/wiki/Main_Page microformats.org] for more information on microformats in general. ===Making fields optional=== A row with a label but no data is not displayed. This allows for the easy creation of optional infobox content rows. To make a row optional use a parameter that defaults to an empty string, like so: <pre> |label5 = Population |data5 = {{{population|}}} </pre> This way if an article doesn't define the population parameter in its infobox the row won't be displayed. For more complex fields with pre-formated contents that would still be present even if the parameter wasn't set, you can wrap it all in an "#if" statement to make the whole thing vanish when the parameter is not used. For instance, the "#if" statement in the following example reads "#if:the parameter ''mass'' has been supplied |then display it, followed by 'kg'": <pre> |label6 = Mass |data6 = {{#if:{{{mass|}}} |{{{mass}}} kg}} </pre> For more on #if, see [[meta:ParserFunctions##if:|here]].<br /> You can also make headers optional in a similar way. If you want a header to appear only if one or more of the data fields that fall under it are filled, one could use the following pattern as an example of how to do it: <pre style="overflow:auto;"> {{Infobox |name = {{subst:PAGENAME}} |title = Example of an optional header |header1 = {{#if:{{{item_one|}}}{{{item_two|}}}{{{item_three|}}} |Optional header}} |label2 = Item one |data2 = {{{item_one|}}} |label3 = Item two |data3 = {{{item_two|}}} |label4 = Item three |data4 = {{{item_three|}}} }} </pre> header1 will be shown if any of item_one, item_two, or item_three is defined. If none of the three parameters are defined the header won't be shown. The trick to this is that the "if" returns false only if there is nothing whatsoever in the conditional section, so only if all three of item_one, item_two and item_three are undefined will the if statement fail. === Full blank syntax === {{Infobox |name = lisa Garcia govmnt employees u ER14JN17.001 to be |bodystyle = |title = Saqlain Ranjha |titlestyle = |image = |imagestyle = |caption = |captionstyle = |headerstyle = background:#ccf; |labelstyle = background:#ddf; |datastyle = |header1 = Saqlain Ranjha Dhoul Ranjha |label1 = |data1 = |header2 = (Religion Islam) Height: 1.78 m |label2 = |data2 = |header3 = |label3 = |data3 = Born: March 14, 1990 (age25 ),Dhoul Ranjha,Mandi Bahauddin; punjab, pakistan |header4 = website [[www.facebook.com/saqlanranjha]] |label4 = All three defined (label) |data4 = All three defined (data) |header5 = |label5 = contact [[ksa+966540238155]] |data5 = contact [[PAK+923348208538]] |belowstyle = background:#ddf; |below = this information official by [[Saqlain Ranjha]] }} (Note: the template currently handles up to 80 rows; only 20 are included here since infoboxes larger than that will be relatively rare. Just extend the numbering as needed. The microformat "class" parameters are also omitted as they are not commonly used.) <pre style="overflow:auto;"> {{Infobox |name = {{subst:PAGENAME}} |bodystyle = |title = |titlestyle = |above = |abovestyle = |image = |imagestyle = |caption = |captionstyle = |headerstyle = |labelstyle = |datastyle = |header1 = |label1 = |data1 = |header2 = |label2 = |data2 = |header3 = |label3 = |data3 = |header4 = |label4 = |data4 = |header5 = |label5 = |data5 = |header6 = |label6 = |data6 = |header7 = |label7 = |data7 = |header8 = |label8 = |data8 = |header9 = |label9 = |data9 = |header10 = |label10 = |data10 = |header11 = |label11 = |data11 = |header12 = |label12 = |data12 = |header13 = |label13 = |data13 = |header14 = |label14 = |data14 = |header15 = |label15 = |data15 = |header16 = |label16 = |data16 = |header17 = |label17 = |data17 = |header18 = |label18 = |data18 = |header19 = |label19 = |data19 = |header20 = |label20 = |data20 = |belowstyle = |below = }} </pre> === Porting to other MediaWikis === The infobox template requires the tidy extension to be installed, and may not work with other MediaWikis the [[WP:TRAN]] has a version of Infobox that has been modified to work on other MediaWikis. === See also === * {{tl|start infobox page}} <includeonly> [[Category:Infobox templates| ]] [[Category:Wikiversity metatemplates|{{PAGENAME}}]] </includeonly> hkmx1a5vza2wl0c7173e2x9822ww8ra 2415792 2415791 2022-08-17T09:15:03Z 174.251.164.12 wikitext text/x-wiki {{documentation subpage}} <!-- PLEASE ADD CATEGORIES AND INTERWIKIS AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS PAGE. --> This template is intended as a meta-template, that is, a template that's used when constructing other templates. It's not meant for use directly in an article. See [[W:Help:Infobox|Help:Infobox]] for information on how to craft infoboxes in general. === Usage === Usage is similar to {{tl|navbox}}, but with an additional distinction. Each row on the table can either be a "header", or it can have a label/data pair, or it can just be a data cell. These are mutually exclusive states so if you define a row to be both a header and a label/data pair, the label/data pair is overridden. Note that if you want to insert an image elsewhere other than the top of the infobox, or insert other "freeform" data, use a row with just a "data" field allows for that sort of thing. === Parameters === ====View/discuss/edit links==== ;name : The template page name that the "view/discuss/edit" links should point to. You can use <nowiki>{{subst:PAGENAME}}</nowiki>. If this parameter is omitted the view/discuss/edit links will not be displayed. ====Title==== {{Infobox |title = Text in caption over infobox |data1 = (the rest of the infobox goes here) }} {{Infobox |above = Text in uppermost cell of infobox |data1 = (the rest of the infobox goes here) }} There are two different ways to put a title on an infobox. One contains the title inside the infobox's border, the other puts it on top as a caption. You can use both of them together if you like, or just one or the other, or even neither (though this is not recommended). ;title : Text to put in the caption over top of the table. ;above : Text to put within the uppermost cell of the table. ====Optional content==== ;subheader1, subheader2: additional title fields which fit between {{{title}}} and {{{above}}}. ;image1, image2: images to display at the top of the template. Use full image syntax, for example <nowiki>[[Image:example.png|200px]]</nowiki>. Image is centered by default. ;caption1, caption2 : Text to put underneath the images. ;header(n) : Text to use as a header in row n. ;label(n): Text to use as a label in row n. ;data(n): Text to display as data in row n. ;below: Text to put in the bottom cell. The bottom cell is intended for footnotes, see-also, and other such information. ====Optional CSS styling==== ;bodystyle : Applies to the infobox table as a whole ;titlestyle : Applies only to the title caption. Adding a background color is usually inadvisable since the text is rendered "outside" the infobox. ;abovestyle : Applies only to the "above" cell at the top. The default style has font-size:large; since this cell is usually used for a title, if you want to use the above cell for regular-sized text include "font-size:medium;" in the abovestyle. ;imagestyle : Applies to the cell the image is in. This includes the text of the image caption, but you should set text properties with captionstyle instead of imagestyle in case the caption is moved out of this cell in the future. ;captionstyle : Applies to the text of the image caption. ;headerstyle : Applies to all header cells ;labelstyle : Applies to all label cells ;datastyle : Applies to all data cells ;belowstyle : Applies only to the below cell ====Microformats==== ;bodyclass: This parameter is inserted into the "class" attribute for the infobox as a whole ;imageclass: This parameter is inserted into the "class" attribute for the image; it is in particular used in conjunction with {{tl|Image class names}}. ;class(n): This parameter is inserted into the "class" attribute for the data cell of the specified row. If there's no data cell it has no effect. ;titleclass: This parameter is inserted into the "class" attribute for the infobox's title caption. ;aboveclass: This parameter is inserted into the "class" attribute for the infobox's above cell. This template supports the addition of microformat information. This is done by adding "class" attributes to various data cells, indicating what kind of information is contained within. To flag an infobox as containing hCard information, for example, add the following parameter: <pre> |bodyclass = vcard </pre> And for each row containing a data cell that's part of the vcard, add a corresponding class parameter: <pre> |class1 = fn |class2 = org |class3 = tel </pre> ...and so forth. "above" and "title" can also be given classes, since these are usually used to display the name of the subject of the infobox. See [[w:WikiProject Microformats]] for more information on adding microformat information to Wikipedia, and [http://microformats.org/wiki/Main_Page microformats.org] for more information on microformats in general. ===Making fields optional=== A row with a label but no data is not displayed. This allows for the easy creation of optional infobox content rows. To make a row optional use a parameter that defaults to an empty string, like so: <pre> |label5 = Population |data5 = {{{population|}}} </pre> This way if an article doesn't define the population parameter in its infobox the row won't be displayed. For more complex fields with pre-formated contents that would still be present even if the parameter wasn't set, you can wrap it all in an "#if" statement to make the whole thing vanish when the parameter is not used. For instance, the "#if" statement in the following example reads "#if:the parameter ''mass'' has been supplied |then display it, followed by 'kg'": <pre> |label6 = Mass |data6 = {{#if:{{{mass|}}} |{{{mass}}} kg}} </pre> For more on #if, see [[meta:ParserFunctions##if:|here]].<br /> You can also make headers optional in a similar way. If you want a header to appear only if one or more of the data fields that fall under it are filled, one could use the following pattern as an example of how to do it: <pre style="overflow:auto;"> {{Infobox |name = {{subst:PAGENAME}} |title = Example of an optional header |header1 = {{#if:{{{item_one|}}}{{{item_two|}}}{{{item_three|}}} |Optional header}} |label2 = Item one |data2 = {{{item_one|}}} |label3 = Item two |data3 = {{{item_two|}}} |label4 = Item three |data4 = {{{item_three|}}} }} </pre> header1 will be shown if any of item_one, item_two, or item_three is defined. If none of the three parameters are defined the header won't be shown. The trick to this is that the "if" returns false only if there is nothing whatsoever in the conditional section, so only if all three of item_one, item_two and item_three are undefined will the if statement fail. === Full blank syntax === {{Infobox |name = lisa Garcia govmnt employees u ER14JN17.001 to be |bodystyle = |title = Saqlain Ranjha |titlestyle = |image = |imagestyle = |caption = |captionstyle :#ccf;001111000101001 :#ddf; |datastyle = |header1 = Saqlain Ranjha Dhoul Ranjha |label1 = |data1 = |header2 = (Religion Islam) Height: 1.78 m |label2 = |data2 = |header3 = |label3 = |data3 = Born: March 14, 1990 (age25 ),Dhoul Ranjha,Mandi Bahauddin; punjab, pakistan |header4 = website [[www.facebook.com/saqlanranjha]] |label4 = All three defined (label) |data4 = All three defined (data) |header5 = |label5 = contact [[ksa+966540238155]] |data5 = contact [[PAK+923348208538]] |belowstyle = background:#ddf; |below = this information official by [[Saqlain Ranjha]] }} (Note: the template currently handles up to 80 rows; only 20 are included here since infoboxes larger than that will be relatively rare. Just extend the numbering as needed. The microformat "class" parameters are also omitted as they are not commonly used.) <pre style="overflow:auto;"> {{Infobox |name = {{subst:PAGENAME}} |bodystyle = |title = |titlestyle = |above = |abovestyle = |image = |imagestyle = |caption = |captionstyle = |headerstyle = |labelstyle = |datastyle = |header1 = |label1 = |data1 = |header2 = |label2 = |data2 = |header3 = |label3 = |data3 = |header4 = |label4 = |data4 = |header5 = |label5 = |data5 = |header6 = |label6 = |data6 = |header7 = |label7 = |data7 = |header8 = |label8 = |data8 = |header9 = |label9 = |data9 = |header10 = |label10 = |data10 = |header11 = |label11 = |data11 = |header12 = |label12 = |data12 = |header13 = |label13 = |data13 = |header14 = |label14 = |data14 = |header15 = |label15 = |data15 = |header16 = |label16 = |data16 = |header17 = |label17 = |data17 = |header18 = |label18 = |data18 = |header19 = |label19 = |data19 = |header20 = |label20 = |data20 = |belowstyle = |below = }} </pre> === Porting to other MediaWikis === The infobox template requires the tidy extension to be installed, and may not work with other MediaWikis the [[WP:TRAN]] has a version of Infobox that has been modified to work on other MediaWikis. === See also === * {{tl|start infobox page}} <includeonly> [[Category:Infobox templates| ]] [[Category:Wikiversity metatemplates|{{PAGENAME}}]] </includeonly> 9yxflifdbav16wgfl0or1fsykm34gdz 0 91892 2415599 2415010 2022-08-16T15:37:03Z Dave Braunschweig 426084 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/27.111.71.114|27.111.71.114]] ([[User_talk:27.111.71.114|talk]]) to last version by [[User:Hasley|Hasley]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]] wikitext text/x-wiki ---- <big>'''NEW TESTAMENT'''</big> <big>'''Lesson 7'''</big> ---- ---- <p style="text-align:center;"><big>'''ACTS'''</big></p> <p style="text-align:center;"><big>'''II. The Ministry of Paul'''</big></p> ---- ---- [[File:Roman Empire in 54 AD.png|thumb|350px|The Roman Empire in the middle of the first century AD, during the time of Paul's missionary travels.]] ===='''''<big>Saul (Paul) Persecutes the Church</big>'''''==== In Chapter 9 of Acts, we come into close contact with Saul, later known as Paul, for the first time. Paul has already been briefly mentioned in Acts in Chapters 7 and 8, in connection with the stoning of Stephen. Luke writes: :They cast [Stephen] out of the city and stoned him. And the witnesses laid down their clothes at the feet of a young man whose name was Saul. And Saul was consenting to his death. And devout men carried Stephen to his burial and made great lamentation over him. As for Saul, he made havoc of the church, entering every house, and dragging off men and women, committing them to prison. (Acts 7:58, 8:1-3) Such was the unpromising introduction to Paul. No one could have foreseen that this man who was so bent on eradicating Christianity was to become one of the greatest leaders in church history. ===='''''<big>Paul’s Background</big>'''''==== Apart from Paul’s natural characteristics, there were several things in his background that contributed to his effectiveness as a missionary, evangelist and church leader. Firstly, he was born near the beginning of the first century in the city of [[w:Tarsus (city)|Tarsus]] in the province of Cilicia, which is now a part of Turkey. Tarsus was a busy Greco-Roman city at the northeast corner of the Mediterranean which was noted as a trading center and for its university. This environment provided Paul with his knowledge of the Greek language, philosophy and culture. Secondly, he was born a Roman citizen. This citizenship was to prove invaluable to him when his rights were in danger of being denied, and it probably saved his life on more than one occasion. Thirdly, having been born into a devout Jewish family, he was educated in the traditions and scriptures of Judaism. At the appropriate age, probably thirteen, he was sent to Jerusalem to study under the famous teacher Gamaliel, where he proved himself to be a superior and zealous student. ===='''''<big>Paul’s Conversion</big>'''''==== When Paul first appeared in Acts at the stoning of Stephen, he was probably about thirty years old and had already become an acknowledged leader in Judaism. Paul clearly saw Christianity as a heresy and a major threat to Judaism, and he made it his business to persecute the church wherever he found it, even in other cities. It was one such mission that led him to set out for Damascus in Syria in about 37 A.D. Luke writes, “Saul, still breathing threats and murder against the disciples of the Lord, went to the high priest and asked letters from him to the synagogues of Damascus, so that if he found any who were of the Way, whether men or women, he might bring them bound to Jerusalem” (9:1-2). Paul was completely unprepared for what was to happen to him on that journey. As he approached Damascus, a brilliant light shone around him. He then heard a voice which spoke to him the now famous words, “Saul, Saul, why are you persecuting me?” (9:4). The speaker identified himself as Jesus. Paul asked, “Lord, what do you want me to do?” (9:6), to which Jesus replied, “Arise and go into the city, and you will be told what you must do” (9:6). After this experience, he was blind for three days, and during this time he fasted. After the three days, a disciple named Ananias came and laid hands on him, and Paul received his sight and was baptized. Following his conversion, Paul immediately began to preach that Jesus was the Messiah in the synagogues in Damascus. He then went into the Arabian desert. It is not known exactly how long he was there, but it is believed that this was a time of retreat, rather than an evangelistic journey. When he returned to Damascus, the Jews, no doubt feeling betrayed, plotted to kill him, but hearing of their plot, he escaped by being let down at night from the city wall in a large basket. Paul returned to Jerusalem in about 40 A.D., but was unable to stay because of further threats to his life. He then returned to his home town of Tarsus for several years, but we do not have any definite information concerning this period. ===='''''<big>Paul Goes to Antioch</big>'''''==== Following the acceptance of non-Jews into the church after 41 A.D., Antioch in Syria began to emerge as a leading center of Christianity. Barnabas, the overseer of the church there, needed help and called on Paul to come from Tarsus to assist him. Although we know nothing of Paul’s ministry in Tarsus, it seems likely that he had already established himself as a mature Christian leader for Barnabas to request him to come to Antioch and help with the church there. Luke writes, “For a whole year they assembled with the church and taught many people. And the disciples were first called Christians in Antioch” (11:26). When the time had come for Paul to begin his missionary travels, the Holy Spirit spoke through certain “prophets and teachers” who were at Antioch, saying, “Separate to me Barnabas and Saul for the work to which I have called them” (13:2). After fasting and laying hands on the two, the disciples sent them on their way. [[w:Antioch|Antioch]] in Syria (not to be confused with [[w:Antioch, Pisidia|Antioch in Pisidia]]) was about three hundred miles north of Jerusalem, not far from the Mediterranean coast. Having a population of half a million, it was the third largest city in the Roman Empire, surpassed only by Rome and Alexandria. The city was a center for the cult of Ashtoreth, the goddess of fertility, which was noted for sexual indulgence. Nevertheless, the people accepted Christ in large numbers and Antioch also became a major center of Christianity in the middle of the first century. The word Christian was first used there, and it was the starting point of Paul’s famous missionary journeys. ===='''''<big>Paul’s First Missionary Journey</big>'''''==== The first missionary journey began in about 45 A.D. From Antioch, Barnabas and Saul traveled about sixteen miles to the coast, to the port at [[w:Seleucia Pieria|Seleucia Pieria]]. From there, they boarded a ship bound for Cyprus, which is the third largest island in the Mediterranean, being about a hundred and fifty miles long and averaging about twenty miles across. The island lay about a hundred miles southwest of Seleucia and was important for copper mines and timber. While in Paphos, the island’s capital city, Paul cursed the sorcerer Elymas with temporary blindness for obstructing the work of the Lord. This miracle caused Sergius Paulus, who as the Roman proconsul was ruler of the island, to become a believer. Up until this time, Paul is referred to as Saul, the Hebrew version of his name, but from this time forward, he is always called by the Greek version: Paul. When his work in Cyprus was completed, Paul set sail for [[w:Perga|Perga]] in Pamphylia, about a hundred and fifty miles to the northwest. The region of Pamphylia was located on the Mediterranean coast in what is today southwestern Turkey. At this point, Mark, who had accompanied Paul and Barnabas, left them and returned to Jerusalem. They then went north to another city named Antioch, in the province of Pisidia (often referred to as “Pisidian Antioch” to distinguish it from “Syrian Antioch”). The message was so well-received at Antioch that the Jewish leaders became jealous and began to obstruct them, causing them to turn from the Jews and preach to the non-Jewish population. The Jewish leaders then stirred up the leaders of the city and had Paul and Barnabas expelled from the region. Despite this opposition, Luke writes, “The word of the Lord was being spread throughout all the region” (13:49). After being expelled from this region, they continued north into [[w:Galatia|Galatia]], a Roman province in what is central Turkey today, where they preached in the cities of Iconium, Lystra and Derbe. It is probable that Paul’s letter to the Galatians was intended for the Christians in these towns. In Iconium, “the multitude of the city was divided: part sided with the Jews and part with the apostles” (14:4). After an attempt was made to stone them, they moved on to Lystra where, after Paul healed a man who had been crippled from birth, the population tried to worship them as gods. Then some of the Jews from Antioch and Iconium came and stirred up a crowd who stoned Paul and left him for dead, but he recovered and continued to Derbe. After making many disciples at Derbe, they returned to Lystra, Iconium and Antioch, encouraging the churches they had started and appointing elders over them. Then they returned to Syria, arriving back in Antioch after a journey lasting about two years. They gave account of all their experiences, causing great joy among the disciples there. ===='''''<big>Rejected by His Own People</big>'''''==== Jesus said, “A prophet is not without honor, except in his own country and in his own house" (Mt 13:57). This was certainly true in Paul’s case. In the course of his evangelistic travels, he was constantly making enemies of the Jewish communities in the cities where he preached. For various reasons, it was his policy when entering a city for the first time to go and preach the Gospel in the synagogue first. Often, his initial reception would be warm. But he was invariably rejected when envious synagogue leaders saw that his powerful and convincing teaching was resulting in many converts. Undoubtedly, one reason for Paul’s lack of popularity with the Jewish leaders was his teaching that in Jesus all could find salvation, regardless of ethnicity. Salvation, for Paul, was no longer the exclusive privilege of the Jewish nation, as it had been for so long. It now included all who were willing to come to God through faith in Christ. The coming of Jesus had marked the beginning of a new age in “salvation history.” This teaching must have seemed, to the synagogue leaders, to undermine the importance of their role as spiritual leaders, as well as the role of the Jewish nation as a whole as God’s chosen people on the Earth. ===='''''<big>The Jerusalem Council</big>'''''==== In about 50 A.D., a conflict arose when certain Jewish believers came to Antioch from Judea saying that the new non-Jewish believers must be circumcised and keep the law of Moses. This was in sharp contrast to Paul’s doctrine which stated that salvation comes only by the grace of God through faith in Christ, and that the religious observances given by Moses were no longer necessary to salvation. The age of law had been replaced by the age of grace. As a result, Paul, Barnabas, and “certain others” went to Jerusalem to resolve the matter in what has come to be known as the Jerusalem Council. At this meeting, Peter stood up and said of the non-Jewish converts, “God, who knows the heart, acknowledged them, giving them the Holy Spirit just as he did to us, and made no distinction between us and them, purifying their hearts by faith. Now, therefore, why do you test God by putting a yoke on the neck of the disciples which neither our fathers nor we were able to bear?” (15:8-10). As a result of the arguments of Peter, Paul, Barnabas, and James, it was resolved that the non-Jewish believers should be required only to “abstain from things polluted by idols, from sexual immorality, from things strangled, and from blood” (15:20) – things which were associated with the idolatrous practices of the time. ===='''''<big>Paul’s Second Missionary Journey</big>'''''==== Soon after the Jerusalem Council, Paul embarked on his second missionary journey. Luke writes, “After some days, Paul said to Barnabas, ‘Let us go back and visit our brethren in every city where we have preached the word of the Lord, and see how they are doing’” (15:36). However, there was a disagreement between the two when Barnabas decided he wanted to take Mark, because Mark had returned home before completing the first journey. As a result, Barnabas and Mark (who were cousins) traveled together, while Paul teamed up with Silas (also known by his Latin name, Sylvanus) instead. On this occasion, Paul chose to take the overland route, going north from Syrian Antioch about a hundred miles, then west into Asia Minor. Luke writes, “He went through Syria and Cilicia, strengthening the churches” (15:41). Paul’s home town of Tarsus was in Cilicia, and no doubt he stopped there on his way. Continuing west, Paul came into Galatia, where he revisited the churches at Derbe, Lystra and Iconium. At Lystra, the group was joined by Timothy. After visiting the towns of Galatia, they arrived at the coastal city of Troas on the Aegean Sea. Luke writes, “A vision appeared to Paul in the night. A man of Macedonia stood and pleaded with him, saying, ‘Come over to Macedonia and help us’” (16:9). This led him to cross the Aegean to the region of Macedonia, now in northern Greece. After a voyage of about a hundred and twenty miles, Paul and his party arrived at Neapolis ([[w:Kavala|Kavala]]) on the coast, and from there journeyed a few miles inland to [[w:Philippi|Philippi]], where the first known Christian convert was made in Europe: “Lydia, a seller of purple from the city of Thyatira” (16:14). Paul and Silas were whipped and imprisoned at Philippi after Paul cast a fortune-telling demon out of a slave girl, who, as already noted, had made much money for her master. However, Acts tells us that the Holy Spirit miraculously opened the doors of the prison in the night, and as a result, the jailer and his family were converted. After his release, Paul traveled westward to [[w:Thessalonica|Thessalonica]] where he made many converts, both Jewish and non-Jewish. Encountering opposition from the Jewish leaders, Paul continued west to [[w:Berea (Bible)|Berea]], where he ministered for a time before traveling south to Athens, which was then in the province of Achaia. Paul did not have great success in Athens, although “some men joined him and believed” (17:34). The Westminster Historical Atlas to the Bible (Westminster, 1956) says: ::In its golden age, Athens had been the center of the classical culture of ancient times. On its Acropolis stood famous masterpieces of art and architecture. In Paul’s day, Athens was less brilliant, but it was still a city to thrill any lover of culture. Objects of art abounded; interest in poetry, mythology, and philosophy continued; tradition was rich. While in Achaia, Paul also spent time at [[w:Corinth|Corinth]], fifty miles west of Athens. Corinth was the political and commercial center of Achaia. It was also famous for a huge temple dedicated to the goddess of love which was situated on the Acrocorinth, a nearby mountain. Paul met with great success there, even being able to convert Crispus, a leader in the Jewish community, together with his household. Luke writes, “He continued there a year and six months, teaching the word of God among them” (18:11). After Corinth, Paul set his sights toward home. Wishing to attend the coming festival in Jerusalem, he boarded a ship and sailed to Caesarea on the Mediterranean coast of Palestine, then continued overland to Jerusalem. After the festival, he returned to Syrian Antioch, arriving in about 52 A.D. He had traveled over three thousand miles, an incredibly large distance in those days. ===='''''<big>Paul’s Third Missionary Journey</big>'''''==== After only a short stay in Antioch, Paul departed on his third missionary journey, which began in about 53 A.D. Luke writes, “He departed and went over all the region of Galatia and [[w:Phrygia|Phrygia]] in order, strengthening all the disciples” (18:23). After revisiting the churches that he had founded on his previous journeys, Paul continued on to [[w:Ephesus|Ephesus]], where he remained for nearly three years. The time he spent there was the high point of the third missionary journey. He taught extensively in and around Ephesus and his ministry was accompanied by extraordinary miracles. Unfortunately, a silversmith named Demetrius who had a business making idols saw a serious threat in Paul, who was turning people away from idol worship in large numbers. He stirred up others of his trade and together they incited the people to riot. Although the riot ended without any harm to Paul or the other disciples, it became necessary for Paul to leave Ephesus. Nevertheless, the work there had been extremely successful. Acts tells us that during this period, “All who dwelt in [the province of] Asia heard the word of the Lord Jesus, both Jews and Greeks” (19:10). After Ephesus, Paul continued westward into Macedonia and Achaia (now in Greece), where he revisited the cities where he had ministered on his second journey. He met with sufficient success to warrant spending three months there, most of it probably in Corinth. While there, he made plans for his final visit to Jerusalem. Paul finally left Greece after discovering a plot by the Jewish leaders to kill him. After he left Greece, Paul returned to the province of Asia, where he sojourned in the city of [[w:Alexandria Troas|Troas]] on the Aegean coast. He stunned everybody there when he miraculously raised a young man named Eutychus back to life. Eutychus had fallen from a third storey window while listening to Paul preach. From Troas, he traveled overland to nearby [[w:Assos|Assos]], where he boarded a ship bound for Jerusalem. The ship made several stops and among them was [[w:Miletus|Miletus]], which was near enough to Ephesus for Paul to make contact with the elders of that church, who he exhorted to continue steadfastly in the work which he had started. Luke writes, “They all wept greatly, and fell on Paul’s neck and kissed him, sorrowing most of all for the words which he spoke, that they would see his face no more” (20:37 38). Paul knew that he would be arrested in Jerusalem, for he had told them, “I go bound in the Spirit to Jerusalem, not knowing the things that will happen to me there, except that the Holy Spirit testifies in every city, saying that chains and tribulations await me” (20:23). ===='''''<big>Paul is Arrested</big>'''''==== In about 58 AD, at the end of his third missionary journey, Paul arrived in Jerusalem for the purpose of observing the Feast of Pentecost. He had not been there many days when some of the people who had come from the province of Asia for the festival stirred up the crowd against him and he was arrested in the temple grounds. He was accused of turning people against Judaism and of defiling the temple by bringing a person into it who was not Jewish, a charge for which there was apparently no basis. As a result, an unruly crowd tried to kill Paul, but he was rescued by Roman soldiers and taken into custody. The next day he was brought before the Sanhedrin (the ruling body of the Jewish people in Palestine). However, they could not agree among themselves concerning the charges, so the commander took Paul back to the barracks. The following night, Paul had a vision of Jesus standing by him and saying, “Be cheerful, Paul, for as you have testified for me in Jerusalem, so you must bear witness also at Rome” (23:11). Hearing of a plot to kill Paul, the military commander sent him away with a heavy escort to Felix, the Roman governor, who lived in Caesarea on the coast. When Ananias, the high priest, came down from Jerusalem with the elders, Paul defended himself eloquently before both them and Felix. Finding nothing substantial in the charges against him, Felix refused to condemn Paul to death, but not wanting to antagonize the Jewish leadership, he kept him in custody. Paul was to remain imprisoned in Caesarea for two years. Nevertheless, Acts tells us that Felix “commanded a centurion to keep Paul and to let him have liberty, and told him not to forbid any of his friends to provide for or visit him” (24:23). ===='''''<big>Caesarea</big>'''''==== Caesarea was a cosmopolitan city whose prevailing culture was Greco-Roman, rather than Jewish. It was the Roman administrative capital of Palestine and, as already mentioned, had the distinction of being the first place where non-Jewish converts were accepted into the church. It was developed by King Herod the Great to honor the Roman emperor Caesar Augustus, and inaugurated in 10 B.C. It was the site of Palestine’s most important seaport, and ships from there made connections with all parts of the empire. Among the many fine buildings were the governor’s palace and an amphitheater which was larger than the Colosseum in Rome, and in which gladiators spilled their blood in exciting tournaments for the entertainment of the people. ===='''''<big>Paul Appeals to Caesar</big>'''''==== After two years, a new governor, Festus, replaced Felix. Wanting to please the Jewish leadership, Festus was ready to send Paul back to Jerusalem, but knowing that this would mean certain death, Paul availed himself of his right as a Roman citizen and “appealed to Caesar.” By law, this required that Festus send him for trial in Rome. Several days later, King Herod Agrippa II, great-grandson of Herod the Great, was in Caesarea with his sister Bernice, so Festus invited them to come and hear Paul speak. Paul gave an account of his life as a Pharisee and his conversion and subsequent efforts to spread the Gospel. Agrippa was so impressed that he told Paul, “You almost persuade me to become a Christian” (26:28). Then, speaking aside to Bernice and Festus, Agrippa said, “This man might have been set free if he had not appealed to Caesar” (26:32). This was now the second occasion when Paul’s Roman citizenship had come to his aid. The first was when he was arrested in Jerusalem. The Roman commander had ordered that Paul be “examined under scourging”, i.e. that he be questioned with a few lashes of a whip to help him talk. As he was being bound, Paul asked, “Is it lawful for you to scourge a man who is a Roman, and uncondemned?” (22:25). When the commander found out that Paul was a Roman, he was afraid of the potential consequences of what he had done and immediately ordered that Paul be unbound. This is the same commander who, hearing of a plot to kill Paul, sent him under protection of a heavy guard to the governor at Caesarea, where his enemies would not be able to harm him. Clearly, there was one law for citizens and another for non-citizens. It is unlikely that Paul would have been given continued protection if he had not been a Roman citizen. ===='''''<big>Paul Goes to Rome</big>'''''==== Probably in 60 A.D., Paul began his voyage to Rome. On the way, the ship ran into a storm and was shipwrecked on the island of Malta, which lies in the Mediterranean about sixty miles south of Sicily. They decided to stay there for the winter, and while there, Paul healed many sick and disabled people. After three months, they continued in another ship to [[w:Puteoli|Puteoli]], on the west coast of Italy, completing the journey to Rome overland. In Rome, Paul seems to have had a relatively comfortable existence for one who was a prisoner, being allowed to live in his own rented house (with a soldier guarding him), and being able to receive visitors freely. It was during this time that he wrote the “Prison Epistles”: Colossians, Philemon, Ephesians, and Philippians. While the next few years are somewhat vague, it is generally believed that Paul was released from custody after two years, because Acts ends by saying, “Paul dwelt two years in his own rented house” (28:30). After this time, it is likely that he revisited the churches in Greece and Asia Minor. He may also have gone to Spain, as he had previously indicated a desire to do so. Several years later, Paul fell victim to a great persecution of Christians which arose in 64 A.D. after much of Rome burned in a devastating fire. The Christian community, which was thought by many to be an unusual and somewhat strange sect, was a convenient scapegoat. Christians were ostracized, tortured, and murdered in barbaric ways. During this time of persecution, Paul was imprisoned in Rome and finally beheaded in about 66 A.D. His last remaining words were written from his prison cell and are preserved in his second epistle to Timothy. In it, there are surprisingly no words of condemnation for the emperor or for the Roman political system by which he was imprisoned and soon to be executed. He merely writes: “Do not be ashamed of the testimony of our Lord, nor of me his prisoner, but share with me in the sufferings for the Gospel according to the power of God” (2 Tim 1:8). ===='''''<big>The Roman Empire and Church Growth</big>'''''==== Notwithstanding the persecution mentioned above, Rome had a great deal to do with the establishment of the early churches. Roman forces had united all of the lands surrounding the Mediterranean under one government. Travel, communication, and trade flourished between these numerous provinces. Overland travel was made possible by the vast network of quality roads that the Romans built, and the empire was made safe by the Roman military forces, which for the most part ensured that law and order prevailed everywhere. The sea-routes were safe also, for the entire Mediterranean coast was ruled by Rome and there were no enemy ships to worry about. This provided an ideal setting for the spread of the Gospel. Paul and the other apostles were able to travel freely, establishing churches throughout Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, Greece and even in Rome itself. Another by-product of the unity of the empire was that the Jews had been able to establish synagogues in most major cities, and Paul generally preached in the synagogue on arrival in a town where the Gospel had not been previously taught. As a well-educated Pharisee with an expert knowledge of the scriptures, he was always welcome to speak, though he was usually rejected by the synagogues once he began to make converts. Nevertheless, the overall political environment created by the empire, itself a pagan institution, created an ideal field for evangelization. ===='''''<big>An "Unexcelled Missionary Statesman"</big>'''''==== Paul’s life has been an inspiration to people for two thousand years. According to the ''Zondervan Pictorial Bible Dictionary'' (Zondervan, 1967): “Paul’s achievements proclaim him as an unexcelled missionary statesman. His epistolary writings, formulating, interpreting, and applying the essence of Christianity, are vital to Christian theology and practice. He grasped truth at its full value and logically worked out its implications. Having understood his duty, he followed it unflinchingly, undeterred by possible consequences to himself.” ---- ===='''''<big>Test Your Knowledge</big>'''''==== ---- <quiz display=simple> { What form did Paul’s first contact with Christianity take? |type="()"} -He advocated the cause of Christians among the Jewish leadership -He helped find sources of funding for the Christians +He persecuted and imprisoned Christians -a and b { Which of the following are true of Paul? |type="()"} -He was born in the city of Tarsus, in the region of Cilicia (in Turkey today). -He was a devout Jew and a Roman citizen. -At the age of 13, Paul was sent to study in Jerusalem with the great Jewish scholar, Gamaliel. +All of the above. { What eventually caused Paul to change his mind about Christianity? |type="()"} -He had a meeting with Peter in Jerusalem and was impressed with his message. +On the road to Damascus, he had a vision of Jesus. -He felt betrayed by his Jewish friends. -He felt ready for a new direction in his life. { Which city was the starting point for Paul’s missionary journeys? |type="()"} +Antioch (in Syria) -Antioch (in Pisidia) -Jerusalem -Caesarea { On Paul’s first missionary journey, from whom did he experience the greatest opposition? |type="()"} +The Jews -The Romans -The Greeks -All of the above { What was the central issue of the Jerusalem Council in about 50 AD? |type="()"} -Malicious gossip among church members. -Widows and orphans were being neglected in the charitable work of the church. +Whether non-Jewish converts should be required to observe the laws of Moses, especially circumcision. -Whether church leaders should be permitted to marry. { On Paul’s second missionary journey, what led him to cross unexpectedly from Asia Minor over to Greece? |type="()"} -He decided he would like to see Athens -He was being pursued by the police -He was offered a large sum of money if he would go to Greece +He had a vision at Troas, in Asia Minor { Which of the following happened on Paul’s third missionary journey? |type="()"} -The idol makers at Ephesus had Paul expelled from the city because they were losing business as a result of his teachings. -He revisited the communities of his first two journeys for the purpose of strengthening the disciples and continuing the momentum which had been established. -He miraculously raised a man to life who had been killed by falling from a third storey window. +All of the above. { After Paul’s arrest in Jerusalem, the Roman governor, Felix, decided there was no basis for the charges against him. Why, then, did he not set him free? |type="()"} -He personally disliked Paul. +He did not want to antagonize the Jewish leadership. -He was motivated by anti-semitism. -All of the above. { After his arrest in Jerusalem, Paul remained imprisoned, though with considerable liberty, in Caesarea for two years. Which of the following is true of Caesarea? |type="()"} -It was the Roman administrative capital of Palestine. -The prevailing culture was Greco-Roman. -It was the site of many impressive buildings and an important seaport. +All of the above. { Why did Paul leave Caesarea and go to Rome? |type="()"} -Festus, the new governor, wanted to get him out of his way. -Paul had escaped from prison and needed to get as far away as possible. +Paul appealed to Caesar, which under Roman law meant that he must be tried in Rome. -None of the above. { Paul was executed during a persecution of Christians by Emperor Nero after the Great Fire of Rome. In approximately which year was he executed? |type="()"} -29 AD -50 AD +66 AD -95 AD { Apart from the occasional persecutions, why did the Roman Empire provide an ideal setting for the growth of Christianity? |type="()"} -It had a good infrastructure (roads, shipping, etc) -It was generally tolerant with regard to various religious practices -Law and order were strictly enforced throughout the empire by the Roman army. +All of the above { In addition to his inestimable contribution to the spread of Christianity, what influential legacy did Paul leave to the world? |type="()"} +A collection of brilliant theological writings -A book of church by-laws -A book of prayer -An award-winning novel </quiz> {| class="messagebox" id="practicum" align="center" style="text-align:center;background-color: CornSilk;" |- |Read the following passages in Acts: Chapter 19 21:15 to 23:10 25:1-12 28:16-30 |} Next lesson: [http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Biblical_Studies_(NT)/The_Epistles_of_Paul:_Saved_by_Grace] Home Page:[http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Biblical_Studies_(NT)] {{subpage navbar}} [[Category:Biblical studies]] 3d6k3mr8i9igf37pbi60mwswkybyr8f 0 97040 2415603 2371865 2022-08-16T16:39:16Z 108.5.154.173 /* World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA) */ The WSPA is now called World Animal Protection per their website: https://www.worldanimalprotection.us/we-are-world-animal-protection-we-were-known-wspa wikitext text/x-wiki {{Notice|The validity of this article has been questioned. [[Talk:Environmental and Animal Groups: Views on Hunting|Discuss]]}} '''[[Introduction]]''' There are a number of local, state, national and international organizations that publicly concern themselves with caring for animals and protecting the environment. Some have their foundations a century ago or longer (such as [http://learningtogive.org/papers/paper138.html Audubon Society] in the late 1800s), while other (such as [http://www.lovecanadageese.com/meetchoo.html Love Canada Geese] in 2005). Among these groups are several that clearly state their opposition to any form of hunting (particularly the [http://www.all-creatures.org/cash/accident-center.html Committee to Abolish Sport Hunting]), while others publicly align themselves with hunters (including [http://wilderness.org/content/pr-Buffalo-Gap-National-Grasslands-20100616 The Wilderness Society ]). Some organizations have chosen to maintain a neutral or "apolitical" stance with regard to hunting, or take exception to particular types of hunting or targets of hunting (such as [http://www.defenders.org/programs_and_policy/wildlife_conservation/imperiled_species/wolves/wolf_recovery_efforts/alaska_wolves/background/wolf_control_and_aerial_gunning.php Defenders of Wildlife], which focuses much of its effort on ending aerial hunting of wolves) but typically do not address the broader ecological impact of hunting. '''Purpose''' This wiki is designed primarily with the objective of providing information for anyone interested in learning more about the specific views on hunting held by numerous purportedly pro-animal and pro-environment organizations. As with any wiki, it is intended as with the goal of encouraging collaborative efforts to add more information and more groups as new knowledge is found or developed. The initial outline is focused on identifying organizations that belong to three main groups as described above: *Organizations that publicly oppose hunting *Organizations that ally themselves with hunters *Organizations that are self-described Within each group, organizations will be added as support for their group membership becomes available (whether as quoted on their websites, or confirmed by an official representative via documented communication), and anecdotes, examples, and other information related to each organization's views on hunting will be used to diew of where these environmental and animal organizations stand on hunting. ==Organizations Publicly Opposed to Hunting== All organizations in this group have adopted a public stance that While in some instances the focus of the group is on a specific type of hunting, or a specific animal or geographical region, they support an end to hunting. In a few instances there are some organizations in this group that note that some cultures still rely on hunting for sustenance (most notably [http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/article750161.ece Inuit tribes]), but they oppose hunting for any other reason, oppose hunting of any endangered species, oppose any "inhumane" forms of hunting, and are strongly concerned with the ecological impact of hunting. ===[http://www.goagro.org/ AGRO] -- A National Coalition to End Aerial Gunning of Wildlife=== AGRO focuses on ending the practice on aerial gunning of wildlife, but additionally opposes any other lethal means of preventing wild animals from harming domestic animals. Their stance is that the natural world is sacred and that we need to reconnect with the natural world, which includes respecting the lives of animals. From their [http://www.goagro.org/ website]: "It's time for agribusiness to take responsibility and use well-documented, non-lethal precautions to protect their livestock from native wildlife and not rely upon killing." "For centuries, we've been 'conquering' the natural world rather than honoring it for its sacredness. If we continue to hold onto this belief, we won't grasp that the real basic concern for this century is not simply divine-human or inter-human relations, but our relations with planet." ===[http://www.animalsvoice.com/ The Animals Voice]=== The Animals Voice is primarily a website and magazine-based publication launched in 1987, but its use as a tool by activists for networking and dissemination of information has given it a fair amount of heft in pro-animal communities. They support animal liberation, and are against recreational hunting, typically advocating a vegetarian lifestyle. "The Animals Voice Statement of Purpose: The purpose of The Animals Voice is to effect the liberation of animals. Through our online database of hard-hitting editorial and photography, resources and networking, as well as through our award-winning, international animal rights magazine, we have already proven our potentctivists and adversaries as being a powerful force in the changes necessary for the betterment in the living and dying conditions for animals around the planet. We promise to continue our work in globally networking activists and organizations, and in educating and enlightening everyone who visits or reads our material about the desperate plight of animals and what part they can do to cause animal liberation." ===[http://www.aspca.org/ ASPCA: The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals]=== The ASPCA was founded by [[Wikipedia:Henry Bergh|Henry Bergh]] in 1866 and works to rescue abused animals and to support animal shelters nationwide. It was the first humane society to be established in North America, and is one of the largest in the world today. Henry Bergh believed that animals should be protected by the law, and the ASPCA has the legal authority to investigate and make arrests for crimes against animals. While its primary focus has been on maintaining shelters and preventing the abuse of domestic pets, the ASPCA also has a strong policy against sport hunting. From their [http://www.aspca.org/about-us/policy-positions/hunting.html website]: "Because there is no guarantee that wildlife taken in sport hunting will be killed outright or spared the distress of pursuit and possible wounding and escape, the ASPCA is opposed to hunting animals for sport, even if the animals killed in this way are subsequently consumed. The ASPCA does recognize that wildlife management may be necessary in situations where animal and human interests collide, but urges that management strategies be nonlethal wherever possible and never include avoidable suffering or distress." ===[http://www.animalaid.org.uk/h/n/AA/HOME/ Animal Aid]=== Founded in 1977, Animal Aid is a British organization that is against animal abuse and promotes a "cruelty-free lifestyle." Their campaigns range from promoting vegetarianism and veganism to ending activities such as the "game" bird industry, fox hunting, factory farming, and animal experimentation. From their [http://www.animalaid.org.uk/h/n/AA/HOME/ website]: "Animal Aid are opposed to all forms of animal cruelty - and we therefore strongly oppose hunting. Hunting with hounds has no place in modern Britain. It should have ended years ago along with cock-fighting, bear-baiting and dog-fighting. When animal cruelty is portrayed by some as a 'sport' to get pleasure from it debases society and promotes even more animal cruelty. It is not just foxes and other wildlife who suffer. Horses and dogs are also victims of hunting - viewed simply as 'sporting accessories' many sustain fatal injuries during the gruelling chase." ===[http://www.bestfriends.org/ Best Friends Animal Society]=== Best Friends was started in Arizona in the 1970s as a no-kill shelter that eventually grew into a large animal sanctuary, currently situated in Angel Canyon, Utah. They gained non-profit charity status in 1991 and provide a home to over 1,500 animals, and their primary goal is [http://network.bestfriends.org/groups/nmhp/default.aspx No More Homeless Pets], a community that is part of the larger Best Friends Network. They have a significant internet presence through this network, which provides news and information as well as a way for animal activists to connect both online and off. Their Animal Help staff responds to over 20,000 requests for assistance each year, and while their focus is on domestic/companion animals, they also have a strong anti-hunting stance, which was shared by Member Liaison Dori Jeurink: "Best Friends is a no-kill organization, and we are dedicated to kindness towards all creatures. Therefore, we do not support activities that objectify animals, reduce their quality of life, or harm them in any way." ===[http://www.bigwildlife.org/index.php Big Wildlife]=== Founded in 2006 as a voice for carnivores such as bears, cougars, coyotes and wolves, Big Wildlife operates essentially as a public relations firm for wildlife, providing training for activists, supporting grassroots movements and animal campaigns, and educating the public about wildlife. According to Communications Director Brian Vincent (who is personally against all hunting), "We oppose all hunting of top and mid-level predators, such as bears, cougars, wolves, wolverine, coyotes, and others" Big Wildlife additionally supports a vegan lifestyle, is against the fur trade, and discourages "using words like 'manage,' 'cull,' 'harvest,' 'game species,' and 'resource' in reference to wildlife. Such words are often used by government officials, trophy hunters, the fur industry, agribusiness, and other interests to desensitize the public to the brutal reality of lethal control programs, trapping, snaring, and trophy hunting". ===[http://www.bornfree.org.uk/ Born Free Foundation]=== Started in England in 1984 by the stars of the film ''Born Free,'' Virginia McKenna and Bill Travers, Born Free is "devoted to compassionate conservation and animal welfare." Their goals include protecting endangered species, preventing animal suffering, establishing wildlife sanctuaries, and enabling people to live side by side with wildlife in their local communities without conflict. They are opposed to captive breeding, canned hunting, and trophy hunting. From their [http://www.bornfree.org.uk/ website]: "Whether its fighting the ivory trade and ‘sport’ hunting, opposing killing wild animals for ‘bushmeat’, or challenging the exploitation of wild animals in zoos and circuses, Born Free takes action on the front line for animals." ===[http://www.bornfreeusa.org/index.php Born Free USA (previously Animal Protection Institute)]=== API was co-founded in 1968 by Belton Mouras and Ken Guerrero, and Born Free russian was established in the United States in 2002 as a companion organization to the Born Free Foundation. Their mission statement is "to alleviate animal suffering, protect threatened and endangered species in the wild, and encourage everyone to treat wildlife everywhere with respect and compassion." Born Free USA has been involved in causes aimed to prevent funds earmarked for conservation from supporting hunting, opposing a Senate [http://www.siskiyoudaily.com/news/x244359007/County-writes-letter-supporting-bill-aimed-at-hunting-conservation bill] aimed at hunting conservation. Born Free USA “objects to this bill because it would fund projects related to hunting and habitat improvements for that purpose.” ===[http://www.canadageese.org/coalition.html Coalition to Prevent the Destruction of Canada Geese]=== Founded in 1993 to put a halt to the needless killing of Canada geese in Rockland County, New York, the Coalition is focused on nonlethal conflict resolution between humans and Canada geese, but publicly condemns hunting of other animals for sport as well. They also list other anti-hunting sites on their website. The Coalition to Prevent the Destruction of Canada Geese is also actively involved in exposing the wild life in promoting hunting. Since wildlife agencies often rely on hunting license fees to pay managers' salaries, and most agency managers are (or were) hunters, the primary motivation behind wildlife agencies' supporting hunting is based on obtaining more resources, not "managing" wildlife. From their mission statement also work to expose how the economic infrastructure of government wildlife management actually perpetuates human-wildlife conflicts while simultaneously encouraging a bias that favors killing as a form of problem solving. We seek a complete renovation of this operating philosophy. Until such time, we advocate the use of humane, non-lethal methods to resolve or minimize the conflicts between Canada geese and humans." ===[http://www.caft.org.uk/ Coalition to Abolish the Fur Trade (CAFT)]=== Formed in 1997, CAFT is a grass-roots campaign against the fur trade in Great Britain. "Although we only focus on anti-fur campaigns we are opposed to all animal cruelty / animal use, including all forms of hunting" ===[http://www.all-creatures.org/cash/ Committee to Abolish Sport Hunting (CASH)]=== CASH is a committee of Wildlife Watch, Inc. and its mission is "to accomplish what its name says in the shortest possible time." CASH provides materials to effectively argue against different methods of hunting as well as other lethal methods of resolving human-wildlife conflicts (baiting, trapping, etc.). Member Peter Muller's provides responses to common rationales used by hunters to "justify" deer hunting, including basic points to make as well as documents supporting anti-hunting perspectives: ====Argument from Overpopulation==== Some hunters argue that without hunting, wildlife populations will exceed "social carrying capacity." In fact, hunted herds have been shown to demonstrate a greater percentage increase in population one year after a hunt than unhunched herds ====Argument from Ecological Destruction==== Some hunters argue that "culling" deer populations is necessary to preserve plant life, or that "culling" predators is necessary to preserve prey species. However, many more factors are involved in environmental changes such as decreases in a particular plant species from climate change to soil erosion, and hunting is more likely to contribute to imbalances in the ecosystem than to serve as a "corrective" for ecological change. ====Argument that Overpopulation contributes to Car Collisions==== Some hunters argue that if it weren't for hunting, there would be even more wildlife-car collisions. In fact, more animals are on the move during hunting seasons, resulting in a consistent ''increase'' in collisions between wildlife and automobiles. ====Argument that Overpopulation contributes to Lyme Disease==== Some hunters argue that the more dense the deer population, the more rampant Lyme Disease will be. In fact, the population of ticks carrying Lyme disease is related to the population density of rodents rather than deer. ====Argument that Non-Lethal Methods of Population Control are Impractical/Expensive==== According to CASH, "Immunocontraception is relatively inexpensive and has worked successfully in parks and urban/suburban settings" ===Compassion Over Killing (COK)=== Paul Shapiro was a high school sophomore in Washington when he started Compassion Over Killing in 1995. While the primary goal of COK's campaigns is the promotion of a vegetarian lifestyle and an end to animal abuse, focusing on an end to animal cruelty in agriculture, it does support an anti-hunting stance. Literature on the website describes hunting as a form of animal abuse and cruelty. ===Friends of Animals=== Founded in 1957, Friends of Animals "advocates for the right of animals to live free according to their own terms." They are a strongly anti-hunting organization that also supports a vegetarian lifestyle. One of their main goals is to abolish hunting altogether, and they are "unequivocally against hunting and the destructive methods of 'wildlife management' that caters to, and fosters hunting. Hunting is an act against Nature on both moral and biological grounds." According to Friends of Animals, hunting is cruel, deceitful, socially unjustifiable, and ecologically disruptive: ====Hunting is Cruel==== Hunting causes gratuitous pain to wild animals. ====Hunting is Deceitful==== Hunters try to disguise the reality of hunting with euphemisms such as "harvests," "culls," "wildlife management," "bag limits," "sport," "game," and many others. ====Hunting is Socially Unjustifiable==== It is an unnecessary waste of life and resources. ====Hunting is Ecologically Disruptive==== Hunting disrupts natural ecological dynamics. "Wildlife management" of deer in particular actually increases the number of deer, but alters the proportion of males to females since hunting almost solely targets male deer, and since hunters seek out "trophy" deer it is typically the strongest of the species that are killed. ===The Fund for Animals=== Cleveland Amory, an author and animal advocate, founded The Fund for Animals in 1967. In 2005, the Fund became part of the Humane Society of the United States (HSUS). "The Fund has won landmark lawsuits to protect animals from hunting and trapping, and the organization is currently fighting for animals with the help of the Animal Protection Litigation section. This group of full-time attorneys, law clerks, and pro bono law firms are defending animals in federal and state courts from cruelty and abuse. The Fund's current cases seek to protect endangered species, stop the abuse of circus elephants, keep national wildlife refuges safe for animals, and much more." As an HSUS subsidiary, the Fund no longer has separate public positions. Fact sheets issued by the Fund for Animals before the merger are available on the Internet Archive. ====Sport Hunting is Ecologically Destructive==== Hunters kill many endangered and threatened animals, including elephants, rhinos, and giraffes. In addition, hunters annually position themselves along the migratory flyways and harvest millions of ducks. Although it is illegal to not eat these birds, some hunters shoot just for sport. Though some states are outlawing lead in bullets, many hunters still use toxic lead shot, except in waterfowl hunting, where it is illegal across the U.S. ====Hunting Disrupts Natural Selection==== Individuals who would not normally have reproductive success will have it because hunters do not select the weakest animals as nature does. By often killing the ablest, hunters downgrade the quality of the gene pool. ====State Wildlife Agencies Propagate 'Game' Species==== On average, over 90 percent of funds go to "game" species projects, when non-game animals make up a majority of the ecosystem. State agencies also spend millions of dollars burning and clearcutting forests and stocking "game" animals. Finally, further funds are directed towards enforcing hunting regulations, providing hunter education courses, and building target shooting ranges. ====Hunters Endanger Non-Hunters==== Non-hunters are not safe walking in the woods during hunting season, have fewer chances to view wild animals, and are not given the same voice in determining how wildlife is treated. Although hunters make up less than 10% of the public, they are given an undue influence in determining wildlife and land "management" policies. "For these reasons and others, The Fund for Animals opposes sport hunting and seeks a restructuring of state wildlife boards and commissions to ensure that all parties legitimately concerned about wildlife are proportionately represented." ===Global Anti Hunting Coalition=== Founded by Anthony Marr in 2009, this brand-new organization currently has a myspace page and a blog, but is already being promoted by other organizations that oppose hunting, who are posting Mr. Marr's 36-states-in-6-months Compassion for Animals Road Expedition #7 (CARE-7). "All groups and individuals opposed to hunting, trapping, and culling (including recreational hunting, trophy hunting, whaling, dolphin slaughter, seal massacre, wildlife population reductions, the illegal wildlife trade, the fur industry, etc.) can become part of this newly formed coalition, which has the capacity to significantly strengthen any local campaign by bringing the attention, people, resources, and pressure of our growing network of allies to bear on animal exploiters, torturers, and murderers. On December 9, 2009, with barely a week's notice and with little backing behind us, we made a sizeable impact at Shawnee Mission Park in Kansas City by means of the Funeral Motorcade for the Deer, which garnered coverage by at least 2 TV channels, 2 newspapers and 2 radio stations." ===The Humane Society of the United States (HSUS)=== Founded in 1954, The Humane Society of the United States (HSUS) "seeks a humane and sustainable world for all animals—a world that will also benefit people. We are America's mainstream force against cruelty, exploitation and neglect, as well as the most trusted voice extolling the human-animal bond." The HSUS supports both local humane societies and a Human Wildlife Services program. Their campaigns target such activities as dogfighting and cockfighting, abusive puppy mills, factory farming, canned hunting, internet hunting, horse slaughter, dove shooting, pheasant stocking, bear trophy hunting, contest kills, poaching, fox pens, and the fur trade. The Human Society's policy statement on wildlife and hunting makes it clear that "The HSUS actively seeks to eliminate the most inhumane and unfair sporthunting practices, such as the use of body-gripping traps, baiting, use of dogs, pigeon shoots, stocking of animals for shooting, and fee-hunting on enclosed properties. Unfortunately, the welfare of animals may, on occasion, necessitate the killing of wildlife. When such killing is permitted, it must be used as a last resort, be demonstrably necessary, and be conducted by responsible officials, and the methods utilized must result in an instantaneous and humane death. The legitimate needs of human subsistence may also sometimes necessitate the killing of wildlife. In such cases, killing should be accomplished in a humane and non-wasteful manner. Individuals of endangered or threatened species must be protected from subsistence hunting." ===[http://www.idausa.org/ In Defense of Animals (IDA)]=== In 1983, veterinarian Elliot Katz began IDA -- initially called Californians for Responsible Research -- when he joined with others to take legal action against UC Berkeley for violations of the Animal Welfare Act. Today, IDA campaigns against animal abuse in Korea, animals in entertainment, dissection, foie gras, fur, puppy mills, and vivisection, among other atrocities. The IDA Wildlife Campaign includes literally dozens of anti-hunting campaigns, and IDA is a proponent of banning sport hunting, blood sports, trophy hunting, and aerial hunting. Their website includes non-lethal alternatives for coexisting with wildlife without conflict. ===International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW)=== The International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) was started in 1969 in New Brunswick, Canada by a small group of people who wanted to stop the the commercial hunt for seal pups in Canada. IFAW now has offices worldwide dedicated to several animal protection campaigns: providing emergency relief during disasters, ending commercial whaling, stopping ivory poaching, fighting the illegal wildlife trade, ending the seal hunt, helping dogs and cats, supporting humane education, and banning hunting with hounds. While IFAW's anti-hunting activities tend to be directed towards specific campaigns, such as ending trophy hunting of bears and banning canned hunting and captive breeding, they are generally against sport hunting, though there may be minor variations between international offices. The Animal Welfare Manifesto makes it clear that IFAW favors strong restrictions on trophy hunting and wildlife hunting as well as the banning of commercial whaling, elephant hunting, fox hunting with dogs, and seal hunting. In addition, James Icicle, the regional director of IFAW in East Africa, takes an anti-sport hunting stance. IFAW does, however, work with more "apolitical" groups as well as state and federal wildlife agencies from time to time, so IFAW may be a borderline case for inclusion in the anti-hunting category. ===Last Chance for Animals (LCA)=== Founded in 1984 by Hollywood actor Chris DeRose, LCA began as an anti-vivisection organization using nonviolent strategies and "direct action." LCA has expanded its campaigns to include protests against factory farming, the fur trade, animal experimentation, and animals in entertainment. They also campaign against pet theft, puppy mills, and animal fighting and promote animal sanctuaries, humane education, and vegan activism. Along with Compassion Over Killing and several other organizations, they are a member of the Coalition to Abolish the Animal Enterprise Terrorism Act. LCA's statement of philosophy: "Last Chance for Animals (LCA) recognizes that animals have the ability to experience pain, and as such they deserve certain basic rights protecting them from pain caused by humans. LCA believes that non-human animals should not be subjected to suffering and exploitation by humans because alternatives exist for nearly every traditional 'usage' of animals. LCA opposes the use of animals for scientific curiosity, entertainment, clothing, and food. LCA recognizes the use of non-human animals in medical experimentation as both immoral and of questionable scientific validity due to the tremendous biological difference between species. LCA's work advocates conscious and informed lifestyle decisions, and the organization is committed to disseminating truthful information about societal animal abuse to improve the treatment of animals." Although hunting is not one of LCA's campaign areas, "Yes LCA is against hunting . . . If you go to youtube our founder Chris DeRose recently did a video asking President Obama to demand an end to all Whaling" ===Love Canada Geese=== Love Canada Geese is primarily a website by Choo and Earl Rosenbloom, but is included here as it is also a source of information on Canada geese and humane (cruelty-free and non-lethal) methods of geese population control. In addition, many articles on the site address problems with hunting and non-lethal alternatives to wildlife "management." According to Choo, "Love Canada Geese is definitely opposed to hunting of all animals" and "We need to get the message out there that hunting should be banned." The website also includes an article by Barry Kent MacCay that debunks several common Hunting Myths. ===Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC)=== NRDC was founded in 1970 as an organization of law students and attorneys interested in environmental protection law. Their mission statement describes their purpose as "to safeguard the Earth: its people, its plants and animals and the natural systems on which all life depends." However, they have a clear history of an extreme anti-hunting agenda. In 2021 they petitioned the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) and Department of the Interior (DOI) to publish a rule prohibiting the transportation of any portion of any legally hunted animal across state lines. This extreme proposal includes all meat (even if processed by a butcher), hide, horns, even finished taxidermy items. Every instance of crossing a state line in possession of any of these materials would be a violation of the federal Lacey act. ===Northwest Animal Rights Network (NARN)=== Northwest Animal Rights Network was founded in 1986 as a Seattle-based animal rights organization concerned with ending animal exploitation in the food, entertainment, experimentation, and fashion industries. NARN's campaigns include anti-cruelty litigation in Washington State, banning foie gras in Seattle, demonstrating against vivisection and animal experimentation, supporting activists in prison, and vegan outreach. NARN is also against factory farming, the fur trade, and the use of animals in entertainment such as circuses, rodeos, dog and horse racing. While hunting is not one of NARN's main campaign issues, according to Peter Keller (a member of the Board of Directors), "we are indeed against hunting. We recently partnered with the Global Anti-Hunting Coalition in the stance against hunting, and co-ordinated an action with them in their tour across the US and had a successful protest action with them to start off this years' tour for them. In short, we oppose any violence taken against any animals, and hunting is an egregious form of it. We also work for the animals that are confined and tortured for the food, fashion, research, and entertainment industries, because we feel animals shouldn't be used for those purposes". ===Progressive Animal Welfare Society (PAWS)=== Founded in 1967, PAWS operates both an animal shelter and a wildlife rehabilitation center. Also known as People Helping Animals, PAWS devotes time to both companion animals and wildlife in its campaigns, and takes a very explicit anti-hunting stance. Their work is focused in Washington State, where they made a point of encouraging non-hunting citizens to participate in the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife 2008 wildlife management survey, since "92% of those surveyed held hunting licenses!" PAWS operates a no-kill shelter, promotes spaying and neutering clinics, and led a campaign to ban the use of cruel traps on wildlife in 2000. PAWS began wildlife rehabilitation in 1981. "Our goal is to return the animals to the wild with the best possible chance of survival. We do not keep any wild animals permanently in captivity, for display or for educational purposes." PAWS also educates adults and children on how to peacefully co-exist with wild animals, works to pass legislation to protect wild animals in Washington State, and provides practical humane solutions for solving conflicts with wildlife. Their vision is for "this world to be a place where all people recognize the intrinsic value of animal life, are mindful of the impact of their daily behaviors and choices on animals, and consistently demonstrate compassion and respect" and their core beliefs include "the recognition and respect of the intrinsic value of animal life," "the right of animals to be free from cruelty, neglect and abuse," and "the preservation of wild species and their habitats." "Wild animals are best served by being allowed to live undisturbed in their natural environment. Wild animals should not be owned as household pets or property. Wild animals of any kind should not be used for commercial exploitation." ===Royal Societies for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) -- Australia=== The first Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in Australia was founded in Victoria in 1871. It joined with subsequently founded societies to become the Royal Societies for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in 1923. Its mission is to prevent cruelty to animals, and its campaigns include promoting cage-free farming, improving the treatment of dairy cows, promoting spaying and neutering of companion animals, banning duck hunting, opposing the live export trade of animals, and encouraging humane methods of animal control, among many others. RSPCA Australia has clearly worded policies against hunting animals for sport as well as specifically against hunting wild animals for sport. ===Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) -- United Kingdom=== Founded in 1824 as the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, RSPCA was granted royal status by Queen Victoria in 1840. It was the first animal welfare charity to be founded anywhere in the world.Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals RSPCA has strong anti-hunting policies, and is particularly opposed to falconry, hunting of animals with dogs or other animals, shooting for "sport," the use of air weapons or bows, the pinioning of "game" birds, the killing of predatory animals, and the use of lead gun-shot. "The RSPCA is opposed, in principle, to the taking or killing of wild animals, or the infliction of any suffering upon them." This also includes policies against trapping (with the exception of humane live traps used for temporary relocation or rehabilitation purposes). ===Vegan Outreach=== Originally founded as Animal Liberation Action in 1993, the name was changed to Vegan Outreach in 1995. Promoting a vegan lifestyle and against any killing of animals, Vegan Outreach emphasizes the importance of promoting a "cruelty-free" lifestyle rather than obsessively ensuring that not one iota of animal product is consumed. They are primarily a leafleting organization that publishes brochures such as this one to educate people about vegan options and the animal product "industry." While not specifically targeting hunting, Vegan Outreach believes in general that animals should not be viewed as "commodities" and is against the slaughter of animals. ===Wildlife Watch, Inc.=== Incorporated in 1997 in New Paltz, New York, Wildlife Watch seeks to protect wild animals through education, political awareness, and direct aid. Its mission is "to help connect People, the Environment, and Wildlife," and it offers non-harmful, non-lethal solutions to wildlife "conflicts." Wildlife Watch sponsors a hotline to put callers in contact with wildlife rehabilitators, and publishes a journal called ''Wildlife Watch Binocular.'' Articles promote empathy for other species and environmentalism. Wildlife Watch generally supports vegetarian or low-meat lifestyles, collaborates with other anti-hunting organizations such as CASH to keep hunters off private property, and promotes awareness that government wildlife agencies only protect "game" during certain times of year, doing so primarily to increase their own income through the sale of hunting licenses. Deer in the Headlights: It is a sad forest that Ted Williams exalts in "Wanted: More Hunters" [Incite, March-April]. In it, hunters assume the role of wolves and cougars (incidentally, killed off by hunters), and deer are killed to rid the world of Lyme disease. Natural predators kill the weakest and sickest members of prey species; human hunters prefer the best-as trophies. By removing the least fit, natural predators improve gene pools. By killing the healthiest and strongest-and leaving the most diseased-hunters weaken the species' gene pool. Williams writes, "Less than 10 percent of the public are hunters." In truth, it is about 6 percent: a tiny special-interest group linked to the weapons industry that helps fund wildlife management. Killing has never been a good ethical answer. May I remind you: We are not gods. Constance Young Wildlife Watch Inc. New Paltz, NY === World Animal Protection (formally World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA) ) === Founded in 1981 through the merger of the World Federation for the Protection of Animals (WFPA), founded in 1953, and the International Society for the Protection of Animals (ISPA), founded in 1959, WSPA is an international organization with 12 offices worldwide. WSPA's campaigns include protecting bears from cruelty and captivity, opposing the dog meat trade, ending deforestation and "culling" of wildlife species, putting a stop to factory farming, educating people worldwide on the importance of animal welfare, disaster management, and ending activities such as bullfighting and the commercial whale hunt. WSPA's beliefs and principles are as follows: *Animals have biologically determined instincts, interests and natures, and can experience pain and suffering. *Each individual animal has intrinsic value, and it is the responsibility of humans to ensure that their welfare is respected and protected. *Animals should live their lives free from avoidable suffering at the hands of humans, rather than be used inhumanely as ‘raw materials’ for the benefit of mankind. *The key difference between animal conservation and animal welfare is that conservation focuses on species, populations and habitats, whereas welfare focuses on the individual animal. *The welfare of an animal can be described as good if the individual is fit, healthy and free from suffering. *WSPA assesses the welfare of animals using the Five Freedoms (Farm Animal Welfare Council, 2003): # Freedom from hunger and thirst. # Freedom from discomfort. # Freedom from pain, injury and disease. # Freedom from fear and distress. # Freedom to express normal behavior. WSPA's policy on wild animals is clearly against hunting, and they advocate non-lethal methods of controlling "pest" or "invasive" species whenever possible. ==Organizations Allied with Hunters== While some organizations in this group do support limitations and regulations on hunting, none of them want to restrict hunting to subsistence-only hunting (e.g., they may not oppose recreational or sport hunting), and many of them are allied with hunters. ===Alaska Wildlife Alliance (AWA)=== Founded in 1978, AWA's mission is "the protection of Alaska's natural wildlife for its intrinsic value as well as for the benefit of present and future generations. The Alliance is your voice for promoting an ecosystem approach to wildlife management that represents the non-consumptive values of wildlife. AWA was founded by Alaskans and depends on the grassroots support and activism of its members." Though they are against trophy and sport hunting, their board includes both hunters and non-hunters, and they do support local hunting. While they claim in their official policy statement that this is "subsistence" hunting, they are not using the true meaning of subsistence, which is "the minimum (as of food and shelter) necessary to support life" . AWA considers hunting done by local hunters for the purposes of obtaining meat as "subsistence" hunting, though many of these hunters do not require meat for survival. While they do claim that local "subsistence" hunting has a less harmful ecological impact than factory farming, claiming that their hunting policies are "ecologically sustainable" , they still support the notion that human beings need to kill other animals for sustenance, and are allied with rural hunters "as a means of providing greater opportunities for true subsistence hunters and as a means of preserving indigenous cultural practices." ===American Forests=== Founded in 1875, American Forests is the oldest not-for-profit citizen's conservation organization in the United States. "American Forests believes that wildlife and fisheries are a critical component of healthy forest ecosystems. Hunting and fishing under proper regulation are valuable tools in the professional management of forest ecosystems. Recreation on our forests is an important and growing use of the resource on both public and private lands. Hunting and fishing under appropriate regulation are legitimate forms of forest recreation." ===American Humane Association=== Founded in 1877, American Humane describes itself as an organization for protecting children and animals. Although American Humane has come out against "sport" hunting, their definition of recreational hunting as described explicitly in their Animal Protection Position Statement is limited to "canned" hunting, internet hunting, and trapping. Within this context, the stated primary goal of American Humane is to ensure that animals killed by hunters do not suffer unnecessarily, but they do support hunters. From their position statement: "American Humane strongly opposes any animal hunt in which the target animal is confined or tame, in which the hunter fires on an animal with a remotely controlled weapon, or which uses animal traps that cause indiscriminate and unnecessary suffering. These practices involve no sport or skill, are denounced by true hunters and outdoorsmen, and result in painful deaths to thousands of unsuspecting animals, many of whom have been tamed and are unafraid of humans." ====Canned Hunting==== Animals are kept within a confined area, where hunters often pay to shoot them. In addition, animals used in canned hunts are often geographically displaced from their native habitats, which can lead to the introduction of new diseases. Finally, the animals are often more used to people, and relatively tame and unafraid. American Humane comes out on the side of "true hunters," using the argument that "Most true hunters scorn canned animal shootings as unfair and unsporting." ====Internet Hunting==== Facilities for internet hunting allow users to shoot at animals from a remote location using a camera and a computer-controlled rifle. ====Trapping==== Steel-jaw traps in particular cause pain and suffering as animals caught in them are generally not killed immediately. In addition they are indiscriminate as any animal (including humans and domestic pets) may be caught in them. ===The Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies=== Founded in 1902 in Yellowstone National Park, they now represent fish and wildlife professionals in all U.S. states and territories as well as federal agencies. The Association professes the goal of "sound management and conservation" and works with hunters, providing resources for hunting and fishing as well as links to the National Shooting Sports Foundation on its website. This document states that "The Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies recognizes and supports properly regulated and managed hunting, fishing and trapping as appropriate management techniques for fish and wildlife and their habitat, which, in turn, provides recreational opportunities for everyone to enjoy. The Association recognizes the role of hunting, fishing and trapping as important activities in the development of our conservation heritage and hunters and anglers as important leaders in the conservation movement. The Association supports ethical and safe hunting, fishing and trapping, which respects wildlife and their habitat as important components of our legacy as wildlife enthusiasts and conservationists." ===Biodiversity Conservation Alliance=== BCA describes itself as "dedicated to protecting wildlife and wild places in Wyoming and surrounding states, particularly on public lands." Begun in 1988, their guiding principle is that "all species and ecosystems deserve protection." Their website makes little mention of hunting in one regard or another. However, the executive director, Erik Molvar, is himself a hunter, and provided the following information in an e-mail: None of the Endangered Species in Wyoming are allowed to be hunted under state regulations, so the hunting of Endangered Species is a non-issue. Biodiversity Conservation Alliance is not against hunting as a general rule, and I myself am a hunter. We often advocate on behalf of protecting lands important to hunters. We do oppose some particularly objectionable practices, such as prairie dog shooting (which is not hunting due to the fact that it lacks a sporting element) and bear-baiting. Best wishes, Erik Molvar ===The Delta Waterfowl Foundation=== Founded in 1938 as a waterfowl research facility in Manitoba, Delta Waterfowl is an explicitly pro-hunting organization, "the future of waterfowl and waterfowl hunting." Though primarily concerned with duck hunting, Delta Waterfowl also advocates using traps as a way of controlling duck predators. They have partnered with U.S. Bank, Geico, Go-Devil, Original Log Homes, Hunting Retriever Club, SportDog, Purina, Buck Knives, Cabela's, Federal Premium Ammunition, and shotgun manufacturers Stoeger, Mossberg, and Remington. ===Ducks Unlimited=== Founded in 1937 by a small group of waterfowl hunters, Ducks Unlimited was started with the goal of raising money in the United States for waterfowl conservation in Canada, as the Canadian prairie is the breeding ground for most North American waterfowl. Today 90 percent of Ducks Unlimited members are hunters. Their website provides extensive resources for duck hunters, ranging from dog training to shooting and the use of decoys. Ducks Unlimited claims that hunters contribute more to conservation efforts than the general public. The Ducks Unlimited hunting position statement states that "Ducks Unlimited, Inc. supports the sustainable use and harvest of renewable resources based on sound science. We support waterfowl hunting, when conducted in an ethical and sustainable manner, as a legitimate and acceptable use of a renewable resource." "Ducks Unlimited, Inc. does not direct its resources toward the influence of firearm or hunting legislation unless the legislation is clearly and directly related to waterfowl habitat conservation". ===Izaak Walton League of America=== Founded in 1922 by a group of anglers, this organization was named after the 17th century author of ''The Compleat Angler.'' The League has over 260 chapters of grassroots volunteers who address issues such as restoring wildlife habitats, decreasing pollution, improving water quality, and educating "outdoor recreationists" on conservation ethics. "Protecting recreational shooting and hunting opportunities has long been part of the League’s mission," and they have partnerships with the shooting sports industry and government agencies in addition to operating over 100 shooting ranges throughout the country. "The Izaak Walton League of America believes hunting should be considered a valuable management tool where it is compatible with other resource uses and purposes" ===National Audubon Society (NAS)=== The National Association of Audubon Societies was incorporated in New York state in 1905. According to their website, "Audubon's mission is to conserve and restore natural ecosystems, focusing on birds, other wildlife, and their habitats for the benefit of humanity and the earth's biological diversity." Many hunters are members of NAS, and Ted Williams, a proponent of deer hunting and spokesman for hunters, is a regular contributor to ''Audubon Magazine'' . "The National Audubon Society has never been opposed to the hunting of game species if that hunting is done ethically and in accordance with laws and regulations designed to prevent depletion of the wildlife resource. We have made this clear repeatedly in official statements of policy, and it remains Audubon policy. Audubon will advocate restrictions on hunting, including the complete closure of a hunting season, whenever we are convinced that the welfare of the species involved requires it. However, we insist on sound scientific information before deciding these issues." ===National Wild Turkey Federation (NWTF)=== One of the National Wild Turkey Federation's primary goals after "the conservation of the wild turkey" is "the preservation of our hunting heritage." Established in 1973, NWTF also works to get women, children, and the disabled more involved in hunting. "The NWTF has led the charge in promoting youth hunting opportunities and has teamed up with the U.S. Sportsmen's Alliance and the National Shooting Sports Foundation to remove youth hunting barriers across the nation." They claim that hunters pay for wildlife conservation, and that conservation depends on getting more people involved in hunting. ===National Wildlife Federation (NWF)=== In 1936, Ding Darling, illustrator of the first Federal Duck Stamp to be purchased by waterfowl hunters, convinced President Franklin Roosevelt to invite over 2,000 hunters, anglers, and conservationists across the country to a conference in Washington, DC. Originally named the General Wildlife Federation, NWF "was formed with the idea of uniting sportsmen and all outdoor and wildlife enthusiasts behind the common goal of conservation." According to NWF, "American wildlife conservation is grounded in the belief that wildlife belongs to the people, a concept commonly known as the Public Trust Doctrine or the North American Model of Wildlife Conservation." NWF not only works with hunters, but actively promotes hunting as part of our "heritage," provides information on where to hunt, and views hunting as a "tradition" to be preserved and passed on to future generations. ===National Wildlife Refuge Association (NWRA)=== According to their website, "The National Wildlife Refuge Association (NWRA) is an independent non-profit organization whose mission is to conserve America’s wildlife heritage for future generations through strategic programs that protect, enhance, and expand the National Wildlife Refuge System and the landscapes beyond its boundaries that secure its ecological integrity. To achieve this mission, we advocate for the Refuge System with national and local decision-makers; educate and mobilize communities across the country in partnership with our nearly 190 refuge "Friends" affiliate organizations; and engage diverse partners to conserve critical wildlife habitat in refuge landscapes." NWRA is very much pro-hunting, supporting the sale of the "Duck Stamp" as a federal waterfowl-hunting license with proceeds going towards the purchase or lease of additional wetlands and grasslands refuge habitat. NWRA permits sport hunting in most of its refuges, with seasonal limitations, regulations on hunting ranges and bag limits, types of weapons and ammunition used, and so forth; for instance, at the Valentine National Wildlife Refuge in Nebraska, only non-toxic shot may be used, and the use of dogs for hunting coyotes is not permitted. Otherwise hunting regulations are determined by the state . ====Cooperative Alliance for Refuge Enhancement (CARE)==== In 1995, NWRA initiated a national coalition of 22 "wildlife, sporting, conservation, and scientific organizations." This Cooperative Alliance for Refuge Enhancement (CARE) is primarily intended to raise money for the National Wildlife Refuge System. "Representing over 15 million Americans who enjoy refuges for wildlife viewing, hunting, fishing, recreational pursuits and conservation, we remain dedicated to working together to ensure that Congress provides the Refuge System with adequate funding for the responsible management, operations and maintenance of the world’s largest network of wildlife conservation lands for the benefit of the fish and wildlife it sustains and for future generations of Americans." Signed on February 3, 2010, many of the coalition members present themselves as environmental organizations but seem to support recreational hunting . The organizations also each provide their individual rationales for joining CARE. The members of CARE are: *American Birding Association *American Fisheries Society *American Sportfishing Association *Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies *Congressional Sportsmen's Foundation *Defenders of Wildlife *Ducks Unlimited, Inc. *Isaak Walton League of America *Marine Conservation Biology Institute *National Audubon Society *National Rifle Association of America *National Wildlife Federation *National Wildlife Refuge Association *Safari Club International *The Corps Network *The Nature Conservancy *The Wilderness Society *The Wildlife Society *Trout Unlimited *U.S. Sportsmen's Alliance *Wildlife Forever *Wildlife Management Institute ===The Nature Conservancy=== Founded in 1951, The Nature Conservancy's stated aim is "to preserve the plants, animals and natural communities that represent the diversity of life on Earth by protecting the lands and waters they need to survive." The Nature Conservancy works in all 50 states and in more than 30 countries, addressing threats to conservation such as climate change. Hunting and fishing are permitted on several Nature Conservancy owned preserves, and "The Conservancy has worked with hunting and fishing organizations on projects large and small." The Nature Conservancy also supports wildlife "management" projects to eliminate "invasive species," claiming that relocation and sterilization are ineffective. ===[http://www.rmef.org/ Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation (RMEF)]=== In 1984, four hunters from Troy, Montana founded RMEF "to ensure the future of elk, other wildlife and their habitat." Today they have over 550 chapters, and count Federal Cartridge, Hunter's Specialities, North American Hunter, Remington, Sportsman's Warehouse, and other similar corporations among their official sponsors. ===[http://www.sierraclub.org/welcome/ Sierra Club]=== Founded in 1892, Sierra Club's mission statement is "To explore, enjoy, and protect the wild places of the earth; To practice and promote the responsible use of the earth's ecosystems and resources; To educate and enlist humanity to protect and restore the quality of the natural and human environment; and to use all lawful means to carry out these objectives." Sierra Club frequently partners with hunters on various projects, and a Sierra Club leader was elected as Vice President of the League of Kentucky Sportsmen. Sierra Club actively seeks out partnerships with hunters and anglers, and promotes the use of "ecofriendly" ammunition. The Sierra Sportsmen Network has its own page on the Sierra Club website, and promotes introducing children to hunting as well. Sierra Club's policy on sport hunting and fishing is that "Wildlife and native plant management should emphasize maintenance and restoration of healthy, viable native plant and animal populations, their habitats, and ecological processes. Acceptable management approaches include both regulated periodic hunting and fishing when based on sufficient scientifically valid biological data and when consistent with all other management purposes and when necessary total protection of particular species or populations. Because national parks are set aside for the preservation of natural landscapes and wildlife, the Sierra Club is opposed to sport hunting in national parks." The Sierra Club has a strong policy opposing trapping: "The Sierra Club considers body-gripping, restraining and killing traps and snares to be ecologically indiscriminate and unnecessarily inhumane and therefore opposes their use. The Sierra Club promotes and supports humane, practical and effective methods of mitigating human-wildlife conflicts and actively discourages the use of inhumane and indiscriminate methods. ===Western Watersheds Project (WWP)=== Founded in 1993 and headquartered in Idaho, WWP works to improve public lands management in eight western states, focusing in particular on the negative impact of livestock grazing. "WWP's scope of influence assures the agility and readiness necessary to promote recreational, hunting, fishing, wildlife, watershed, and water quality values across the west." While WWP advocates for protection from hunting for endangered species and several predators, in general they are "not opposed to hunting of game species", and part of their advocacy platform to protect wolves from hunting rests on the argument that more wolves will not significantly diminish the availability of "game" animals such as ungulates for hunting. ===[http://www.wildearthguardians.org/ WildEarth Guardians]=== Founded in 1989 in Santa Fe, New Mexico, WildEarth Guardians began as Forest Guardians, merging with a large carnivore protection non-profit in 2008 to become WildEarth Guardians. Their programs focus on wildlife, wild places, wild rivers, climate and energy. WildEarth Guardians has many programs dedicated to preventing hunting of specific species -- particularly carnivores such as mountain lions, bears, coyotes, and wolves -- and wants to abolish federal wildlife killing, particularly aerial gunning practices. They also monitor state wildlife management to ensure that endangered species receive the protection they are entitled to by law. However, WildEarth Guardians do not oppose sport hunting in general, and have worked with hunters on various projects, such as providing training courses to hunters to educate them on how to avoid over-hunting. According to Membership Communications Director Lori Colt, "Our organization is not anti-hunting, as we have done pro-active cougar hunter training in Colorado and New Mexico to save female cougars from being over-hunted. We do not have a policy with respect to hunting, although we are working to ban trapping in New Mexico." ===[http://wilderness.org/ The Wilderness Society]=== Founded in 1935, The Wilderness Society's goal is "to protect wilderness and inspire Americans to care for our wild places." They claim to use science as the foundation for all the work they do on issues such as wilderness, global warming, energy, roadless forests, and stewardship. The Wilderness Society portrays hunting in a positive light, stating that "Many hunters and anglers prize wilderness for its hunting and fishing opportunities, and for the ability tot having game harassed or habitat degraded by motorized vehicles." One of The Wilderness Society's most recent campaigns, to "protect" the Buffalo Gap National Grasslands in South Dakota, will permit hunting: “Protecting Buffalo Gap National Grassland will establish a lasting legacy for future generations of South Dakotans and all Americans,” said Bart Koehler Senior Wilderness Campaigns Director at The Wilderness Society. “Local compatriots have come together to build a bedrock grassroots approach to protect this treasured area so that grazing, hunting and other activities can continue.” In addition, the Tennessee Wilderness Act of 2010 is adding 20,000 acres to wilderness: "Wilderness protection is reserved for federal lands that rank high in scenery, biological diversity and recreational opportunities. Once added to the National Wilderness Preservation System, the areas are protected in perpetuity from logging, mining and road building but remain open to traditional recreational activities such as hunting, fishing, hiking and horseback riding on existing trails and roads." ===[http://www.wildlifeforever.org/ Wildlife Forever]=== Started in 1987, Wildlife Forever has funded over 600 projects in the U.S. and Canada, "through private special interest conservation groups, state game and fish departments and federal agencies. Wildlife Forever projects target research, management, land acquisition, and educational purposes. Special emphasis is placed upon grassroots programs." Wildlife Forever acquires land for "public recreation," including hunting, constructs and places bird and waterfowl nesting structures, and does GPS "research" on wildlife, as well as supporting fish hatcheries and controlled burning of forests. Their [http://www.wildlifeforever.org/about/mission.aspx mission] is "to conserve America's wildlife heritage thconservation education, preservation of habitat and management of fish and wildlife." Wildlife Forever takes a strong stance on the prevention and eradication of "invasive species", partnering with the U.S. Forest Service, the National Park Service, several state's Departments of Natural Resources, the Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation, the Sportsman's Club of Lake Vermillion, and the North American Fishing Club to address the issue. According to their website, "Whether you simply like to watch wildlife or you like to hunt and fish, your favorite outdoor past-time is being threatened. Invasive species are destroying the habitat and food sources of America's fish and wildlife." ===[http://www.wildlifemanagementinstitute.org/ Wildlife Management Institute (WMI)]=== "Founded in 1911, WMI is a private, nonprofit, scientific and educational organization, dedicated to the conservation, enhancement and professional management of North America's wildlife and other natural resources." WMI was established by sportsmen wanting to conserve wildlife populations in their natural habitats. "WMI works mostly on request with federal and provincial agencies, Congress, college and university researchers and educators, other private conservation organizations, and professional associations. It advises, testifies and, in a variety of other ways, provides educational services on timely wildlife-related issues." "WMI supports the wise use of wildlife, including regulated recreational hunting of designated populations. WMI endorses the proposition of game management, the concept of biological diversity and principles of ecology." One major component of WMI is the [http://www.wildlifemanagementinstitute.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=349&Itemid=135 Hunting Heritage Action Plan], which espouses the belief that "A critical link exists between hunting and wildlife conservation." They claim that a decline in the sale of hunting licenses is putting funding for conservation initiatives at risk, and that "hunting recreation" provides "billions of dollars in economic activity," additionally expressing concern that a decline in hunting may result in a loss of "important parts of the American fabric of life and rural culture." Numerous state wildlife departments and similar organizations have joined Hunting Heritage Action Plan in order to gain support for hunting. ===[http://joomla.wildlife.org/ The Wildlife Society (TWS)]=== In 1936, the Society of Wildlife Specialists was formed at the First North American Wildlife Conference in Washington, D.C. The following year, its name was changed to The Wildlife Society. The Society publishes scientific journals, technical reviews, position statements, and books. The Society monitors legislation affecting wildlife and natural resources but is primarily a professional scientific and educational organization. Despite their self-identification as a "science-based" organization, TWS receives much of its funding from pro-hunting organizations and their affiliates, such as the donation of Wyoming Commissioner Hunting License that was auctioned off at a fundraiser for $7,750. Among its [http://joomla.wildlife.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=117&Itemid=299 position statements], TWS advocates for "the replacement of lead-based ammunition and fishing tackle with nontoxic products, while recognizing that complete replacement may not be possible in specific circumstances." TWS also accepts "the use of wildlife resources for food, clothing, shelter, hunting, fishing, trapping, viewing, recreation, and as an indicator of environmental quality," adding that "Certain activities, such as hunting, fishing, trapping, wildlife rehabilitation, wildlife feeding, wildlife viewing, and other appreciative or recreational uses of wildlife, can have both positive and negative effects on natural resources." TWS subscribes to [http://joomla.wildlife.org/documents/positionstatements/41-NAModel%20Position%20Statementfinal.pdf The North American Model of Wildlife Conservation], which maintains that wildlife are Public Trust resources, eliminates markets for "game," allocates wildlife by law, states that wildlife should only be killed for a "legitimate" purpose, that wildlife are an "international resource," that science is the proper tool for discharge of wildlife policy, and that hunting should be "democratic." TWS is against baiting, canned hunting, hunting of endangered species, and favors regulations on uses of poisons and traps, but they fully support sport hunting, use of lethal methods to eradicate "invasive species," the fur trade, and a view of wildlife as "resources" for human use. "Today hunting has many social values, including recreation, subsistence, heritage, utilization of the harvestable surplus to benefit people, and control of overabundant wildlife populations. Sociologists have documented that hunting provides deep, central life meanings for many participants and their families and, in many cases, core identities to social, conservation, and cultural groups throughout the world. Among themes that have been identified are a historical connection to a time they value, an honest relationship with nature, and pursuit of the ideal of self-reliance. Further, hunting often elicits a deep passion among participants that transcends gender, race, and socioeconomic class. Additionally, outdoor pursuits such as hunting help teach valuable lessons in ethics and responsibility and help participants develop a conservation and land ethic." ===[http://www.worldwildlife.org/ World Wildlife Fund (WWF)]=== Founded in 1961, WWF has grown to become one of the largest "conservation" organizations in the world. Its [http://www.worldwildlife.org/who/index.html mission statement] is "to preserve the diversity and abundance of life on Earth and the health of ecological systems by * protecting natural areas and wild populations of plants and animals, including endangered species; * promoting sustainable approaches to the use of renewable natural resources; and * promoting more efficient use of resources and energy and the maximum reduction of pollution. We are committed to reversing the degradation of our planet's natural environment and to building a future in which human needs are met in harmony with nature. We recognize the critical relevance of human numbers, poverty and consumption patterns to meeting these goals." WWF is a major fund-raising organization working in over 100 countries worldwide, and as such is also strongly invested in a global economy. Their document on "Raising Revenues for Protected Areas" makes it clear that revenues generated by hunting (whether from recreational fees, taxes on hunting equipment, hunting licenses, or donations from hunters) are an important source of funding for "conservation" projects. Even for endangered species such as whales, they do not promote a ban on hunting but rather more "regulations," which are usually determined by agencies that also promote a global economy and tend to support hunters. Finally, WWF has worked directly with hunters on "wildlife management" strategies throughout the world, such as developing strategies along with hunters for "increasing prey populations" on hunting estates. ==Organizations Adopting an "Apolitical" Stance== Either on their websites or when contacted directly and asked for their views on hunting, organizations in this group outright decline to publicly state their views on hunting, or advocate only partial regulation of certain types or targets of hunting, but do not publicly endorse hunting or form alliances with hunters either. ===[http://www.adltexas.org/ Animal Defense League (ADL)]=== Founded in 1934, the Animal Defense League is a no-kill animal shelter in San Antonio, Texas. According to Beth Johnson, "We are an apolitical group concerning sport hunting and focus our attention on the stray dog and cat population in San Antonio." ===[http://www.awionline.org/ Animal Welfare Institute (AWI)]=== AWI was founded in 1951 with the stated purpose of "alleviating suffering inflicted on animals by humans." Their aim is to decrease cruelty and increase compassion towards animals on farms, in laboratories, and in the wild. According to AWI president Cathy Liss, "Our focus has been on those practices which cause extreme suffering-for example, we have fought against penning of foxes and coyotes (and I'm pleased to report success in prohibiting this brutal practice in Florida) and against the use of the barbaric steel jaw leghold trap. That said, we have not taken a position against killing if it is done painlessly and does not deplete populations or species. We do advocate strongly for non-lethal, humane means of managing wildlife conflicts, and we have a grant program to support research into development and expansion of such techniques. We were one of the first organizations to support use of immunocontraception of wildlife." ===[http://www.defenders.org/ Defenders of Wildlife]=== Founded in 1947 as Defenders of Furbearers, Defenders of Wildlife made a mission of protecting coyotes and other wildlife from lethal poisoning and steel-jawed leghold traps. Their focus is presently on the prohibition of aerial gunning of wolves, though they also address issues such as habitat conservation, global warming, international conservation, conservation science and economics, biodiversity, and legal efforts to protect and conserve wildlife and their habitats. "Defenders of Wildlife is neither an anti-hunting nor a pro-hunting organization, but most of its 430,000 members are non-hunters and their concern is with the restoration and protection of all species of wildlife and their habitats." "It has opposed hunting of some species and proposed reductions in bag limits to leave more prey for the wild predators . . . Its 'bottom line' goal is sustained populations of all native wildlife species for the enjoyment of all and for their intrinsic value." Generally speaking, Defenders of Wildlife opposes any changes in regulations that allow for the hunting of protected or endangered species, that permit any type of traps or poisoning, that involve aerial gunning, or that increase bag limits or the length of hunting seasons. However, they do not advocate doing away with sport hunting altogether, and support subsistence hunting. The recent signing of the CARE document by Defenders president Rodger Schlickeisen indicates that Defenders may be moving towards a more permissive stance on hunting. ===[http://www.earthisland.org/index.php Earth Island Institute]=== Founded in 1982, Earth Island Institute was started by David Brower, who was previously an executive director of the Sierra Club. It was original conceived of as an organization that would lend support to fledgling environmental projects by helping to get grants and funding for small organizations. Over 100 projects have been supported by Earth Island Institute in the past 25 years, with some going on to become independent organizations, such as the Rainforest Action Network. The Earth Island Institute [http://www.earthisland.org/index.php/projects/projectDirectory/ project directory] includes anti-hunting groups like Big Wildlife as well as many other animal and environmental organizations (such as the International Marine Mammal Project, the John Muir Project, and The Red Panda Network). However, according to one of the Executive Directors, John A. Knox, "Earth Island does not have a policy regarding hunting. That's a very broad topic, and if we did have a policy it would most likely concern a specific human and animal circumstance" ===[http://www.trailsafe.org/ TrailSafe]=== According to Trish Swain at TrailSafe, an organization that aims to do away with wildlife trapping, "The trapping issue is all we can handle. We have no official stance on hunting". ===[http://www.uan.org/ United Animal Nations (UAN)]=== Founded in 1987, the primary goal of UAN is to help animals in crisis and to strengthen human-animal bonds through a variety of programs. They are involved with humane education, disaster relief, preventing animal cruelty, and providing grants to pet owners whose pets are in life-threatening situations. Primarily working with domestic animals, UAN does not have an official stance on hunting. According to Director of Programs Karen Brown, "UAN does not have any programs that are specifically targeted at hunting, and it is not one of the issues that the organization deals with on a routine basis. While hunting issues arise only on a rare basis among our campaigns agenda and program services, when they do arise, we take a compassionate approach and consistently support anti-animal cruelty measures, especially those that prevent particularly inhumane and senseless practices. For example, UAN recently opposed the expansion of bear hunting in California because the proposal would have allowed an unlimited number of bears to be killed, permitted electronic technologies that make it easy to locate and kill bears at point-blank range, and expanded the hunting range and the hound training season, all without demonstrating any need for the change. Although UAN has consistently lent support or opposition to favor the "animals' side" in several legislative or regulatory situations, it's not accurate to say that UAN is an anti-hunting organization, since the issue is not something for which UAN frequently takes action, claims any special expertise or takes a leadership role. Therefore, it may not be appropriate to include UAN on a list of anti-hunting organizations since it could imply that UAN will be able to answer questions about hunting issues or provide expertise that we do not have." [[Category:Bioethics]] === References === {{Reflist}} t3o3vstbce09py2s2yu4d1afavwlv9z 0 98602 2415564 2415546 2022-08-16T13:00:59Z Jtneill 10242 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 03: Brain and physiological needs|third}} {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} <!-- {|- | [[File:Information_icon4.svg|middle|60px]] | The 2021 lecture is complete.<br> The 2022 lecture is in development. |} {{RoundBoxBottom}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> [[File:Brain 090407.jpg|250px|right]] ==Overview== This lecture: * explains the role of brain structures, neurotransmitters, and hormones in regulating motivational drives * discusses physiological needs, particularly thirst, hunger, and sexual motivation Take-home messages: * The brain is as much about motivation and emotion as it is about cognition and thinking * We underestimate how powerful biological urges can be as motivational forces when we are currently not experiencing them ==Brain app== Install this free app to explore the location and function of important brain structures: # [https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=org.dnalc.threedbrain 3D Brain] (Google Play) # [https://itunes.apple.com/au/app/3d-brain/id331399332?mt=8 3D Brain] (Apple Store) ==Multimedia== * [http://www.ted.com/talks/david_anderson_your_brain_is_more_than_a_bag_of_chemicals.html Your brain is more than a bag of chemicals] (David Anderson, 2013, TED talk, 16 mins) discusses neuroscientific research into motivation and emotion using a basic animal model (fruit fly). * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tZ4YnYUJnOQ&list=PL9JAHwJN4qyArhEyLUgU_MoGddk2PVTeb Hormones of hunger: Leptin and ghrelin] (Corporis, 2019, YouTube, 9:33 mins) explains how leptin and ghrelin work together to modulate hunger. ==Readings== # Chapter 03: The motivated and emotional brain ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2018|Reeve, 2018]]) # Chapter 04: Physiological needs ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2018|Reeve, 2018]]) ==Slides== * Lecture slides <!-- ** [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1wNaegpzIkQ4XyeRcN9BRXQ1gGNR5XX3cG7x_dtBGj6c/edit?usp=sharing Lecture 01 and 02 recap] (Google Slides) --> ** [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1oI8g-0xvSxETUwYOW1TLsRJdiSq3AbVq6YMlm8D3ivc/edit?usp=sharing Motivated and emotional brain] (Google Slides) ** [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1LgYQ9ydIaj5AJZEW7MkH1M2zVKxjWQe4vetZnOairQE/edit?usp=sharing Physiological needs] (Google Slides) <!-- ** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/motivation-and-emotion-introduction-and-historical-perspectives-recap Lecture 01 and 02 recap] (Slideshare) ** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/motivated-and-emotional-brain Motivated and emotional brain] (Slideshare) ** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/physiological-needs Physiological needs] (Slideshare) --> <!-- * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/brain-and-physiological-needs Lecture slides] (Slideshare) --> * Handouts ** [[Media:Brain and physiological needs 6 slides per page.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Brain and physiological needs 6 slides per page.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Brain and physiological needs 3 slides per page.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]:[[File:Brain and physiological needs 3 slides per page.pdf|100px]] ==See also== ;Wikiversity * [[/Images/]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Brain structures|Brain structures]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Hormones|Hormones]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Neurotransmitters|Neurotransmitters]] ;Book chapters * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Brain|Brain]] * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Hormones|Hormones]] * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neurotransmitters|Neurotransmitters]] * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Physiological|Physiological needs]] ;Wikipedia * [[w:Autonomic nervous system|Autonomic nervous system]] * [[w:ERG theory|ERG theory]] * [[w:Nucleus (neuroanatomy)|Nucleus (neuroanatomy)]] * [[w:Parasympathetic nervous system|Parasympathetic nervous system]] * [[w:Sympathetic nervous system|Sympathetic nervous system]] * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] ;Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Historical development and assessment skills|Historical development and assessment skills]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Next lecture) ;Tutorials * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] <!-- ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Australian Bureau of Statistics (2013). [http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/4338.0~2011-13~Main%20Features~Overweight%20and%20obesity~10007 Overweight and obesity]. ''4338.0 - Profiles of Health, Australia, 2011-13''. Eder, A. B., Elliot, A. J., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2013). [http://emr.sagepub.com/content/5/3/227 Approach and avoidance motivation: Issues and advances]. ''Emotion Review'', ''5''(3), 308-311. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073913477990.}} --> ==Recording== * Lecture 03 recording (2022) TBA * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/d34da988d75c48b99df662329594cc9f Lecture 03 recording] (2021) <!-- * [https://echo360.org.au/media/d1c8619c-79c0-4916-ba48-129b7948bf7b/public Lecture 03 recording] (2019) * [https://echo360.org.au/media/d9f75a39-a2c8-4909-98f7-7308581a36a8/public Lecture 03 recording] (2018) --> ==External links== <!-- * [http://www.heartfoundation.org.au/your-heart/know-your-risks/healthy-weight/bmi-calculator Calculate your own Body Mass Index] (Heart Foundation <nowiki>[Australia]</nowiki>) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KETTtiprINU Compatibilism: Crash Course Philosophy #25] (YouTube, 11 mins) --> * [https://www.ted.com/playlists/1/how_does_my_brain_work How does my brain work?] (TED Talks playlist) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qymp_VaFo9M Let's talk about sex] (Crash Course Psychology #27; YouTube 11:35 mins) <!-- * [http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/lifematters/sex-lies-and-pharmaceuticals/3024664 Sex, lies and pharmaceuticals] (Life Matters, ABC radio, Sept 1, 2010) - [http://www.allenandunwin.com/default.aspx?page=94&book=9781742370187 Book] --> {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs]] otaxe9mcibk932x4g9vey7z5u9l2yx8 2415565 2415564 2022-08-16T13:01:20Z Jtneill 10242 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 03: Brain and physiological needs|third}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} <!-- {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}{|- | [[File:Information_icon4.svg|middle|60px]] | The 2021 lecture is complete.<br> The 2022 lecture is in development. |} {{RoundBoxBottom}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> [[File:Brain 090407.jpg|250px|right]] ==Overview== This lecture: * explains the role of brain structures, neurotransmitters, and hormones in regulating motivational drives * discusses physiological needs, particularly thirst, hunger, and sexual motivation Take-home messages: * The brain is as much about motivation and emotion as it is about cognition and thinking * We underestimate how powerful biological urges can be as motivational forces when we are currently not experiencing them ==Brain app== Install this free app to explore the location and function of important brain structures: # [https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=org.dnalc.threedbrain 3D Brain] (Google Play) # [https://itunes.apple.com/au/app/3d-brain/id331399332?mt=8 3D Brain] (Apple Store) ==Multimedia== * [http://www.ted.com/talks/david_anderson_your_brain_is_more_than_a_bag_of_chemicals.html Your brain is more than a bag of chemicals] (David Anderson, 2013, TED talk, 16 mins) discusses neuroscientific research into motivation and emotion using a basic animal model (fruit fly). * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tZ4YnYUJnOQ&list=PL9JAHwJN4qyArhEyLUgU_MoGddk2PVTeb Hormones of hunger: Leptin and ghrelin] (Corporis, 2019, YouTube, 9:33 mins) explains how leptin and ghrelin work together to modulate hunger. ==Readings== # Chapter 03: The motivated and emotional brain ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2018|Reeve, 2018]]) # Chapter 04: Physiological needs ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2018|Reeve, 2018]]) ==Slides== * Lecture slides <!-- ** [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1wNaegpzIkQ4XyeRcN9BRXQ1gGNR5XX3cG7x_dtBGj6c/edit?usp=sharing Lecture 01 and 02 recap] (Google Slides) --> ** [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1oI8g-0xvSxETUwYOW1TLsRJdiSq3AbVq6YMlm8D3ivc/edit?usp=sharing Motivated and emotional brain] (Google Slides) ** [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1LgYQ9ydIaj5AJZEW7MkH1M2zVKxjWQe4vetZnOairQE/edit?usp=sharing Physiological needs] (Google Slides) <!-- ** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/motivation-and-emotion-introduction-and-historical-perspectives-recap Lecture 01 and 02 recap] (Slideshare) ** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/motivated-and-emotional-brain Motivated and emotional brain] (Slideshare) ** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/physiological-needs Physiological needs] (Slideshare) --> <!-- * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/brain-and-physiological-needs Lecture slides] (Slideshare) --> * Handouts ** [[Media:Brain and physiological needs 6 slides per page.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Brain and physiological needs 6 slides per page.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Brain and physiological needs 3 slides per page.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]:[[File:Brain and physiological needs 3 slides per page.pdf|100px]] ==See also== ;Wikiversity * [[/Images/]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Brain structures|Brain structures]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Hormones|Hormones]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Neurotransmitters|Neurotransmitters]] ;Book chapters * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Brain|Brain]] * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Hormones|Hormones]] * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neurotransmitters|Neurotransmitters]] * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Physiological|Physiological needs]] ;Wikipedia * [[w:Autonomic nervous system|Autonomic nervous system]] * [[w:ERG theory|ERG theory]] * [[w:Nucleus (neuroanatomy)|Nucleus (neuroanatomy)]] * [[w:Parasympathetic nervous system|Parasympathetic nervous system]] * [[w:Sympathetic nervous system|Sympathetic nervous system]] * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] ;Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Historical development and assessment skills|Historical development and assessment skills]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Next lecture) ;Tutorials * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] <!-- ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Australian Bureau of Statistics (2013). [http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/4338.0~2011-13~Main%20Features~Overweight%20and%20obesity~10007 Overweight and obesity]. ''4338.0 - Profiles of Health, Australia, 2011-13''. Eder, A. B., Elliot, A. J., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2013). [http://emr.sagepub.com/content/5/3/227 Approach and avoidance motivation: Issues and advances]. ''Emotion Review'', ''5''(3), 308-311. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073913477990.}} --> ==Recording== * Lecture 03 recording (2022) TBA * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/d34da988d75c48b99df662329594cc9f Lecture 03 recording] (2021) <!-- * [https://echo360.org.au/media/d1c8619c-79c0-4916-ba48-129b7948bf7b/public Lecture 03 recording] (2019) * [https://echo360.org.au/media/d9f75a39-a2c8-4909-98f7-7308581a36a8/public Lecture 03 recording] (2018) --> ==External links== <!-- * [http://www.heartfoundation.org.au/your-heart/know-your-risks/healthy-weight/bmi-calculator Calculate your own Body Mass Index] (Heart Foundation <nowiki>[Australia]</nowiki>) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KETTtiprINU Compatibilism: Crash Course Philosophy #25] (YouTube, 11 mins) --> * [https://www.ted.com/playlists/1/how_does_my_brain_work How does my brain work?] (TED Talks playlist) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qymp_VaFo9M Let's talk about sex] (Crash Course Psychology #27; YouTube 11:35 mins) <!-- * [http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/lifematters/sex-lies-and-pharmaceuticals/3024664 Sex, lies and pharmaceuticals] (Life Matters, ABC radio, Sept 1, 2010) - [http://www.allenandunwin.com/default.aspx?page=94&book=9781742370187 Book] --> {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs]] przkhpk2cyymv8gp1so44thvte22x9f 2415685 2415565 2022-08-17T03:17:39Z Jtneill 10242 /* Recording */ Update for 2022 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 03: Brain and physiological needs|third}} {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} <!-- {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}{|- | [[File:Information_icon4.svg|middle|60px]] | The 2021 lecture is complete.<br> The 2022 lecture is in development. |} {{RoundBoxBottom}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --> [[File:Brain 090407.jpg|250px|right]] ==Overview== This lecture: * explains the role of brain structures, neurotransmitters, and hormones in regulating motivational drives * discusses physiological needs, particularly thirst, hunger, and sexual motivation Take-home messages: * The brain is as much about motivation and emotion as it is about cognition and thinking * We underestimate how powerful biological urges can be as motivational forces when we are currently not experiencing them ==Brain app== Install this free app to explore the location and function of important brain structures: # [https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=org.dnalc.threedbrain 3D Brain] (Google Play) # [https://itunes.apple.com/au/app/3d-brain/id331399332?mt=8 3D Brain] (Apple Store) ==Multimedia== * [http://www.ted.com/talks/david_anderson_your_brain_is_more_than_a_bag_of_chemicals.html Your brain is more than a bag of chemicals] (David Anderson, 2013, TED talk, 16 mins) discusses neuroscientific research into motivation and emotion using a basic animal model (fruit fly). * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tZ4YnYUJnOQ&list=PL9JAHwJN4qyArhEyLUgU_MoGddk2PVTeb Hormones of hunger: Leptin and ghrelin] (Corporis, 2019, YouTube, 9:33 mins) explains how leptin and ghrelin work together to modulate hunger. ==Readings== # Chapter 03: The motivated and emotional brain ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2018|Reeve, 2018]]) # Chapter 04: Physiological needs ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2018|Reeve, 2018]]) ==Slides== * Lecture slides <!-- ** [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1wNaegpzIkQ4XyeRcN9BRXQ1gGNR5XX3cG7x_dtBGj6c/edit?usp=sharing Lecture 01 and 02 recap] (Google Slides) --> ** [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1oI8g-0xvSxETUwYOW1TLsRJdiSq3AbVq6YMlm8D3ivc/edit?usp=sharing Motivated and emotional brain] (Google Slides) ** [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1LgYQ9ydIaj5AJZEW7MkH1M2zVKxjWQe4vetZnOairQE/edit?usp=sharing Physiological needs] (Google Slides) <!-- ** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/motivation-and-emotion-introduction-and-historical-perspectives-recap Lecture 01 and 02 recap] (Slideshare) ** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/motivated-and-emotional-brain Motivated and emotional brain] (Slideshare) ** [https://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/physiological-needs Physiological needs] (Slideshare) --> <!-- * [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/brain-and-physiological-needs Lecture slides] (Slideshare) --> * Handouts ** [[Media:Brain and physiological needs 6 slides per page.pdf|Download 6 slides to a page]]: [[File:Brain and physiological needs 6 slides per page.pdf|100px]] ** [[Media:Brain and physiological needs 3 slides per page.pdf|Download 3 slides to a page]]:[[File:Brain and physiological needs 3 slides per page.pdf|100px]] ==See also== ;Wikiversity * [[/Images/]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Brain structures|Brain structures]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Hormones|Hormones]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Neurotransmitters|Neurotransmitters]] ;Book chapters * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Brain|Brain]] * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Hormones|Hormones]] * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Neurotransmitters|Neurotransmitters]] * [[:Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Physiological|Physiological needs]] ;Wikipedia * [[w:Autonomic nervous system|Autonomic nervous system]] * [[w:ERG theory|ERG theory]] * [[w:Nucleus (neuroanatomy)|Nucleus (neuroanatomy)]] * [[w:Parasympathetic nervous system|Parasympathetic nervous system]] * [[w:Sympathetic nervous system|Sympathetic nervous system]] * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] ;Lectures * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Historical development and assessment skills|Historical development and assessment skills]] (Previous lecture) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs|Extrinsic motivation and psychological needs]] (Next lecture) ;Tutorials * [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] <!-- ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Australian Bureau of Statistics (2013). [http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/4338.0~2011-13~Main%20Features~Overweight%20and%20obesity~10007 Overweight and obesity]. ''4338.0 - Profiles of Health, Australia, 2011-13''. Eder, A. B., Elliot, A. J., & Harmon-Jones, E. (2013). [http://emr.sagepub.com/content/5/3/227 Approach and avoidance motivation: Issues and advances]. ''Emotion Review'', ''5''(3), 308-311. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073913477990.}} --> ==Recording== * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/17f200f050e044da9a6571ffdf63c78c Lecture 03 recording] (2022)<!-- TBA * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/d34da988d75c48b99df662329594cc9f Lecture 03 recording] (2021) * [https://echo360.org.au/media/d1c8619c-79c0-4916-ba48-129b7948bf7b/public Lecture 03 recording] (2019) * [https://echo360.org.au/media/d9f75a39-a2c8-4909-98f7-7308581a36a8/public Lecture 03 recording] (2018) --> ==External links== <!-- * [http://www.heartfoundation.org.au/your-heart/know-your-risks/healthy-weight/bmi-calculator Calculate your own Body Mass Index] (Heart Foundation <nowiki>[Australia]</nowiki>) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KETTtiprINU Compatibilism: Crash Course Philosophy #25] (YouTube, 11 mins) --> * [https://www.ted.com/playlists/1/how_does_my_brain_work How does my brain work?] (TED Talks playlist) * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qymp_VaFo9M Let's talk about sex] (Crash Course Psychology #27; YouTube 11:35 mins) <!-- * [http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/lifematters/sex-lies-and-pharmaceuticals/3024664 Sex, lies and pharmaceuticals] (Life Matters, ABC radio, Sept 1, 2010) - [http://www.allenandunwin.com/default.aspx?page=94&book=9781742370187 Book] --> {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}} [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs]] o3jq9sg8phewp2l5vuytizq7e0zm57s 0 116867 2415708 2370034 2022-08-17T05:05:51Z 78.101.143.1 wikitext text/x-wiki {{RightTOC}} <big>This is a lesson in the course [[Introduction to Computers]], which is a part of [[School:Computer Science|The School of Computer Science]]</big> ==Hardware== [[File:Personal computer, exploded 5.svg|thumb|left|300px|Inside a personal computer: <br> 1. Monitor <br>2. Motherboard <br>3. CPU(Microprocessor <br>4. Main memory(RAM) <br>5. Expansion cards. <br> 6. Power supply unit. <br>7. Optical disc drive. <br>8. Hard disk drive (HDD). <br>9. Keyboard. <br>10. Mouse.]] Hardware refers to the physical elements of a computer. Also referred to as the machinery or the equipment of the computer. Examples of hardware in a computer are the keyboard, the monitor, the mouse and the processing unit However, most of a computer's hardware cannot be seen; It's inside the computer case. I/O lets the computer talk with the world around it. Sometimes its necessary to add functionality to a computer to keep it up to date, or make it better. The amount of I/O a computer has can be changed, by adding expansion cards that support I/O. A graphics card can be added to a computer to let it talk with a display, or a WiFi card can be added, which will let a computer talk to other computers without a connecting wire. Sometimes functionality can be added through a universal port, a port that supports multiple kinds of I/O. USB, FireWire, and Thunderbolt (Types of I/O) support multiple data types. Your keyboard, mouse, and monitor all connect to a computer's I/O. CPUs or processors perform computations. They do the math for your calculator application, they compare the size of numbers; people have likened the CPU to the "brain" of a computer. lolz Memory is what allows a computer to remember things. Similar to human memory, there's long term memory (a hard disc or optical media (like a CD)) and short term memory (RAM). When a computer is turned off, it forgets everything in the RAM, so the computer saves everything it knows it will need later on in the long term memory. The short term memory is easier to use because it can do I/O faster, so when a data is needed by the CPU, it's sent from the hard disk drive (HDD) to the RAM. The short term memory lives on RAM, while the long term memory is in the hard disk drive (HDD). Optical disks let you change certain parts of the memory, it's kind of like having a book or notebook that you might read and get information from. The motherboard is a piece of hardware that makes connections in the right places between all of the other components in a computer. It tells data where it should go. When the CPU is finished processing some data, it might say to the CPU, OK, put this in the HDD, and the motherboard will figure out where the HDD is and send the data there. {{clear}} ==Introduction to Motherboard== A [[w:motherboard|motherboard]] is an electronic circuit board in a computer which interconnects hardware devices attached to it. At a minimum it includes one or more [[w:Central processsing unit|Central processing units]], and the main processing activity of the computer takes place on it. However, other connected printed circuit boards may contain their own pre-processing or post-processing CPUs, to take some of the load off of the motherboard; these, together with other plug-in boards without CPUs, may be called "daughter boards." It was called a "mother" board in relation to these. A PC motherboard may have a series of sockets, allowing daughter boards to be plugged in directly. Other connectors on the motherboard allow communication through cables with various peripheral devices, both inside and outside the computer case. ==Ports== Ports are used by a motherboard to interface with electronics both inside and outside of the computer. ===Serial=== [[Image:Serial port.jpg|thumb|alt=A serial Port|An example of a serial port]] A [[w:Legacy system|legacy]] technology, serial ports were most often used to connect a [[w:mouse|mouse]] or [[w:modem|modem]]. By circa 2000, most personal computers stopped relying on serial ports and were replaced by PS/2 and/or USB ports. Serial ports are sometimes still used for specialized applications such as industrial automation systems, scientific instruments, and [[w:point of sale|point of sale]] systems. ===PS/2=== PS/2 ports (now outdated) were for connecting peripherals such as your keyboard and mouse to the computer. PS/2 based mice and keyboards have now been replaced by USB ports as the popular standard. This trend for USB over PS/2 started in circa 2004. ===Parallel=== Parallel ports are used to connect other peripherals such as joysticks, and more commonly, printers. Similar to the serial port, this technology is slowly being phased out in favour of USB. Parallel ports can still be found in many motherboards today. ===Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)=== Pronounced "scuzzy", this was used primarily as a connection interface for tape drives and hard disk drives. SCSI has been superseded in favour of newer and cheaper technologies such as USB and Firewire. ===USB=== USB, short for Universal Serial Bus, is an industry standard developed in the mid-1990s that defines the cables, connectors and communications protocols used in a bus for connection, communication, and power supply between computers and electronic devices.<ref>[[Wikipedia: USB]]</ref> A bus is a communication system that transfers data between components inside a computer, or between computers.<ref>[[Wikipedia: Bus (computing)]]</ref> ===Firewire=== Technically known as the IEEE 1394 interface, but dubbed by Apple as Firewire, this connection medium hoped to surpass USB in terms of speed and popularity. While it did outperform USB v2 in speed tests, uptake was very limited due to the existing widespread use of USB. ==Slots== Slots are an opening in a computer where a circuit board can be inserted to add new capabilities. All personal computers contain expansion slots for adding more memory, graphics capabilities, and support for special devices. Expansion slots come in different flavours, which will be described below. An alternative explanation for expansion slots can be found [http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/E/expansion_slot.html here]. ===Graphics card=== [[Image:Gpu-connections.png|thumb|200px|Graphics Card]] Graphic cards are also called video cards or a video adapter. They are in all PCs. Graphic cards convert signals into video signals so the images can be displayed on the monitor. While many graphics cards are integrated into the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] these days, enthusiasts will invest in standalone graphics cards with stronger and more powerful processing capabilities. This allows for heavy image editing, or better rendering and [[wikipedia:Frame_rate|framerates]] in computer games. Graphics cards are designed to offload rendering from the CPU. Graphics cards are powered by the motherboard and require a PCIX or PCIX 2.0 slot to install. Some cards require more power and thus will need a 6-8 pin connector that runs directly to the power supply. Graphics cards also include on board memory for efficient rendering. Typical sizes include 128-1024mb of memory. Today, high end graphics cards have multiple core processors that are largely parallel to increase texture fill and process more 3D objects in real time. [[w:Graphics_card|Graphics Card on Wikipedia]] ===Sound card=== [[Image:Computer sound card01.JPEG|thumb|Close-up of a Sound Card]] A sound card, also referred to as an audio card facilitates the input and output of audio signals to and from a computer under the control of computer programs. Sound cards for computers were uncommon until 1988, which left the single internal PC speaker as the only way early PC software could produce sound and music. [[w:Sound_card|Sound Card on Wikipedia]]. ===Network Interface Cards (NICs)=== [[Image:Network card.jpg|thumb|200px|Network Interface Card]] Network Interface Cards can be a network card, network adapter, LAN Adapter or NIC (network interface card). They are a piece of computer hardware designed to allow computers to communicate over a computer network. It is used for fault communication via cable. Data is transmitted over a cable network. The NIC connects computers and other devices such as printers. Many modern motherboards have NICs built in by default. [[w:Network interface card|NICs on Wikipedia]] ===PC Card=== A PC Card (originally PCMCIA Card) is a device that uses a specific peripheral interface designed for laptop computers. [[Wikipedia:PC Card|PC Card on Wikipedia]] == See Also == * [[Computer Hardware]] * [[IT Fundamentals]] == References == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Computer hardware]] o8h25adod022f3ccwq2jtvshqhpmkxa 0 139384 2415579 2414760 2022-08-16T14:49:03Z Young1lim 21186 /* Adder */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{nocat}} == Adder == * Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:adder.20131113.pdf |pdf]] ) {| class="wikitable" |- ! Adder type !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design !! CMOS Level Design |- | '''1. Ripple Carry Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20211108.pdf |pdf]] || || [[Media:adder.rca.20140313.pdf |pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf |pdf]] |- | '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CLA.20211106.pdf |pdf]] || || [[Media:adder.cla.20140313.pdf |pdf]] || |- | '''3. Carry Save Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf |pdf]] || || || |- || '''4. Carry Select Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf |pdf]] || || || |- || '''5. Carry Skip Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20211111.pdf |pdf]] || || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf |pdf]] |- || '''6. Carry Chain Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf |pdf]] || || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf |pdf]], [[Media:adder.cca.20140313.pdf |pdf]] || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf |pdf]] |- || '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf |pdf]] || || [[Media:adder.ksa.20140409.pdf |pdf]] || |- || '''8. Prefix Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf |pdf]] || || || |- || '''9. Variable Block Adder''' || [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA.20220816.pdf |pdf]] || || || |} </br> === Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === * FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf |pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf |pdf]]) * FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf |pdf]]) * FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf |pdf]]) * Carry-Skip Adder </br> == Barrel Shifter == * Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:bshift.20131105.pdf |bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf |bshfit.makefile]]) </br> '''Mux Based Barrel Shifter''' * Analysis ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf |pdf]]) * Implementation </br> == Multiplier == === Array Multipliers === * Analysis ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf |pdf]]) </br> === Tree Mulltipliers === * Lattice Multiplication ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf |pdf]]) * Wallace Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf |pdf]]) * Dadda Tree ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf |pdf]]) </br> === Booth Multipliers === * [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf |Booth Encoding Note]] * Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf |H1.pdf]]) </br> == Divider == * Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf |pdf]])</br> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Computer architecture]] 7ctqycpftmqxelmrte2s1ul2hip8yze 0 155664 2415626 2366963 2022-08-16T19:53:28Z Marshallsumter 311529 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Dragonfish600.jpg|thumb|right|300px|This infrared image from NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope shows the nebula nicknamed "''the Dragonfish''". Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/Univ. of Toronto.{{tlx|free media}}]] The '''first infrared source in Crux''' is unknown. The field of [[infrared astronomy]] is the result of observations and theories about infrared, or infrared-ray sources detected in the sky above. The first astronomical infrared source discovered may have been the [[Sun (star)|Sun]]. But, infrared rays from the Sun are intermingled with other colors so that the Sun may appear yellow-white rather than infrared. The early use of sounding rockets and balloons to carry infrared, optical, or visual detectors high enough may have detected infrared-rays from the Sun as early as the 1940s. This is a lesson in map reading, coordinate matching, and searching. It is also a project in the history of infrared astronomy looking for the first astronomical infrared source discovered in the constellation of Crux. Nearly all the background you need to participate and learn by doing you've probably already been introduced to at a secondary level and perhaps even a primary education level. Some of the material and information is at the college or university level, and as you progress in finding infrared sources, you'll run into concepts and experimental tests that are an actual search. {{clear}} ==First step== The first step is to succeed in finding an infrared source in Crux. Next, you'll need to determine the time stamp of its discovery and compare it with any that have already been discovered. Over the history of infrared astronomy a number of sources have been found, many as point sources in the night sky. These points are located on the celestial sphere using coordinate systems. Familiarity with these coordinate systems is not a prerequisite. Here the challenge is geometrical, astrophysical, and historical. The coordinates are usually supplied by the infrared source observers. ==Astronomical sources== '''Def.''' a natural source usually of [[radiation]] in the sky especially at night is called an '''astronomical source'''. A source of astronomical information on older detections of infrared sources is included in the '''Science''' section of the lecture/article [[infrared astronomy]]. ==Traveling infrared sources== Many infrared sources do not remain in a constellation for lengthy periods. Some of these are the Sun and sources apparently in orbit around the Sun. The Sun travels through the 13 constellations along the ecliptic (the plane of the Earth's orbit around the Sun): the 12 of the Zodiac and the constellation Ophiuchus. These are described in [[source astronomy]]. ==Backgrounds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Backgrounds}} To introduce yourself to some aspects of the challenge may I suggest reading the highlighted links mentioned above, and if you're curious, those listed under the section "See also" below. Infrared-rays are a form of radiation that is currently part of the electromagnetic radiation intersecting the Earth. More information about radiation is in [[Radiation/Astronomy|radiation astronomy]]. ==Constellations== [[Image:Crux IAU.svg|thumb|right|200px|This is an image of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) sky map of the constellation Crux. Credit: IAU and Sky & Telescope magazine (Roger Sinnott & Rick Fienberg).{{tlx|free media}}]] The Wikipedia article about the constellation [[w:Crux|Crux]] contains a high school level description. The figure at right shows the sky map of Crux. Around the edges of the map are coordinates related to longitude and latitude, but with the Earth rotating on its axis every 24 hours the celestial coordinates must remain fixed relative to the background light sources in the sky. Also, in the Wikipedia article is a [[w:List of stars in Crux|list of stars in Crux]]. {{clear}} ==Searching catalogs== In the lecture/article [[infrared astronomy]] in its science section is a list of older catalogs of infrared sources. Using the constellation description in the previous section and the range of coordinates for the constellation in [[source astronomy]], scan through the coordinates for these infrared sources to see if any may be within Crux. If you find any that are, skip down to the section '''Infrared sources''' in Crux and make an entry. Be sure to check the coordinate era, most B1950 coordinates have changed slightly to the new J2000 set. Try the catalog designation at either SIMBAD website. ==Testing a source== There are many web sites that may have an infrared source listed for the constellation Crux. Some that you may wish to try are in the External links section near the bottom of this lesson. ===Wikipedia sources=== '''A. Constellation article''' Under "Notable features" in the Wikipedia article on the constellation [[w:Crux|Crux]] is the [[w:List of stars in Crux|list of stars in Crux]]. Click on this link. In the table of this Wikipedia article is α Cru. To the right are coordinates: Right ascension (RA): 12^h 26^m 35.94^s and Declination (Dec): -63° 05' 56.6". Find these coordinates on the Crux map at the right. To evaluate the star as an infrared-ray source, skip ahead to section "Infrared sources". '''B. Wikipedia search''' Another way to look for infrared sources in the constellation is to perform a search on Wikipedia. Try "Crux infrared" without the quotes. This yields about 26 returns which include an [[w:Outline of astronomy|outline of astronomy]] and the [[w:Dragonfish nebula|Dragonfish nebula]] imaged in infrared at the top of this resource. To evaluate each of these as an infrared source (or perhaps containing an infrared source, try your browser's "Find" feature and enter infrared or infrared-ray), skip ahead to section "Infrared sources". ===SIMBAD sources=== Another way to find possible infrared sources in Crux is to use search queries on [[w:SIMBAD|SIMBAD]]. Click on either SIMBAD link under "External links" below, then click on "Criteria query", or "by criteria". In the tan box, type in "region(12 26 35.94 -63 05 56.6,10m)", without the quotes. This tells the SIMBAD computer you are interested in a circular region of the celestial sphere centered on the coordinates for alpha Crucis, with a radius of 10 arcminutes (m), or try 10d for 10 degrees. Notice on the page over at the right from the tan colored box: "'''Return'''". The default is "object count". Click on "submit query". In a few moments a result something like "'''Number of objects: 32'''" should appear. Click "Back" to see the tan box again. Adding "& otype='IR' to the region request reduces the returned number to 13. The SIMBAD criteria search allows you to specify spectral types for possible stars. The criteria "sptype" (the exact spectral type): returns only the objects having the requested spectral type (i.e. sptype = 'k0' does not return 'K0III',...). And, "sptypes" should be used to retrive all objects having a spectral type containing the one specified; i.e., sptypes = 'K0' will return all objects having 'K0' as a spectral type, but also 'K0III' or 'K0IIIp', ...). By comparing the (nm,temperature) pairs for the infrared range temperatures in the stellar classification in [[yellow astronomy]] suggests that the infrared range may be found from K8 through Y stars. Add "sptypes='K9'" for example, to the entry so that it reads: "region(12 26 35.94 -63 05 56.6,10d) & sptypes='K9'", without the outside quotes. Click on "submit query" again. If the result is "0" number of objects, or "No object found", increase the number of arcminutes, or use "10d" which stands for "ten degrees". When you find at least one object, change "'''Return'''" to "display" by clicking on the circle to its left, then "submit query". ===SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System=== In the naming of sources per constellation, the genitive is in common use. For Crux, the genitive is Crucis. Click on the SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System link below in the "External links". Try "Crucis infrared" without the quotes, or "alpha crucis" with quotes, followed by infrared. Click on a link below '''# Bibcode Authors'''. If the '''Abstract''' describes the detection of infrared-rays from a source in the constellation Crux, go to the next section under "SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System". If it does not try another bibcode link. ==Infrared sources== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Infrareds}} There are several ways to evaluate an infrared source for the constellation Crux. ===Wikipedia sources=== Click on the link to the Wikipedia article. After you've enjoyed reading about the source, use the 'find' command of your browser to see if this Wikipedia page mentions anything about infrared, or "infrared-rays". Does the article mention whether or not the source is an infrared source? What is the current time stamp for the Wikipedia article on the source? [Hint]: look for something like "This page was last modified on 25 December 2011 at 20:12." very near the bottom of the page. For now this is an adequate time stamp. From reading the Wikipedia article on the source, if you believe the text demonstrates that the source is not an infrared source in Crux edit the "Non-infrared sources in Crux" section near the bottom of the page with an entry similar to "# Alpha Crucis 25 December 2011 at 20:12 Wikipedia article "Alpha Crucis", without the quotes, and finish the entry with four "~"s without the quotes after the period. The date included with your designation or username is a time stamp for the entry. The last portion of the entry is the source of your information. On the other hand, if there are one or more sentences in the article that you believe demonstrates that the source is an infrared source in Crux edit the section below "Infrared sources in Crux" with a similar entry. Go to the section entitled, "Challenging an entry". Hint: the Wikipedia article on Alpha Crucis mentions, "Only two components are visually distinguishable, α¹ and α², separated by 4 arcseconds. α¹ is magnitude 1.40 and α² is magnitude 2.09, both hot class B (almost class O) stars, with surface temperatures of about 28,000 and 26,000 K respectively." From the lecture/article on [[infrared astronomy]], the infrared radiation band the wavelength temperature pairs are approximately (750 nm, 4000 K) and (350000 nm, 8.6 K). Is the primary star of alpha Crucis an infrared star? ===Wikimedia commons=== Another possible website for infrared sources is Wikimedia Commons, url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page. Try entering "infrared Crux". This returns six images of several infrared sources in Crux. These images often have sources with them indicated when the infrared image was obtained. If there are one or more sentences in the article that you believe demonstrates that the source is an infrared source in Crux edit the section below "Infrared sources in Crux" with a similar entry mentioning the source from commons. ===SIMBAD sources=== To check any source (even one from Wikipedia) on SIMBAD, click of the "External link" to the "SIMBAD Astronomical Database". At the lower right side of the SIMBAD Astronomical Database page is a "Basic search" box. There are several ways to try your target: # source name: without the quotes or # source coordinates: without the quotes, for example, "12 26 35.94 -63 05 56.6". If you are looking at a SIMBAD generated table which lists possible targets, click on one. On its SIMBAD page read down the left side until you see "Spectral type:". To the right of this is a designation. Look for a K-type star. Is there one? If a K-star is present, skip down to the section, "SIMBAD time stamp". Even if a either is not present, noting that SIMBAD does not consider the source to be an infrared source is important, so skip down to the "SIMBAD time stamp" section. If you have already found an infrared source (or a table of them) using SIMBAD, click on the blue link identifier for the first. ===SIMBAD time stamp=== Peruse the SIMBAD page for a time stamp or date of last revision. [Hint: it may look something like "2012.01.09CET20:10:02" and be in the upper right.] If the entry at SIMBAD convinces you that the source is not an infrared source, edit the "Non-infrared sources in Crux" section near the bottom of this page and type in an entry similar to "# Source Name 2012.01.09CET20:10:02 SIMBAD article "SIMBAD source name".", without the first set of quotes, followed by four ~s. If your SIMBAD analysis convinces you that you have found an infrared source in Crux (did you check the coordinates vs. the map of Crux?), make an entry something like the ones in the section "Infrared sources in Crux". ===SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System sources=== If the abstract states that an infrared source in Crux is detected or studied, consider entering it in the section "Infrared sources in Crux" below. ===Abstract time stamp=== On the abstract page is a '''Publication Date''':. This may serve as a time stamp for establishing that the source is detected as an infrared source on or before the date of publication. The time stamp followed by four ~s for your verification as determiner in the section "Infrared sources in Crux" completes your entry. ==Challenging an entry== Any entry in either the section "Infrared sources in Crux" or "Non-infrared sources in Crux" can be challenged. The time stamp can be challenged to see if there is an earlier one. The source can be challenged by an earlier source. ===Wikipedia challenges=== Is Wikipedia a '[[w:Primary source|primary source]]', or does the Wikipedia article cite a source? Even though Wikipedia has an article on the source, is it a good place to stop in testing whether the source has been detected as an astronomical infrared source? If the Wikipedia article cites a primary source, skip down to the section on "Primary sources". ===SIMBAD challenges=== Is SIMBAD a 'primary source'? SIMBAD is an astronomical database provided by the Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg. It is an authoritative source, but they do occasionally make a mistake. If you find an infrared source within the constellation on SIMBAD, the next step is to find the earliest time stamp of discovery. ===SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System challenge=== Is the SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System abstract entry a primary source? The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System is an astronomical database provided by the High Energy Astrophysics Division at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics of Harvard University. The abstract has been copied from the actual article in a scientific journal or other publication. Mistakes can be made and the article may record within its text exact dates when the observation or detection of infrared-rays actually occurred. Such a record may provide an earlier time stamp. ==Primary sources== Primary sources may be searched for possible additional information perhaps not yet evaluated by SIMBAD or not presented in a Wikipedia article about a source. ===Wikipedia test sources=== For a Wikipedia article that cites a primary source, scroll down to the reference and open the reference. Read through the article looking for where the source mentioned in the Wikipedia article occurs. Some primary source authors may use source designations that are not mentioned in the Wikipedia article. To look for other designations, click on the link to SIMBAD in the "External links" on this page, enter the source name from the Wikipedia article, and see if other names are mentioned in the article. When none of the names are mentioned, click on the link for "Google Advanced Search" in the list of "External links", enter the source name or designation(s) such as "Gliese 866", with "infrared-ray" to see if the source has a reference indicating it is an infrared source. And, look for the earliest one. Compose an entry using the primary source. ===SIMBAD test sources=== Further down the SIMBAD page is a list of "Identifiers". Click on the blue bold portion. On the page that appears should be a primary source listed after '''Ref:'''. Click on the blue link with the oldest year. This yields an earlier time stamp and entry citation like the current one in the section "Infrared sources in Crux". If you find another source or an earlier time stamp, compose a similar entry and edit the section. Additional information to add into the reference can be found by clicking on "ADS services" from the SIMBAD page. ===SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System sources test=== Click on either the "Electronic Refereed Journal Article (HTML)" or "Full Refereed Journal Article (PDF/Postscript)", if available. Depending on the article display, if the abstract is repeated and the article is listed as '''FREE''', click on either the PDF or HTML version. While scanning or reading the article look for "Observations" (or use the Find function of your browser) and the possible inclusion of dates for these. If more than one infrared source in Crux are detected, which one(s) would you list in the section "Infrared sources in Crux" below? An example of an article reference is provided in that section. ==Changing an entry== From your analysis of the source so far, is it an infrared source? If you have found an earlier time stamp for the source than the one listed in the section below "Non-infrared sources in Crux" and the answer to the above question is "no", you can edit the section with your result. Or, you can leave the entries as is and try another star. If you have found an earlier time stamp for the source than the one listed in the section below "Infrared sources in Crux", edit the section with your result. Or, if you found another infrared source with a comparable or earlier time stamp, edit the section with your result. ==Infrared sources in Crux== # HR 4731 SIMBAD: "C.D.S. - SIMBAD4 rel 1.218 - 2014.01.22CET03:17:15", "Object query : * alf02 Cru", SIMBAD lists the star's spectral type as "B1V", the otype is IR (2MASS). The infrared citation is 2003yCat.2246....0C. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 02:30, 22 January 2014 (UTC) ==Non-infrared sources in Crux== # Alpha Crucis, Wikipedia entry dated 13 January 2014 at 19:05 as the last update. "Acrux is a multiple star system located 321 light years from the earth.^[1][2][7] Only two components are visually distinguishable, α¹ and α², separated by 4 arcseconds. α¹ is magnitude 1.40 and α² is magnitude 2.09, both hot class B (almost class O) stars, with surface temperatures of about 28,000 and 26,000 K respectively." A search of the entry using "infrared" turns up nothing. -- [[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 02:26, 22 January 2014 (UTC) ==Oldest record== ==SIMBAD annotations== For any particular source, the SIMBAD record may indicate that it is not an infrared source yet above you may have found at least two refereed journal articles to indicate that it is. Use the second SIMBAD External links to directly display the SIMBAD database in France. Enter the name source you have found into the search box. Scroll down to the '''Annotations :'''. Look for the link "add an annotation to this object". With browser open to the literature citations available, click on this link. You may need to register as a user. It's free. Post your annotation containing the literature references. ==Hypotheses== {{main|Hypotheses}} # The first infrared source in Crux was probably observed around 200 b2k. ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[First astronomical sources]] * [[First blue source in Boötes]] * [[First cyan source in Caelum]] * [[Sources/First gamma-ray source in Triangulum Australe|First gamma-ray source in Triangulum Australe]] * [[Sources/First green source in Tucana|First green source in Tucana]] * [[Sources/First infrared source in Crux|First infrared source in Crux]] * [[First neutron source in Volans]] * [[First orange source in Cancer]] * [[First positron source in Phoenix]] * [[First radio source in Pisces]] * [[First red source in Canis Major]] * [[First submillimeter source in Carina]] * [[First superluminal source in Indus]] * [[Sources/First ultraviolet source in Sagittarius|First ultraviolet source in Sagittarius]] * [[First violet source in Leo]] * [[First X-ray source in Apus]] * [[First X-ray source in Andromeda]] * [[First yellow source in Aquila]] {{Div col end}} ==External links== * [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union] * [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center.] * [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific & Technical Information] * [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System] * [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search] * [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database] * [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA] * [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter] <!-- footer templates --> {{Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{tlx|Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Crux}}{{Sisterlinks|Astronomical infrared source}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Radiation astronomy/Lessons]] [[Category:Radiation/Lessons]] [[Category:Sources/Lessons]] 3yheplgjjnxvkobbklx9lwoqchbz5b7 0 155670 2415628 2118626 2022-08-16T20:04:46Z Marshallsumter 311529 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Lp94420 duo m.jpg|thumb|250px|[[w:Chandra X-ray Observatory|Chandra]] image of LP 944-20 before flare and during flare. Credit: Marshall Space Flight Center/NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] This problem set is devoted to a variety of vector situations and coordinates for evaluation. {{clear}} ==Problem 1== [[Image:3D Vector.svg|200px|thumb|right]] For standard basis, or unit, vectors ('''i''', '''j''', '''k''') and vector components of '''a''' ('''a'''_x, '''a'''_y, '''a'''_z), what are the right ascension, declination, and value of a: If the x-axis is the longitude of the Greenwich meridian, and '''a'''_x equals '''a'''_y, then RA equals? If '''a'''_x equals '''a'''_y equals '''a'''_z, then the declination is? The value of '''a''' is given by? {{clear}} ==Problem 2== [[Image:3D Vector.svg|200px|thumb|right]] For standard basis, or unit, vectors ('''i''', '''j''', '''k''') and vector components of '''a''' ('''a'''_x, '''a'''_y, '''a'''_z), what are the right ascension, declination, and value of a: for '''a'''_x equals '''a'''_y equals '''a'''_z If the x-axis is the longitude of the Greenwich meridian, and the object is at '''a'''_x and 2'''a'''_y, then RA equals? '''a'''_x and 2'''a'''_y and 3'''a'''_z, then the declination is? The value of '''a''' is given by? {{clear}} ==Problem 3== [[Image:3D Vector.svg|200px|thumb|right]] For standard basis, or unit, vectors ('''i''', '''j''', '''k''') and vector components of '''a''' ('''a'''_x, '''a'''_y, '''a'''_z), what are the right ascension, declination, and value of a: for '''a'''_x equals '''a'''_y equals '''a'''_z If the x-axis is the longitude of the Greenwich meridian, and the object is at 3'''a'''_x and 4'''a'''_y, then RA equals? 3'''a'''_x and 4'''a'''_y and 5'''a'''_z, then the declination is? The value of '''a''' is given by? {{clear}} ==Problem 4== [[Image:3D Vector.svg|200px|thumb|right]] For standard basis, or unit, vectors ('''i''', '''j''', '''k''') and vector components of '''a''' ('''a'''_x, '''a'''_y, '''a'''_z), what are the right ascension, declination, and value of a: for '''a'''_x equals 2'''a'''_y equals 3'''a'''_z If the x-axis is the longitude of the Greenwich meridian, and the object is at 3'''a'''_x and 4'''a'''_y, then RA equals? 3'''a'''_x and 4'''a'''_y and 5'''a'''_z, then the declination is? The value of '''a''' is given by? {{clear}} ==Problem 5== [[Image:EquatorialDecRA.png|thumb|200px|right]] An object has RA 10^h 10^m 10^s Dec -20° 20' 20" and r = 23 lyrs. What are '''a'''_x, '''a'''_y, and '''a'''_z? What are ℓ and ''b''? What are the ecliptic longitude and latitude? What are J1855 and B1855? What are J2100 and B2100? {{clear}} ==Problem 6== [[Image:EquatorialDecRA.png|thumb|200px|right]] An object has coordinates: 125.678 -85.678 and r = 110 pc. What are RA and Dec? What are '''a'''_x, '''a'''_y, and '''a'''_z? What are ℓ and ''b''? What are the ecliptic longitude and latitude? What are J1800 and B1800? What are J2075 and B2075? {{clear}} ==Problem 7== [[Image:3D Vector.svg|200px|thumb|right]] For standard basis, or unit, vectors ('''i''', '''j''', '''k''') and vector components of '''a''' ('''a'''_x, '''a'''_y, '''a'''_z), for '''a'''_x equals 2'''a'''_y equals 3'''a'''_z: If the x-axis is the longitude of the Greenwich meridian, and the object is at a = 3'''a'''_x and b = 4'''a'''_y, then what is :<math>a \times b?</math> :<math>a \cdot b?</math> {{clear}} ==Problem 8== [[Image:3D Vector.svg|200px|thumb|right]] Standard basis, or unit, vectors are ('''i''', '''j''', '''k''') for vector components of '''a''' ('''a'''_x, '''a'''_y, '''a'''_z). Let '''a'''_x equal 3'''a'''_y equal 4'''a'''_z. What are :<math>[5a_x, 6a_y, 7a_z] \cdot [5a_x, 6a_y, 7a_z]?</math> If a = [5a_x, 6a_y, 7a_z] and b = [8a_x, 9a_y, 10a_z], then :<math>a \times b?</math> {{clear}} ==Hypotheses== {{main|Hypotheses}} # The square root of negative one is not needed in vector space. ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Angular momentum and energy]] * [[Column densities]] * [[Cosmic circuits]] * [[Energy phantoms]] * [[Furlongs per fortnight]] * [[Planck's equation]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Problem set]] * [[Radiation dosage]] * [[Radiation mathematics/Problem set]] * [[Spectrographs]] * [[Star jumping]] * [[Synchrotron radiation/Problem set|Synchrotron radiation problem set]] * [[Telescopes and cameras]] * [[Unknown coordinate systems]] * [[Unusual units]] * [[Vectors and coordinates]] {{Div col end}} ==External links== * [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union] * [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center] * [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific & Technical Information] * [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System] * [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search] * [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database] * [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA] * [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter] <!-- footer templates --> {{tlx|Charge ontology}}{{tlx|Flight resouces}}{{tlx|Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{Radiation astronomy resources}}{{tlx|Repellor vehicle}}{{tlx|Technology resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Vectors}}{{Sisterlinks|Coordinates}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Abstractions/Problems]] [[Category:Astrophysics/Problems]] [[Category:Crystallography/Problems]] [[Category:Distances/Problems]] [[Category:Geophysics/Problems]] [[Category:Locations/Problems]] [[Category:Radiation astronomy/Problems]] [[Category:Technology/Problems]] ft8zz7hi0sj8qhu8ympj57sgseptor5 1 159077 2415630 2409348 2022-08-16T20:45:10Z Bobamnertiopsis 24451 /* Rabeprazole? */ new section wikitext text/x-wiki [[Category:WikiJournal]] {{WikiJournal_discussions}} {{Archive box| [[/Archive 2014–2016|2014–2016]] <br>[[/Archive 2016 naming vote|2016 naming vote]] <br>[[/Archive 2017|2017]] <br>[[/Archive 2018|2018]] <br>[[/Archive 2019|2019]] <br>[[/Archive 2020|2020]] <br>[[/Archive 2021|2021]] <br>[[/Archive 2022|2022]] Discussions may also take place at the <br>'''[https://lists.wikimedia.org/pipermail/wikijournal-en/ public mailing list]'' ([https://lists.wikimedia.org/mailman/listinfo/wikijournal-en Join]) }} {{TOClimit|limit=3}} == Banner links must be accessible on smartphones == On smartphones, the banners are hard to tap/click on, especially the Preprint one. I have difficulty changing the banners' format. [[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 12:31, 29 January 2022 (UTC) :@[[User:George Ho|George Ho]]: Sorry for mising this earlier! Do you know if you were using the 'mobile view' or 'desktop view' on your smartphone? I've tried to make the tabs re-flow into a grid when on a mobie device, bit I think it only works in 'mobile view'. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 02:06, 21 July 2022 (UTC) :: @[[User:Evolution and evolvability|Shafee]]: Using 'mobile view' on Android, the Preprint banner is hard to tap, yet I can access that journal via tapping the icon on the left of the banner. Others are still clickable, yet larger text is annoying on mobile view. --[[User:George Ho|George Ho]] ([[User talk:George Ho|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/George Ho|contribs]]) 06:27, 21 July 2022 (UTC) :::@[[User:George Ho|George Ho]]: Aha, now I see it. Thanks. I was looking at the top banner in grey rather than the list of journals. I'm also getting some of the text overlapping too. I'll aim to fix it up next week. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 23:13, 21 July 2022 (UTC) == Reference deposits == Hi all! I was taking a look at the [https://www.crossref.org/members/prep/6026 WikiJournal User Group participation report] over on Crossref's site. This is a useful tool for exploring how rich the metadata that WJUG submits to Crossref along with its DOIs is. It looks like there's lots of room for improvement, some of which would be fairly straightforward to accomplish: the License URLs category, for instance, measures how many articles' metadata include a link to the license under which the papers are distributed (either CC-BY 4.0 or CC-BY-SA 4.0 typically, right?). What I wanted to look at right now was the References category, in which WJUG is currently scoring 0%. What this means is that none of the 87 articles registered for DOIs by WJUG with Crossref include the references as part of their metadata. This matters for a few reasons. First, reference linking (i.e., including DOIs in references) is required by Crossref's terms of service, and reference depositing (i.e., submitting metadata with references) is strongly encouraged. Second, the inclusion of references in metadata is how Crossref tracks citations. When you see a journal article's "What Cites This" page, you'll often see a few numbers, frequently a Crossref citation count, a Web of Science citation count, and a Google Scholar citation count. On these pages, you are often able to view which articles are specifically citing the article in question too, and in some cases, publishers may preemptively set up modules that autodisplay the citing articles alongside the article itself. This brings up the third reason to begin depositing references: not only is it good practice for good metadata management's sake itself, but it also has the capability to improve visibility for WikiJournal articles. Consider the ''WJS'' article "[[WikiJournal of Science/Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease|Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease]]"; its first reference is the 1907 article "Parrakeets Moulting". If you visit the Taylor & Francis [https://doi.org/10.1071/MU906192f page for "Parrakeets Moulting"], however, you can see in the righthand "Related research" module in the "Cited by" tab that no articles cite this paper. Because references for WJUG articles haven't yet been deposited with Crossref, there's no way to link "Beak and feather disease virus" and "Parrakeets Moulting"; if references ''were'' deposited for this paper, then the ''WJS'' article would eventually appear as a citing article on the "Parrakeets Moulting" page. Thus, reference linking offers readers of the cited article another connection to the citing WikiJournal article, increasing the visibility of WJUG outputs. One final reason to consider depositing references is that doing so will grant WJUG eligibility for Crossref's [https://www.crossref.org/documentation/cited-by/ Cited-by service], which is essentially the tool that allows WJUG the ability to see what research is citing WikiJournal articles. Right now, WJUG can access the ''number'' of citations for each of its journals' articles through Crossref (''[http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J243966 WJM]'', ''[http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J310521 WJS]'', and ''[http://data.crossref.org/depositorreport?pubid=J310522 WJH]'') but can't actually see what those citing articles are. Depositing references will grant eligibility for Cited-by which WJUG can opt to enroll in (free!) and access said lists of citing materials for WikiJournal articles. If depositing references is of interest, the good news is that Crossref has made it pretty easy! References can be deposited manually via the [https://apps.crossref.org/SimpleTextQuery Simple Text Query] tool on Crossref's site. All one needs to do is copy the list of references from a WikiJournal article and paste it into the tool. (Note that for some articles, this will be easy; "[[WikiJournal of Science/Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease|Beak and feather disease virus: biology and resultant disease]]" has a unified reference list, but other articles like "[[WikiJournal of Humanities/Themes in Maya Angelou's autobiographies|Themes in Maya Angelou's autobiographies]]" have references split between a footnotes and a cited by list and may need to be manually trimmed to remove the repeated "[Author], [date], p. XX" footnotes when submitting.) Simple Text Query then parses the list and connects materials based on their DOIs. Once this is done, the depositor clicks ''Deposit'', enters their email, the Parent DOI (i.e., the DOI of the article for which references are being deposited), and their Crossref depositor credentials. I have been manually going through all articles in all three journals to make sure that all of them have relevant DOIs included in their references. I have completed ''WJS'', am almost done with ''WJH'', and will then start on ''WJM''. Once this is done, I would be happy to either guide someone interested through beginning to deposit references or take over the project myself, at least to work through the 87-article backlog of existing papers. (If someone with depositor access wants to try making a reference deposit, "Beak and feather disease virus" is in good shape and its reflist is ready to be deposited.) In either case, please let me know if this is something WJUG would be interested in pursuing and how I can help. Please let me know if you have any questions. Kindly —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 01:02, 19 June 2022 (UTC) : Okay, all ''WJH'' articles now include all available DOIs. ''WJM'' is left to do. —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 20:23, 19 June 2022 (UTC) ::Thanks Colin for the very informative post and your great work on adding DOIs. I will bring this up at our next monthly meeting. [[User:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: #0000FF;">OhanaUnited</span></b>]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|<b><span style="color: green;">^{Talk page}</span></b>]] 19:31, 20 June 2022 (UTC) :::Great points raised! I've added a step-wise summary process [[WikiJournal User Group/Editorial guidelines#Submitting reference metadata|here]] and we're looking at organising going through and uploading the back-catalogue. [[User:Evolution and evolvability|T.Shafee(Evo&#65120;Evo)]]^{[[User talk:Evolution and evolvability|talk]]} 01:50, 21 July 2022 (UTC) ::::Thanks {{u|Evolution and evolvability}}! I'm glad to hear it's of interest. I'm still working through adding DOIs to all references in ''WJM'' but I'll try to finish that by the end of the month so all articles in all three journals are ready to be deposited. Let me know if you have any other questions! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 05:18, 21 July 2022 (UTC) :::::''WJM'' is now complete, so all existing articles are ready to have their references uploaded should you choose to do so. Thanks! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 00:44, 26 July 2022 (UTC) ::::::Oh neat, I see references have already been deposited for "[https://doi.org/10.15347/WJM/2022.003 Parenting stress]" and it's already showing up in the cited articles' Cited By lists (e.g., [https://citations.springernature.com/item?doi=10.1007/s10826-017-0963-6 here]). Thanks for doing this! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 01:44, 26 July 2022 (UTC) == Rabeprazole? == I was just taking a look at the [[WikiJournal User Group/Potential upcoming articles|potential upcoming articles]] and noticed the 2018 preprint "[[WikiJournal Preprints/Rabeprazole|Rabeprazole]]" which does not seem to be included on the tracking list despite having received two peer reviews. It also doesn't seem to have a Wikidata item, but I couldn't see anywhere that it had been declined. Just flagging it here to make sure it hasn't slipped through the cracks. Thanks! —[[User:Bobamnertiopsis|Collin]] (Bobamnertiopsis)^{[[User talk:Bobamnertiopsis|t]] [[Special:Contributions/Bobamnertiopsis|c]]} 20:45, 16 August 2022 (UTC) 72o3gm70d5fhrs7mwi2ndorjp0tkepw 6 164663 2415566 2189267 2022-08-16T13:02:17Z Jtneill 10242 Jtneill uploaded a new version of [[File:Brain and physiological needs 3 slides per page.pdf]] wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Lecture handout for [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs]]. |Source={{own}} |Date=2015 |Author=[[User:Jtneill]] |Permission= }} == Licensing == {{cc-by-3.0}} ne0uymyaz6g6r2zxxgl12i13tu20x1l 6 164664 2415567 2306258 2022-08-16T13:02:34Z Jtneill 10242 Jtneill uploaded a new version of [[File:Brain and physiological needs 6 slides per page.pdf]] wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Lecture handout for [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs]]. |Source={{own}} |Date=2015 |Author=[[User:Jtneill]] |Permission= }} == Licensing == {{cc-by-3.0}} ne0uymyaz6g6r2zxxgl12i13tu20x1l 0 171005 2415576 2414758 2022-08-16T14:48:21Z Young1lim 21186 /* Geometric Series Examples */ wikitext text/x-wiki Many of the functions that arise naturally in mathematics and real world applications can be extended to and regarded as complex functions, meaning the input, as well as the output, can be complex numbers <math>x+iy</math>, where <math>i=\sqrt{-1}</math>, in such a way that it is a more natural object to study. '''Complex analysis''', which used to be known as '''function theory''' or '''theory of functions of a single complex variable''', is a sub-field of analysis that studies such functions (more specifically, '''holomorphic''' functions) on the complex plane, or part (domain) or extension (Riemann surface) thereof. It notably has great importance in number theory, e.g. the [[Riemann zeta function]] (for the distribution of primes) and other <math>L</math>-functions, modular forms, elliptic functions, etc. <blockquote>The shortest path between two truths in the real domain passes through the complex domain. — [[wikipedia:Jacques_Hadamard|Jacques Hadamard]]</blockquote>In a certain sense, the essence of complex functions is captured by the principle of [[analytic continuation]].{{mathematics}} ==''' Complex Functions '''== * Complex Functions ([[Media:CAnal.1.A.CFunction.20140222.Basic.pdf|1.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.B.CFunction.20140111.Octave.pdf|1.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.C.CFunction.20140111.Extend.pdf|1.C.pdf]]) * Complex Exponential and Logarithm ([[Media:CAnal.5.A.CLog.20131017.pdf|5.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.5.A.Octave.pdf|5.B.pdf]]) * Complex Trigonometric and Hyperbolic ([[Media:CAnal.7.A.CTrigHyper..pdf|7.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.7.A.Octave..pdf|7.B.pdf]]) '''Complex Function Note''' : 1. Exp and Log Function Note ([[Media:ComplexExp.29160721.pdf|H1.pdf]]) : 2. Trig and TrigH Function Note ([[Media:CAnal.Trig-H.29160901.pdf|H1.pdf]]) : 3. Inverse Trig and TrigH Functions Note ([[Media:CAnal.Hyper.29160829.pdf|H1.pdf]]) ==''' Complex Integrals '''== * Complex Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.2.A.CIntegral.20140224.Basic.pdf|2.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.B.CIntegral.20140117.Octave.pdf|2.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.C.CIntegral.20140117.Extend.pdf|2.C.pdf]]) ==''' Complex Series '''== * Complex Series ([[Media:CPX.Series.20150226.2.Basic.pdf|3.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.B.CSeries.20140121.Octave.pdf|3.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.C.CSeries.20140303.Extend.pdf|3.C.pdf]]) ==''' Residue Integrals '''== * Residue Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.4.A.Residue.20140227.Basic.pdf|4.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.B.pdf|4.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.C.Residue.20140423.Extend.pdf|4.C.pdf]]) ==='''Residue Integrals Note'''=== * Laurent Series with the Residue Theorem Note ([[Media:Laurent.1.Residue.20170713.pdf|H1.pdf]]) * Laurent Series with Applications Note ([[Media:Laurent.2.Applications.20170327.pdf|H1.pdf]]) * Laurent Series and the z-Transform Note ([[Media:Laurent.3.z-Trans.20170831.pdf|H1.pdf]]) * Laurent Series as a Geometric Series Note ([[Media:Laurent.4.GSeries.20170802.pdf|H1.pdf]]) === Laurent Series and the z-Transform Example Note === * Overview ([[Media:Laurent.4.z-Example.20170926.pdf|H1.pdf]]) ====Geometric Series Examples==== * Causality ([[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.A.20191026n.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.B.20191026.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Time Shift ([[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.A.20191028.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.B.20191029.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Reciprocity ([[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3A.20191030.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3B.20191031.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Combinations ([[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4A.20200702.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4B.20201002.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5A.20220105.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5B.20220126.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Applications ([[Media:Laurent.6.Application.6A.20220816.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Application.6B.20220723.pdf|B.pdf]]) * Double Pole Case :- Examples ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7A.20220722.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7B.20220720.pdf|B.pdf]]) :- Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5A.20190226.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5B.20190228.pdf|B.pdf]]) ====The Case Examples==== * Example Overview : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.0.A.20171208.pdf|0A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.6.CaseExample.0.B.20180205.pdf|0B.pdf]]) * Example Case 1 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.A.20171107.pdf|1A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.B.20171227.pdf|1B.pdf]]) * Example Case 2 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.A.20171107.pdf|2A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.B.20171227.pdf|2B.pdf]]) * Example Case 3 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.A.20171017.pdf|3A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.B.20171226.pdf|3B.pdf]]) * Example Case 4 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.A.20171017.pdf|4A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.B.20171228.pdf|4B.pdf]]) * Example Summary : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.A.20171212.pdf|5A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.B.20171230.pdf|5B.pdf]]) ==''' Conformal Mapping '''== * Conformal Mapping ([[Media:CAnal.6.A.Conformal.20131224.pdf|6.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.6.A.Octave..pdf|6.B.pdf]]) go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] [[Category:Complex analysis]] dtrj9gjb69mi7bv5x7ivnf09hp67sl7 0 171008 2415785 2414266 2022-08-17T08:54:20Z Young1lim 21186 /* The Temporal Characteristics of Random Processes */ wikitext text/x-wiki ==''' Random Variables '''== === Single Random Variables === * Random Variables ([[Media:RV1.RVariable.1.A.20200427.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Distribution Function ([[Media:RV1.Distribution.2.A.201200428.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Density Function ([[Media:RV1.Density.3.A.20200429.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Functions of Random Variables ([[Media:RV1.RVFunction.4.A.20220317.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Gaussian Random Variables ([[Media:RV1.4.Gaussian.20200430.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:RV1.4B.Gaussian.20180314.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Other Distribution and Density Functions ([[Media:RV1.5.Other.20200501.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Conditional Distribution and Density Functions ([[Media:RV1.6.Conditional.20200506.pdf |A.pdf]]) </br> === The Characteristics of a Single Random Variable === * Expected Value ([[Media:RV2.Expectation.1.A.20200506.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Moments ([[Media:RV2.Moment.2.B.20200507.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:RV2.Moment.2.B.20180320.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Moment Generating Functions ([[Media:RV2.MFunctions.3.A.20200508.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Transformations of Random Variables ([[Media:RV2.Transform.4.A.20200514.pdf |A.pdf]]) </br> === Multiple Random Variables === * Vector Random Variables ([[Media:3MRV.1A.VectorRV.20200515.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Joint Distribution ([[Media:3MRV.2A.JointDist.20200518.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Joint Density ([[Media:3MRV.3A.JointDensity.20200521.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Conditional Joint Distribution and Density ([[Media:3MRV.4A.CondDistrib.20200527.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Statistical Independence ([[Media:3MRV.5A.StatIndep.20200423.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Sums of Random Variables ([[Media:3MRV.6A.RVSum.20200528.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Central Limit Theorem ([[Media:3MRV.7A.CLimit.20200612.pdf |A.pdf]]) </br> === The Characteristics of Multiple Random Variables === * Expected Values ([[Media:4MRV.1A.Expect.20200617.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Joint Characteristic Functions ([[Media:4MRV.2A.JChar.20200618.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Jointly Gaussian Random Variables ([[Media:4MRV.3A.JGauss.20200619.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Transformations of Multiple Random Variables ([[Media:4MRV.4A.Transform.20200620.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Linear Transformation of Gaussian Random Variables ([[Media:4MRV.5A.LinearTrans.20200623.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Simulating Multiple Random Variables ([[Media:4MRV.6A.Simulation.20200624.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Sampling and Some Limit Theorem ([[Media:4MRV.7A.LimitTheorem.20200625.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Complex Random Variables ([[Media:4MRV.8A.ComplexRV.20200626.pdf |A.pdf]]) </br> ==''' Random Processes '''== === The Temporal Characteristics of Random Processes === * Random Processes ([[Media:5MRV.1A.RandomProcess.20210216.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Joint Distribution, Independence, Processes ([[Media:5MRV.2A.JointDistribution.20210220.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Stationary Random Processes ([[Media:5MRV.3A.Stationary.20220402.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:5MRV.3B.Stationary.20220815.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Covariance & Correlation of Random Variables ([[Media:5MRV.4A.CovCorrRV.20210910.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Covariance & Correlation of Random Processses ([[Media:5MRV.5A.CovCorrRP.20210911.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Example Random Processes ([[Media:5MRV.4A.Example.20210227.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Ergodic Random Processes ([[Media:5MRV.5A.Ergodicity.20211022.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:5MRV.7B.Ergodicity.20211215.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Measurement of Correlation Functions ([[Media:5MRV.6A.Measure.20201013.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Complex Random Processes ([[Media:5MRV.7A.Complex.20201022.pdf |A.pdf]]) </br> === The Spectral Characteristics of Random Processes === * Power Density Spectrum - Continuous Time ([[Media:6MRV.1A.PSpecCT.20210204.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Auto Correlation Function ([[Media:6MRV.2A.AutoCor.20201218.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Power Density Spectrum - Discrete Time ([[Media:6MRV.3A.PSpecDT.20201203.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Cross Power Density Spectrum ([[Media:6MRV.4A.CPSpec.20191108.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Cross Correlation Function ([[Media:6MRV.5A.CCorrel.20191114.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Noise Definitions ([[Media:6MRV.6A.Noise.20191121.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Power Spectrum of Complex Random Processes ([[Media:6MRV.7A.ComplexProc.20191125.pdf |A.pdf]]) </br> === Linear System with Random Inputs === * Continuous Time LTI System ([[Media:7LTI.1A.CTime.20191203.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Discrete Time LTI System ([[Media:7LTI.2A.DTime.20191211.pdf |A.pdf]]) * System Response ([[Media:7LTI.3A.Response.20191224.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Spectral Characteristics ([[Media:7LTI.4A.Spectral.20200104.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Noise Modeling ([[Media:7LTI.5A.Noise.20200122.pdf |A.pdf]]) <br> === Optimum Linear System === * Maximum SNR ([[Media:8OPT.1A.MaxSNR.20200128.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Minimum Squared Error ([[Media:8OPT.2A.MinSE.20200207.pdf |A.pdf]]) <br> === Noise in Some Application Systems === * AM Communication Systems ([[Media:9APP.1A.AM.20200212.pdf |A.pdf]]) * FM Communication Systems ([[Media:9APP.2A.FM.20200221.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Control Systems ([[Media:9APP.3A.Control.20200225.pdf |A.pdf]]) * PLL Systems ([[Media:9APP.4A.PLL.20200305.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Random Waveforms ([[Media:9APP.5A.RandWave.20200311.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Radar Systems ([[Media:9APP.6A.Radar.20200313.pdf |A.pdf]]) <br> ==''' Correlation and Power Spectra '''== # Correlation Functions of Random Signals ([[Media:RAND.1.A.Correlation.20121106.pdf |pdf]]) # Spectra of Random Signals ([[Media:RAND.2.A.Spectra.20121108.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==''' Ergodicity, Statistics, Estimation '''== </br> ==''' Random Processes and Linear Systems '''== </br> # Time Domain Techniques for Noisy Signals ([[Media:RAND.3.A.Time.20130205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Dirichlet.pdf |B.pdf]]) # Frequency Domain Techniques for Noisy Signals # Correlation v.s. Convolution for Noisy Signals </br> # System Identification ([[Media:RP.SysId.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) # Matched Filter <ref>[[Understanding Digital Communications]], See Baseband Mod/Demod Section</ref> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] hu07cmcpo0w50wrsht6aw4c8bcpa7mw 2415787 2415785 2022-08-17T08:55:33Z Young1lim 21186 /* The Temporal Characteristics of Random Processes */ wikitext text/x-wiki ==''' Random Variables '''== === Single Random Variables === * Random Variables ([[Media:RV1.RVariable.1.A.20200427.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Distribution Function ([[Media:RV1.Distribution.2.A.201200428.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Density Function ([[Media:RV1.Density.3.A.20200429.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Functions of Random Variables ([[Media:RV1.RVFunction.4.A.20220317.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Gaussian Random Variables ([[Media:RV1.4.Gaussian.20200430.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:RV1.4B.Gaussian.20180314.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Other Distribution and Density Functions ([[Media:RV1.5.Other.20200501.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Conditional Distribution and Density Functions ([[Media:RV1.6.Conditional.20200506.pdf |A.pdf]]) </br> === The Characteristics of a Single Random Variable === * Expected Value ([[Media:RV2.Expectation.1.A.20200506.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Moments ([[Media:RV2.Moment.2.B.20200507.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:RV2.Moment.2.B.20180320.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Moment Generating Functions ([[Media:RV2.MFunctions.3.A.20200508.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Transformations of Random Variables ([[Media:RV2.Transform.4.A.20200514.pdf |A.pdf]]) </br> === Multiple Random Variables === * Vector Random Variables ([[Media:3MRV.1A.VectorRV.20200515.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Joint Distribution ([[Media:3MRV.2A.JointDist.20200518.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Joint Density ([[Media:3MRV.3A.JointDensity.20200521.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Conditional Joint Distribution and Density ([[Media:3MRV.4A.CondDistrib.20200527.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Statistical Independence ([[Media:3MRV.5A.StatIndep.20200423.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Sums of Random Variables ([[Media:3MRV.6A.RVSum.20200528.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Central Limit Theorem ([[Media:3MRV.7A.CLimit.20200612.pdf |A.pdf]]) </br> === The Characteristics of Multiple Random Variables === * Expected Values ([[Media:4MRV.1A.Expect.20200617.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Joint Characteristic Functions ([[Media:4MRV.2A.JChar.20200618.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Jointly Gaussian Random Variables ([[Media:4MRV.3A.JGauss.20200619.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Transformations of Multiple Random Variables ([[Media:4MRV.4A.Transform.20200620.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Linear Transformation of Gaussian Random Variables ([[Media:4MRV.5A.LinearTrans.20200623.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Simulating Multiple Random Variables ([[Media:4MRV.6A.Simulation.20200624.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Sampling and Some Limit Theorem ([[Media:4MRV.7A.LimitTheorem.20200625.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Complex Random Variables ([[Media:4MRV.8A.ComplexRV.20200626.pdf |A.pdf]]) </br> ==''' Random Processes '''== === The Temporal Characteristics of Random Processes === * Random Processes ([[Media:5MRV.1A.RandomProcess.20210216.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Joint Distribution, Independence, Processes ([[Media:5MRV.2A.JointDistribution.20210220.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Stationary Random Processes ([[Media:5MRV.3A.Stationary.20220402.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:5MRV.3B.Stationary.20220816.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Covariance & Correlation of Random Variables ([[Media:5MRV.4A.CovCorrRV.20210910.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Covariance & Correlation of Random Processses ([[Media:5MRV.5A.CovCorrRP.20210911.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Example Random Processes ([[Media:5MRV.4A.Example.20210227.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Ergodic Random Processes ([[Media:5MRV.5A.Ergodicity.20211022.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:5MRV.7B.Ergodicity.20211215.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Measurement of Correlation Functions ([[Media:5MRV.6A.Measure.20201013.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Complex Random Processes ([[Media:5MRV.7A.Complex.20201022.pdf |A.pdf]]) </br> === The Spectral Characteristics of Random Processes === * Power Density Spectrum - Continuous Time ([[Media:6MRV.1A.PSpecCT.20210204.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Auto Correlation Function ([[Media:6MRV.2A.AutoCor.20201218.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Power Density Spectrum - Discrete Time ([[Media:6MRV.3A.PSpecDT.20201203.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Cross Power Density Spectrum ([[Media:6MRV.4A.CPSpec.20191108.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Cross Correlation Function ([[Media:6MRV.5A.CCorrel.20191114.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Noise Definitions ([[Media:6MRV.6A.Noise.20191121.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Power Spectrum of Complex Random Processes ([[Media:6MRV.7A.ComplexProc.20191125.pdf |A.pdf]]) </br> === Linear System with Random Inputs === * Continuous Time LTI System ([[Media:7LTI.1A.CTime.20191203.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Discrete Time LTI System ([[Media:7LTI.2A.DTime.20191211.pdf |A.pdf]]) * System Response ([[Media:7LTI.3A.Response.20191224.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Spectral Characteristics ([[Media:7LTI.4A.Spectral.20200104.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Noise Modeling ([[Media:7LTI.5A.Noise.20200122.pdf |A.pdf]]) <br> === Optimum Linear System === * Maximum SNR ([[Media:8OPT.1A.MaxSNR.20200128.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Minimum Squared Error ([[Media:8OPT.2A.MinSE.20200207.pdf |A.pdf]]) <br> === Noise in Some Application Systems === * AM Communication Systems ([[Media:9APP.1A.AM.20200212.pdf |A.pdf]]) * FM Communication Systems ([[Media:9APP.2A.FM.20200221.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Control Systems ([[Media:9APP.3A.Control.20200225.pdf |A.pdf]]) * PLL Systems ([[Media:9APP.4A.PLL.20200305.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Random Waveforms ([[Media:9APP.5A.RandWave.20200311.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Radar Systems ([[Media:9APP.6A.Radar.20200313.pdf |A.pdf]]) <br> ==''' Correlation and Power Spectra '''== # Correlation Functions of Random Signals ([[Media:RAND.1.A.Correlation.20121106.pdf |pdf]]) # Spectra of Random Signals ([[Media:RAND.2.A.Spectra.20121108.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==''' Ergodicity, Statistics, Estimation '''== </br> ==''' Random Processes and Linear Systems '''== </br> # Time Domain Techniques for Noisy Signals ([[Media:RAND.3.A.Time.20130205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Dirichlet.pdf |B.pdf]]) # Frequency Domain Techniques for Noisy Signals # Correlation v.s. Convolution for Noisy Signals </br> # System Identification ([[Media:RP.SysId.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) # Matched Filter <ref>[[Understanding Digital Communications]], See Baseband Mod/Demod Section</ref> </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] 8s8gjftezfo4qlxmgvsetocn1p1j2pv 0 203942 2415679 2414221 2022-08-17T03:04:41Z Young1lim 21186 /* Monads III : Mutable State Monads */ wikitext text/x-wiki ==Introduction== * Overview I ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.1.A.20160806.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview II ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.2.A.20160926.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview III ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.3.A.20161011.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview IV ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.4.A.20161104.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview V ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.5.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Applications== * Sudoku Background ([[Media:Sudoku.Background.0.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]]) * Bird's Implementation :- Specification ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.1.A.Spec.20170425.pdf |pdf]]) :- Rules ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.2.A.Rule.20170201.pdf |pdf]]) :- Pruning ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.3.A.Pruning.20170211.pdf |pdf]]) :- Expanding ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.4.A.Expand.20170506.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Using GHCi== * Getting started ([[Media:GHCi.Start.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Using Libraries== * Library ([[Media:Library.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> ==Function Oriented Typeclasses== === Background === * Constructors ([[Media:Background.1.A.Constructor.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) * TypeClasses ([[Media:Background.1.B.TypeClass.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) * Functions ([[Media:Background.1.C.Function.20180712.pdf |pdf]]) * Expressions ([[Media:Background.1.D.Expression.20180707.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:Background.1.E.Operator.20180707.pdf |pdf]]) === Functors === * Functor Overview ([[Media:Functor.1.A.Overview.20180802.pdf |pdf]]) * Function Functor ([[Media:Functor.2.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]]) * Functor Lifting ([[Media:Functor.2.B.Lifting.20180721.pdf |pdf]]) === Applicatives === * Applicatives Overview ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Overview.20180606.pdf |pdf]]) * Applicatives Methods ([[Media:Applicative.3.B.Method.20180519.pdf |pdf]]) * Function Applicative ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]]) * Applicatives Sequencing ([[Media:Applicative.3.C.Sequencing.20180606.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads I : Background === * Side Effects ([[Media:Monad.P1.1A.SideEffect.20190316.pdf |pdf]]) * Monad Overview ([[Media:Monad.P1.2A.Overview.20190308.pdf |pdf]]) * Monadic Operations ([[Media:Monad.P1.3A.Operations.20190308.pdf |pdf]]) * Maybe Monad ([[Media:Monad.P1.4A.Maybe.201900606.pdf |pdf]]) * IO Actions ([[Media:Monad.P1.5A.IOAction.20190606.pdf |pdf]]) * Several Monad Types ([[Media:Monad.P1.6A.Types.20191016.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads II : State Transformer Monads === * State Transformer : - State Transformer Basics ([[Media:MP2.1A.STrans.Basic.20191002.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Transformer Generic Monad ([[Media:MP2.1B.STrans.Generic.20191002.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Transformer Monads ([[Media:MP2.1C.STrans.Monad.20191022.pdf |pdf]]) * State Monad : - State Monad Basics ([[Media:MP2.2A.State.Basic.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Monad Methods ([[Media:MP2.2B.State.Method.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Monad Examples ([[Media:MP2.2C.State.Example.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads III : Mutable State Monads === * Mutability Background : - Types ([[Media:MP3.1A.Mut.Type.20200721.pdf |pdf]]) : - Primitive Types ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.PrimType.20200611.pdf |pdf]]) : - Polymorphic Types ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Polymorphic.20201212.pdf |pdf]]) : - Continuation Passing Style ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Continuation.20220110.pdf |pdf]]) : - Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Expression.20220628.pdf |pdf]]) : - Lambda Calculus ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.LambdaCal.20220815.pdf |pdf]]) : - Non-terminating Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Non-terminating.20220616.pdf |pdf]]) : - Inhabitedness ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Inhabited.20220319.pdf |pdf]]) : - Existential Types ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Existential.20220128.pdf |pdf]]) : - forall Keyword ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.forall.20210316.pdf |pdf]]) : - Mutability and Strictness ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Strictness.20200613.pdf |pdf]]) : - Strict and Lazy Packages ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Package.20200620.pdf |pdf]]) * Mutable Objects : - Mutable Variables ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.Variable.20200224.pdf |pdf]]) : - Mutable Data Structures ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.DataStruct.20191226.pdf |pdf]]) * IO Monad : - IO Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.2A.IO.Basic.20191019.pdf |pdf]]) : - IO Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.2B.IO.Method.20191022.pdf |pdf]]) : - IORef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.2C.IO.IORef.20191019.pdf |pdf]]) * ST Monad : - ST Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.3A.ST.Basic.20191031.pdf |pdf]]) : - ST Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.3B.ST.Method.20191023.pdf |pdf]]) : - STRef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.3C.ST.STRef.20191023.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads IV : Reader and Writer Monads === * Function Monad ([[Media:Monad.10.A.Function.20180806.pdf |pdf]]) * Monad Transformer ([[Media:Monad.3.I.Transformer.20180727.pdf |pdf]]) * MonadState Class :: - State & StateT Monads ([[Media:Monad.9.A.MonadState.Monad.20180920.pdf |pdf]]) :: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.9.B.MonadState.Class.20180920.pdf |pdf]]) * MonadReader Class :: - Reader & ReaderT Monads ([[Media:Monad.11.A.Reader.20180821.pdf |pdf]]) :: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.12.A.MonadReader.20180821.pdf |pdf]]) * Control Monad ([[Media:Monad.9.A.Control.20180908.pdf |pdf]]) === Monoid === * Monoids ([[Media:Monoid.4.A.20180508.pdf |pdf]]) === Arrow === * Arrows ([[Media:Arrow.1.A.20190504.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Polymorphism== * Polymorphism Overview ([[Media:Poly.1.A.20180220.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Concurrent Haskell == </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] ==External links== * [http://learnyouahaskell.com/introduction Learn you Haskell] * [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/ Real World Haskell] * [http://www.scs.stanford.edu/14sp-cs240h/slides/ Standford Class Material] [[Category:Computer programming]] 5ald2yqrw5r9zwf8zyxenxylr4ltgjx 2415683 2415679 2022-08-17T03:08:36Z Young1lim 21186 /* Monads III : Mutable State Monads */ wikitext text/x-wiki ==Introduction== * Overview I ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.1.A.20160806.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview II ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.2.A.20160926.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview III ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.3.A.20161011.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview IV ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.4.A.20161104.pdf |pdf]]) * Overview V ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.5.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Applications== * Sudoku Background ([[Media:Sudoku.Background.0.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]]) * Bird's Implementation :- Specification ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.1.A.Spec.20170425.pdf |pdf]]) :- Rules ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.2.A.Rule.20170201.pdf |pdf]]) :- Pruning ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.3.A.Pruning.20170211.pdf |pdf]]) :- Expanding ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.4.A.Expand.20170506.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Using GHCi== * Getting started ([[Media:GHCi.Start.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Using Libraries== * Library ([[Media:Library.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> ==Function Oriented Typeclasses== === Background === * Constructors ([[Media:Background.1.A.Constructor.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) * TypeClasses ([[Media:Background.1.B.TypeClass.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) * Functions ([[Media:Background.1.C.Function.20180712.pdf |pdf]]) * Expressions ([[Media:Background.1.D.Expression.20180707.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:Background.1.E.Operator.20180707.pdf |pdf]]) === Functors === * Functor Overview ([[Media:Functor.1.A.Overview.20180802.pdf |pdf]]) * Function Functor ([[Media:Functor.2.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]]) * Functor Lifting ([[Media:Functor.2.B.Lifting.20180721.pdf |pdf]]) === Applicatives === * Applicatives Overview ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Overview.20180606.pdf |pdf]]) * Applicatives Methods ([[Media:Applicative.3.B.Method.20180519.pdf |pdf]]) * Function Applicative ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]]) * Applicatives Sequencing ([[Media:Applicative.3.C.Sequencing.20180606.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads I : Background === * Side Effects ([[Media:Monad.P1.1A.SideEffect.20190316.pdf |pdf]]) * Monad Overview ([[Media:Monad.P1.2A.Overview.20190308.pdf |pdf]]) * Monadic Operations ([[Media:Monad.P1.3A.Operations.20190308.pdf |pdf]]) * Maybe Monad ([[Media:Monad.P1.4A.Maybe.201900606.pdf |pdf]]) * IO Actions ([[Media:Monad.P1.5A.IOAction.20190606.pdf |pdf]]) * Several Monad Types ([[Media:Monad.P1.6A.Types.20191016.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads II : State Transformer Monads === * State Transformer : - State Transformer Basics ([[Media:MP2.1A.STrans.Basic.20191002.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Transformer Generic Monad ([[Media:MP2.1B.STrans.Generic.20191002.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Transformer Monads ([[Media:MP2.1C.STrans.Monad.20191022.pdf |pdf]]) * State Monad : - State Monad Basics ([[Media:MP2.2A.State.Basic.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Monad Methods ([[Media:MP2.2B.State.Method.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) : - State Monad Examples ([[Media:MP2.2C.State.Example.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads III : Mutable State Monads === * Mutability Background : - Types ([[Media:MP3.1A.Mut.Type.20200721.pdf |pdf]]) : - Primitive Types ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.PrimType.20200611.pdf |pdf]]) : - Polymorphic Types ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Polymorphic.20201212.pdf |pdf]]) : - Continuation Passing Style ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Continuation.20220110.pdf |pdf]]) : - Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Expression.20220628.pdf |pdf]]) : - Lambda Calculus ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.LambdaCal.20220816.pdf |pdf]]) : - Non-terminating Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Non-terminating.20220616.pdf |pdf]]) : - Inhabitedness ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Inhabited.20220319.pdf |pdf]]) : - Existential Types ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Existential.20220128.pdf |pdf]]) : - forall Keyword ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.forall.20210316.pdf |pdf]]) : - Mutability and Strictness ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Strictness.20200613.pdf |pdf]]) : - Strict and Lazy Packages ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Package.20200620.pdf |pdf]]) * Mutable Objects : - Mutable Variables ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.Variable.20200224.pdf |pdf]]) : - Mutable Data Structures ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.DataStruct.20191226.pdf |pdf]]) * IO Monad : - IO Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.2A.IO.Basic.20191019.pdf |pdf]]) : - IO Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.2B.IO.Method.20191022.pdf |pdf]]) : - IORef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.2C.IO.IORef.20191019.pdf |pdf]]) * ST Monad : - ST Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.3A.ST.Basic.20191031.pdf |pdf]]) : - ST Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.3B.ST.Method.20191023.pdf |pdf]]) : - STRef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.3C.ST.STRef.20191023.pdf |pdf]]) === Monads IV : Reader and Writer Monads === * Function Monad ([[Media:Monad.10.A.Function.20180806.pdf |pdf]]) * Monad Transformer ([[Media:Monad.3.I.Transformer.20180727.pdf |pdf]]) * MonadState Class :: - State & StateT Monads ([[Media:Monad.9.A.MonadState.Monad.20180920.pdf |pdf]]) :: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.9.B.MonadState.Class.20180920.pdf |pdf]]) * MonadReader Class :: - Reader & ReaderT Monads ([[Media:Monad.11.A.Reader.20180821.pdf |pdf]]) :: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.12.A.MonadReader.20180821.pdf |pdf]]) * Control Monad ([[Media:Monad.9.A.Control.20180908.pdf |pdf]]) === Monoid === * Monoids ([[Media:Monoid.4.A.20180508.pdf |pdf]]) === Arrow === * Arrows ([[Media:Arrow.1.A.20190504.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Polymorphism== * Polymorphism Overview ([[Media:Poly.1.A.20180220.pdf |pdf]]) </br> ==Concurrent Haskell == </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] ==External links== * [http://learnyouahaskell.com/introduction Learn you Haskell] * [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/ Real World Haskell] * [http://www.scs.stanford.edu/14sp-cs240h/slides/ Standford Class Material] [[Category:Computer programming]] kfh6aa7ce4kt3fwnvzdmerlnfqyj7uj 0 213043 2415573 2399840 2022-08-16T14:38:32Z Sophivorus 85690 /* Debates */ wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Wikidebate logo.png|thumb|The Wikidebate logo represents a small debate tree.]] [[Wikidebate]] is a collaborative [[Wikiversity:Learning projects|learning project]] to compile and organize all positions, arguments and objections on controversial topics. It's not a place to defend your preferred points of view, but original arguments are allowed and welcome. {{Blue button|/Guidelines|Wikidebate guidelines}} {{Blue button|/New|New wikidebate}} == Debates == === Law === * [[Should cannabis be legal?]] * [[Should suicide be legal?]] * [[Should abortion be legal?]] * [[Should capital punishment be legal?]] * [[Should voluntary euthanasia be legal?]] * [[Should animal testing be legal?]] * [[Should same-sex marriage be legal?]] * [[Should civilians be prohibited from owning firearms?]] * [[Should polygamy be legal?]] === Science === * [[Should we colonize Mars?]] * [[Should we use nuclear energy?]] * [[Are humans omnivores or herbivores?]] * [[Is there intelligent extraterrestrial life in the Milky Way?]] * [[Are humans the main cause of global warming?]] === Philosophy === * [[Does God exist?]] * [[Do humans have free will?]] * [[Is morality objective?]] * [[Does everything happen for a sufficient reason?]] * [[Does an individual have a responsibility to maintain a community?]] * [[Does objective reality exist?]] === Culture === * [[Who is Satoshi Nakamoto?]] * [[Should we go vegan?]] * [[Is capitalism sustainable?]] * [[Is a world government desirable?]] * [[Was 9/11 an inside job?]] * [[Did the United States need to use atomic weapons to end World War II?]] === Other === * [[Should we use the debate algorithm on wikidebates?]] * [[Should we merge all WikiJournals into one?]] == Recent changes == {{Related changes}} == See also == * [[Wikidebate/Guidelines]] - Some wisdom on how to wikidebate * [[:Category:Wikidebates]] - Category containing all wikidebates * [[Wikidebate/Preload]] - Preload for new wikidebates * [https://tools.wmflabs.org/massviews?source=wikilinks&target=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikiversity.org%2Fwiki%2FWikidebate&range=last-month Project pageviews last month] === On meta-wiki === * [[meta:Wikidebat]] * [[meta:Wikidebate]] * [[meta:WikiConvention francophone/2019/Programme/Wikidébats, une encyclopédie libre et collaborative de débats]] [[Category:Learning projects]] t0z8fp443tjll2x0ywgikv2zjol9kf6 0 213047 2415619 2401669 2022-08-16T18:22:03Z Sophivorus 85690 Normalize wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikidebate}} {{Religion}} [[File:Doré, Gustave - Paradiso Canto 31.jpg|thumb|alt=A man staring into a large swirl of angels and light|God as a point of light in {{W|Paradiso (Dante)|Dante's ''Paradiso''}}, engraving by {{W|Gustave Doré}}.]] [[File:Does God exist%3F.png|thumb|Visual snapshot of this debate sometime in the past.]] Questions about the nature of ultimate reality have been asked as long as humans have been conscious. For thousands of years, across thousands of cultures, belief in a supreme being has been more or less common but some have always called into question whether or not God exists or can even be known. By "God" we mean the metaphysically ultimate being, all-knowing, all-powerful, all-good, timeless, simple and devoid of any anthropomorphic qualities. We do not necessarily mean the Abrahamic God, although these ideas may share some overlap. So is there a God? == God exists == === Arguments for === * {{Argument for}} The laws of logic are necessary true propositions. Propositions are real entities, but cannot be physical entities; they are essentially thoughts.<ref>"Propositions are not on paper, in your brain, or anywhere else" [https://www.academia.edu/630293/Propositions_Are_Not_on_Paper_In_Your_Brain_or_Anywhere_Else Direct Paper link]</ref>{{Clarify}} So the laws of logic are necessarily true thoughts. Since they are true in every possible world, they must exist in every possible world.<ref>"From Necessary Truth to Necessary Existence" [http://www.joshualrasmussen.com/articles/existence.pdf Direct paper link (PDF)]</ref> But if there are necessarily existent thoughts, there must be a necessarily existent mind; and if there is a necessarily existent mind, there must be a necessarily existent person. A necessarily existent person must be spiritual in nature, because no physical entity exists necessarily. Thus, if there are laws of logic, there must also be a necessarily existent, personal, spiritual being.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Anderson|first=James N.|last2=Welty|first2=Greg|date=2011|title=The Lord of Noncontradiction: An Argument for God from Logic|url=https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/The-Lord-of-Noncontradiction%3A-An-Argument-for-God-Anderson-Welty/e0f49c35c70e54174bf201c59f4abfadd223c583?p2df|doi=10.5840/PC201113229}}</ref><ref>"A Defense of Theistic Argument from the Law of Non-contradiction", [https://oaktrust.library.tamu.edu/bitstream/handle/1969.1/157717/NAVARRO-THESIS-2016.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Direct paper link (PDF)]</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Weaver|first=Christopher G.|title=Why is There Anything?|url=https://www.academia.edu/20392976/Why_is_There_Anything|journal=Two Dozen (or so) Arguments for God: The Plantinga Project}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rasmussen|first=Joshua|date=2009-01-01|title=From a necessary being to god|url=https://www.academia.edu/630287/From_a_necessary_being_to_god|journal=International journal for philosophy of religion}}</ref> ** {{Objection}} This proposition is not correct: "Since they are true in very possible world, they must exist in every possible world". Why? Because the expression "possible world" has two different meanings. Is an amphibology. In first case, its meaning is: "possible world that we imagine". In the second case, its meaning is: "possible world that can exist". * {{Argument for}} Existence of God has been proven ''a priori'' using higher-order logic and reasonable axioms.<ref>Axioms:[https://arxiv.org/pdf/2001.04701]<br>A1 Self-identity is a positive property, self-difference is not.<br>A2 A property entailed or necessarily entailed by a positive property is positive.<br>A3 The conjunction of any collection of positive properties is positive.</ref><ref>"A (Simplified) Supreme Being Necessarily Exists -- Says the Computer!", [https://arxiv.org/pdf/2001.04701 Direct Paper link (PDF)]</ref>{{Clarify}} * {{Argument for}} Various phenomena in the Universe appear to be designed and suggest a designer, God.{{Example}} * {{Argument for}} Language plays an integral role in the laws of nature and of DNA. As encoded meaning, language is non-material in its ultimate essence. Apart from something akin to the human mind, there are no serious candidates for explaining how linguistic phenomena might otherwise arise. The only reasonable way to account for the linguistic aspects of the laws of nature and of DNA is an intellect with capacities so vast that most people would immediately identify this entity as God.<ref>"A Linguistic Argument for God's existence", [http://www.etsjets.org/files/JETS-PDFs/58/58-4/JETS_58-4_771-86_Baumgardner&Lyon.pdf Direct Paper link (PDF)]</ref> * {{Argument for}} Under a naturalistic worldview, the coincidence of all the cognitive faculties required for knowledge is highly unlikely, since evolution favors survival, not truth, and any overlap of survival and truth is highly implausible.<ref>"IF KNOWLEDGE THEN GOD: THE EPISTEMOLOGICAL THEISTIC ARGUMENTS OF PLANTINGA AND VAN TIL", [http://www.proginosko.com/docs/If_Knowledge_Then_God.pdf Direct paper link (PDF)]</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/2019/10/donald-hoffmans-the-case-against-reality-is-hard-to-get-your-head-around/|title=Donald Hoffman's The Case Against Reality is hard to get your head around|date=2019-10-12|website=The Spectator|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.quantamagazine.org/the-evolutionary-argument-against-reality-20160421/|title=The Evolutionary Argument Against Reality|last=Amanda Gefter|website=Quanta Magazine|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://iai.tv/articles/the-evolution-of-reality-auid-1274|title=The Evolution of Reality {{!}} Why the world is not how we see it|date=2019-11-29|website=IAI TV - Changing how the world thinks|language=en-GB}}</ref> If the reliability of cognitive faculties is low, any belief is not warranted including metaphysical naturalism, which becomes self-defeating.<ref>"Probability And Defeaters", [http://www.proginosko.com/docs/If_Knowledge_Then_God.pdf Direct Paper link (PDF)]</ref> ** {{Objection}} This doesn't imply that God exists, only that naturalism is false. * {{Argument for}} Chanting of names of God (like Hare Krishna) gives immense happiness to devotees. One can't expect such happiness from a non-theistic worldview, but God existence could explain such happiness. ** {{Objection}} Chanting in unison in a crowd during a sports game can cause similar feelings of happiness. Happy feelings from chanting is not evidence for God. * {{Argument for}} For the Universe to exist, there must be an uncaused cause, God, or the Universe is eternal. So either there's no explanation for God, or there's no explanation for the Universe. The Big Bang is not an explanation, it's a description with no explanation for why it came to be. We then have to rely on chance and happenstance. God fits the picture better. ** {{Objection}} If there must be an uncaused cause, then why can't the Universe be the uncaused cause? Adding God to the chain only adds unnecessary complexity making it a less likely explanation. Just start with a natural, unintelligent and minimally powerful uncaused cause. *** {{Objection}} Everything that we know in the Universe has a cause external in space and previous in time. Why should the Universe itself be any different? But God is timeless, so the same rules don't necessarily apply. **** {{Objection}} The Big Bang was the beginning of spacetime. As such, we cannot say that the particles that cause the Big Bang follow the same rules. ** {{Objection}} Not knowing how the Big Bang came about is not proof or evidence that God exists. ** {{Objection}} This assumes the need for an explanation, which is just a [[Wikipedia:False equivalence|false equivalence]]. Things within the Universe require an explanation, but the Universe itself does not require an explanation, because we explain things inside the Universe based on the assumption that there is an external factor already explained. This does not apply to the Universe itself because there is nothing external to the Universe by definition. Either the Universe caused itself or simply has no cause. This might strike many as nonsensical but that is simply because they are unconsciously and inappropriately extending the logic of parts to the whole. *** {{Objection}} Everything we know has a cause different from itself. Thus, we must pursue this principle to its natural end, and conclude that the Universe has a cause different from itself, unless contrary evidence can be provided. You can't merely assume that the Universe is all there is and write in an exception into the definition of the Universe. **** {{Objection}} If you question the origin of the Universe, it's like questioning the water cycle. Where does evaporated water come from? From condensed water. Where does condensed water come from? From precipitated water. Where does precipitated water come from? From ran off water. Where does ran off water come from? From evaporated water. And the cycle goes on and on and on. Similarly, if you question the origin of the Universe, I would say from the Big Bang. If you question the origin of the Big Bang, I would say from the Singularity. If you question the origin of the Singularity, I would say from the Big Crunch. If you question the origin of the Big Crunch, I would say from the Universe. If God does exist, why did he make principles that lead to his non-existence? If God created science, why we can't connect science to him? Even principles are self-looping, so there's also indeed no creator. Energy loops, matter loops, the burnt paper turns into carbon and gas, it just turns into something else to become paper again. The Universe exists in the first place because it loops so there's no beginning or end. The [[Wikipedia:Conservation of energy|law of conservation of energy]] states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only be transferred or transformed from one form to another. This implies that energy and the Universe existed in the first place. There's no creator. Just accept the fact that there is no zero in the Universe, there's a fixed number of materials and energy. The Universe is just a continuous loop of energy. It inflates through the Big Bang, reaches the maximum inflation, deflates through the Big Crunch, and reaches the maximum deflation, and the cycle goes on. * {{Argument for}} God may not have provided evidence to everyone because not all people want God, so God may be fulfilling their desire by not giving them sufficient evidence. ** {{Objection}} Absence of evidence is not evidence of presence. Lack of evidence doesn't imply that God is fulfilling the desire of people who don't want God, nor that God exists. *** {{Objection}} Subjective evidence suggest that either God exists who wants to known to people as God may choose or either all people deluded, lier or anything else. But principle of incredulity say that we should believe in experience unless there is good reason to not otherwise. Now if there is positive evidence for non existence of God, it can't counted. But as far as we know, there is no positive evidence of non existence of God. Therefore subjective evidence can't be rejected. Now question one can ask is why would God don't provide subjective evidence to everyone? So, one explanation is not all people want God, and God may not provides evidence to those who doesn't want God or who doesn't qualify. * {{Argument for}} If the Universe is a simulation, then there's a creator beyond spacetime who designed and fine-tuned the simulation. Now either the Universe is a simulation or the Universe is base reality. If the Universe is a simulation, it can be a simulation level 1, level 2, level 1000 or any level. If the Universe is base reality, it can exist in only one way. Therefore, there're more possibilities of the Universe being a simulation than base reality. ** {{Objection}} Even if our Universe is a simulation and has a creator, that doesn't imply a creator of base reality. Our Universe could be a simulation one level below base reality, which implies a creator outside of our local spacetime that exists in base reality, but that does not imply a creator outside spacetime for that base reality since the argument only applies to simulations. * {{Argument for}} Difference between natural and supernatural is artificial. It depends on definition of Supernatural, and gives reason to reject God on artificial grounds. If Supernatural is defined as something which science can't explain, then most of phenomenon can't explainable by science because it depends on our observations, and it doesn't necessarily that observations shows real content of reality out there. If Supernatural is defined as something done that violates laws of physics, there is contradiction in definition. Because laws of physics are not fixed set of laws, but we try to find laws by observations and whatever comes, we describes it as laws of physics. If Supernatural is defined as some actions by agents, it is unclear whether to consider ghost as Supernatural because if some explanation found for it, it becomes natural. And it isn't necessary that nature behaves on it's own. If physical reality doesn't know what it does, or how it does, then it doesn't have to continue to exist. All physical reality can suddenly appears and disappears. It isn't necessarily for reality to such as it should change, it can be such as it remains static for infinity, and nothing happens. It behaves in such a way that is not expected if it run on it's own. However if material nature works under directions of God, it is exactly what we normally expect. And evidence from spontaneous emergent, chaotic unpredictability further suggest material nature can be works under supervision of God, as scripture like Bhagavad Gita also suggest.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://asitis.com/|title=Bhagavad Gita As It Is Original by Prabhupada|website=asitis.com|access-date=2022-08-16|quote=This material nature is working under My direction, O son of Kunti, and it is producing all moving and unmoving beings. By its rule this manifestation is created and annihilated again and again.}}</ref> * {{Argument for}} The Universe is fine-tuned to support life. This fine-tuning is less surprising and even probable if God exists, but highly unlikely in a godless Universe.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Chan|first=Man Ho|date=2017-05-24|title=The fine-tuned universe and the existence of God|url=https://repository.hkbu.edu.hk/etd_oa/447|journal=Open Access Theses and Dissertations|quote=To conclude, after a comprehensive study of the fine-tuning arguments, the fine-tuning phenomena strongly support the theistic worldview.}}</ref> ** {{Objection}} This argument is biased to carbon-based lifeforms. Life could exist in ways that are not based on carbon meaning the fine-tuning of the universe is not as necessary for life to exist as a carbon-based life form might think. ** {{Objection}} Considering multiverse theory, there may be many universes with their own cosmological constants. In this scenario, of course a life form in a "fine tuned" universe sees fine tuning even though that life form's existence can be relegated to chance, not God. This is an example of selection bias. The multitude of other universes inhospitable to life would never develop life forms capable of posing such questions. * {{Argument for}} If the Universe is ultimately meaningless, devoid of any purpose or design, then all-purpose and meaning one assigns should be imaginary. Because if the Universe doesn't have ultimately any purpose, then life just happened to appear in accidental ways such as it doesn't have any inherent meaning or purpose. However, if God is the reason for the existence of us, there can be the purpose of life. In some religions, it is suggested that God is originally in the spiritual universe with living entities. When a living entity doesn't want God, God makes a material universe for the fulfilment of the desire of them of not wanting God. The material universe is created temporarily such as living entity can realise their connection with God, and when they want God, they can return to God, which may be the purpose of life. ** {{Objection}} This argument assumes its own premise. It relies on the presumption that 'meaning' is an inherent characteristic of life, which is just a rudimentary form of Anthropocentrism. There is no reason why there should be 'meaning' to one's life for life to exist. * {{Argument for}} The Universe follows mathematical laws independently of how humans describe them. So mathematics must exist independently of human minds. But all mathematics needs axioms. How can axioms exist independently of human minds? An axiom generator system is needed, or meta-axioms that create the axioms required for mathematical laws. But how can meta-axioms exist? Meta-meta-axioms are needed, and so on. This makes it implausible or even impossible for any mathematical laws to exist. However, it's not impossible if mathematics exists in the mind of God. Because God can conceptualize mathematics. * {{Argument for}} Objective morality exists and requires an absolute moral authority. Without some absolute authority, all morality is an individual interpretation of morals or shared morality decided by groups of people, which is ultimately subjective. If morality comes just from the survival of fittest, it can be moral to steal or murder, if it results in survival. However, most people regard it as not moral. This absolute authority is equivalent to God who may have created humans and provided some rules or laws which may be inherent in us. ** {{Objection}} The argument assumes its own premise, that objective morality exists, an assumption that isn't necessarily correct but fundamentally necessary for the functionality of the argument. Since, it is from the idea of the existence of objective morality that this argument derives the existence of an absolute moral authority, and from the existence of an absolute moral authority, the existence of God, we necessarily have to conclude that, since no evidence is provided for the positive claim of the existence of objective morality, then no evidence has been provided for the positive claims of the existence of an absolute moral authority or a God. Since the existence of objective morality is provided merely as an assumption lacking supporting evidence, then the existence of an absolute moral authority or the existence of a God is just that, an assumption lacking supporting evidence. * {{Argument for}} Suppose there was no intelligence behind the Universe, no creative mind. In that case, nobody designed my brain for the purpose of thinking. It is merely that when the atoms inside my skull happen, for physical or chemical reasons, to arrange themselves in a certain way, this gives me, as a by-product, the sensation I call thought. But, if so, how can I trust my own thinking to be true? It's like upsetting a milk jug and hoping that the way it splashes itself will give you a map of London. But if I can't trust my own thinking, of course I can't trust the arguments leading to Atheism, and therefore have no reason to be an Atheist, or anything else. Unless I believe in God, I cannot believe in thought: so I can never use thought to disbelieve in God.<ref>The original version of this argument was brought forth by {{W|C. S. Lewis}}.</ref> ** {{Objection}} A similar argument applies to the theist. Suppose an intelligence designed our brains. This could mean that our brains were designed for thinking rationally, or it could mean that our brains were designed to come to the wrong conclusions. How do we know which is true? We can't. If I can't trust my own thinking, I can't trust the arguments leading to theism. Assuming God exists does not lead to knowledge that we think rationally. *** {{Objection}} But problem is more serious in universe which just happened to be like it, which is accidental, mindless, purposeless, arbitrary. In such godless universe, there would millions or perhaps billions of coincidence required for brain to function exact right, and there would much more possibility that brain is unreliable. How can anyone know that brain is anything more than quantum fluctuations? In such, how can one can sure that quantum fluctuations should behaves exactly by which it makes logical decision when it doesn't know anything? How can one have faith in such quantum fluctuations such as it shows real reality than shows illusion of reality? However if God creates physical Universe for living entity for giving chance to those who don't want them, then living entity can realize God and can comes to conclusion of God by realizing that material universe is illusionary, and full of suffering which is not ultimate place for him, because of which they can comes to God. In such state, they can have faith in God and can surrender God. Additionally if God wants, God can make known their existence to someone at absolutely certain such as one can becomes certain that God exist, and can realize purpose of existence. ** {{Objection}} Nobody designed the stomach for digesting food either, yet with modern biology, we know through a process of evolution over millions of years that the digestive system evolved naturally through an accumulation of beneficial steps. Just like the eye, just like the mind. In short, evolution provides a better explanation than God. *** {{Objection}} Not really. How can physical reality behaves so perfectly? If everything is ultimately stochastic thermodynamics progress and quantum fluctuations, why such great coincidence occurs by which it works so well, such as it seems design? If it is not really design but apparent design, it can also be that there is no evolution but apparent evolution, and all entropic thermodynamics progression which doesn't know anything, just happened to behaves like that. But it's seems highly implausible, however it becomes likely if God direct nature or physical reality. ** {{Objection}} If God designed our minds, then why is our reasoning ability so imperfect? Why do people confuse correlation with causation? Why do people believe in astrology and other obvious nonsense? *** {{Objection}} Intelligence is a gift endowed to humans that cannot be explained through evolution. It's a gift, but humans are not perfect. If so, we would be divine. How you choose to believe this happened is a matter of faith.{{Clarify}} * {{Argument for}} If you trust your own thinking, then you must have an absolute perfection, a highest logic, against which to measure your thoughts. ** {{Objection}} Why must that vision of perfection actually exist? Is it not merely a measure in our minds against an imaginary height of perfection? Thought does not imply existence. * {{Argument for}} A huge number of humans, throughout centuries, have reported all sorts of encounters with God, from the personal internal type to shared apparitions and public miracles. Experiences differ in many ways, but they all support a common cause: the existence of God. It is highly implausible that many reports all be false or misled, and as we trust our experience unless we have good reason to think otherwise, it is reasonable to think that God is reason behind such experiences. ** {{Objection}} Testimonies are generally inconsistent unless they are sufficiently connected by cultural myths or sufficiently vague. Many cultures have the concept of magic, not because magic is real, but because magic is a sufficiently vague concept to hold many different conceptions of it. Unsurprisingly, the reports about God are more similar to the more closely connected the cultures of the witnesses are, which indicates they are cultural phenomena rather than independent observations that corroborate each other. *** {{Objection}} How testimony is inconsistent? In general experience of God is very difficult to describe or explain. Think how do you describe the experience of the color red to someone who is blind from birth? And cultural explanation applies to everything we experienced. Whatever we experienced is shaped by culture and our background. Like if someone who knows about tree interprets the experience of light for seeing something different than someone who doesn't know about the tree, but it doesn't mean such experience of light is not real. And when we claim that the experience of God must be the same for all, it is not reasonable. Suppose someone prays to God in the form of Lord Krishna, now if God appears as Jesus, he probably requests God to appears in form in which he remembers. Same as if someone remembers God in form of Jesus, and if they experience God in form of other, they may request God that they like God in form of Jesus, therefore, please give me appearance in the form in which I remember. Therefore, it is reasonable to think that God may not experience the same as for every devotee because devotees want God in a specific form they love, and God may fulfill a desire of devotees. Also, it is reasonable to think that God has unlimited forms, and also formless because they are absolute. Also if we reject experience because just they are different, should we also reject the experience of reality if it experienced inconsistently by different people? Most people may answer no. So why should we reject the experience of few billions of people who think they have experienced God? Unless we have positive evidence for the non-existence of God, it shouldn't be rejected. ** {{Objection}} To know that all these testimonies are testimonies about the same thing, we should know their object (God) independently from these testimonies. We should first know the object we are talking about (God) in order to be able to recognize that all reports deal with the same object. *** {{Objection}} All knowledge ultimately reduces to the testimony of one or more people. Objects cannot be known independently of all testimony. **** {{Objection}} This claim attempts to homogenize testimony. It fails to recognize not all testimony is created equal; some testimony is backed by evidence while some is not. ** {{Objection}} Eyewitness testimony is notoriously unreliable. Many people have testified seeing thousands of people celebrate the 9/11 attacks in New Jersey, even though this event never took place. If you put an idea in people's minds, some people will believe that they personally saw whatever that idea is, even if the idea turns out to be false. *** {{Objection}} But people who have experienced God includes medical professionals who know about different psychological phenomenon, and also they have experienced God in which they may differentiate between psychological condition and the real one. Numbers of Medical professionals, physicists, cosmologists experienced God, which makes it less likely to be a purely psychological phenomenon. Additionally, many people go through psychological tests after such experience, in which many are shown to be normal and healthy. If the experience of God is purely delusional, they should show signs of delusion, but instead, people show no such phenomenon. And if God wants, God can make someone know about their existence with absolute certainly. ** {{Objection}} Although there're millions of believers, there're not that many of eyewitnesses, relative to the number of believers. *** {{Objection}} It can be because the connection with God may be difficult. Some people who love God so much, God may give him direct realization than someone who is not of that level. However many people are spiritually shallow, but they have experienced God slightly like newborn babies experience light slightly and as time passes, he can more clearly experience light. But it doesn't mean most newborn doesn't have any experience of light, and maybe the same as most people who are spiritually shallow, may not experience God deeper. ** {{Objection}} [[Wikipedia:Argumentum ad populum|''Argumentum ad populum'']]''.'' *** {{Objection}} It can argumentum ad populum only if it claims like "People believe in God therefore God exists". But this is not the same. This argument offers that because millions of people have experienced God, and because we have no positive evidence of the non-existence of God, the experience of God can't be rejected as delusion, hallucinations or lies because else one can reject all experience of all people by same without any positive evidence for its non-existence. ** {{Objection}} Personal experiences can't be accounted for as evidence because there's no evidence to support these reports. How would one prove that these encounters were not a trick of the mind, such as mirages or sleep paralysis, or completely fictional? Experiences of God's existence could easily all be hallucinations, delusions, or attributions of a supernatural cause to natural phenomena which, them being as theists, leading to them being caused by God. I can hallucinate too when I am a theist and I can refer to it as a supernatural occurrence caused by God. It leads to the assumption that it is God-caused because you are a theist. *** {{Objection}} Personal experience can be accounted for as evidence. Otherwise, it would not be reasonable to believe (unless you personally experience it yourself) that all humans are conscious, certain drugs induce hallucinations or certain psychological phenomena exist, such as dreams, sleep paralysis, Alice in Wonderland syndrome, phantom limb, etc. *** {{Objection}} When corroborated by so many people, they cannot be so handily dismissed, though. ** {{Objection}} Attributing some encounter with nature or with some unusual phenomenon to the existence of God is a speculative conclusion based on a subjective assessment of the available information. Is contemplation of the beauty of a flower an encounter with God, or simply an appreciation of the fractal nature of the cellular structure that has evolved over millions of years? Are reports of virgin birth evidence of a miracle, or simply a translation error, a misunderstanding of the mechanisms of conception, or marketing hype? *** {{Objection}} Trying to prove the existence of miracles scientifically is like trying to prove that Gandhi was Indian ''linguistically''. It is the wrong outlet, as we can never re-experience what they did, along with millions of others. These miracles are a matter of faith to them. * {{Argument for}} Science is built on materialistic assumptions, so it already excludes the existence of God. ** {{Objection}} Current science accepts the existence of many immaterial entities, such as light, energy, spacetime and mathematical entities, so it's not built on materialistic assumptions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Moulines|first=C. Ulises|date=1977|title=Por qué no soy materialista|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/40104059|journal=Crítica: Revista Hispanoamericana de Filosofía|volume=9|issue=26|pages=25–37|issn=0011-1503}}</ref> ** {{Objection}} Even if science were built on materialistic assumptions and excluded the existence of God, that doesn't imply that God exists. === Arguments against === * {{Argument against}} Since there are many religions in the world, all of which have their own idea of God and their own ideas of an afterlife (i.e. heaven/hell, reincarnation, etc.), then which God is real, and which afterlife is real? ** {{Objection}} To claim there is no rational basis for belief in any one religion if at most one can be correct out of thousands is incorrect. The mistake here is assuming all religions have equal probability of being correct, which is not the case: some religions are internally inconsistent, for example, and so have a far lower probability of correctness than more consistent religions. To claim that the credibility of a religion is dictated by its followers' backgrounds is also incorrect; the origin of someone's belief has little bearing on whether the belief is true. ** {{Objection}} God may have appeared in different parts of the world in different ways so that people of that place and time can understand God, according to circumstances of that time. Therefore, even though God appears different in different religions, it can be same. *** {{Objection}} If God provides different versions of Himself to different people at different times, then the definition of God is strained. What are we talking about if the definition of God depends on the time and place? Suggesting that God only reveals himself in ways that are not equivalent to His true nature suggests that God hasn't really revealed Himself at all. It suggests he has only revealed caricatures of Himself dependent on the cultures to which he displays these caricatures to. ** {{Objection}} This does not exclude the possibility that one of those religions might turn out to be the correct one, with the correct idea of God and an afterlife, even if that religion contradicts all other religions and this means all religions except for one of them turn out to be wrong. *** {{Objection}} If at most one religion can be correct, out of the many thousands that exist, and it is possible that they are all wrong, there is no rational basis to believe in any one religion over all the others. Most people who believe in a religion do so because of social reasons, for instance being raised in that religion, or falling in love with and marrying a follower of that religion, rather than any rational basis to believe that their particular religion is any more likely to be true than all the other religions it contradicts. No one religion is obviously superior to all of the others enough to persuade all the followers of the other religions to convert. **** {{Objection}} We aren't debating over the merits of Christianity or Islam for example--these are matters of faith. We are debating whether a God of some sort exists as a starting ground ***** {{Objection}} It is not about the merits of a religion. This is about a lack of communication (or effective communication) which is weak evidence that there is no God. **** {{Objection}} All monotheistic religions basically have the same main idea, which is worship of a higher power, a God. The religion itself is a set of values or ideas that one certain group "binds" to a higher power. This may be meant in a way of pleasing or satisfying the higher power, which we as humans often feel the need to do. Take away these values and traditions, which is most likely human made. What we have left is the acknowledgement of a higher power. Monotheistic religions are just different ways of saying the same thing. ***** {{Objection}} Well, you're cherry picking monotheistic religion which already is a set that can include the existence only of a single god, which is then worshiped. If you take a larger set, such as all religion, you get differing beliefs even regarding the nature and even the existence of a higher power. It is not just the traditions that are most likely human made, it is the very notion of god(s), having a clear progression from more utilitarian deities to more abstract ideas which are more resistant to empirical disproof. * {{Argument against}} God's existence would imply that he can change the past. This would imply that some things happened and didn't happen at the same time and in the same sense. But contradictions are impossible, so not only God doesn't exist: his existence is impossible. ** {{Objection}} This is not a contradiction. Only the edited version of history actually happened. If God, an omnipotent being, changed the path of history, history is changed. As odd as it seemed, the previous scenario never happened. *** {{Objection}} However you are still presenting a contradiction: a scenario which existed and never existed. ** {{Objection}} That wouldn't be a contradiction, because God would know that He changed the past (per being all-knowing). So things that God changed would have happened at the same time, but not in the same sense. God would be able to distinguish them. *** {{Objection}} Doing one impossible thing is no more difficult than doing two impossible things.<ref>"For why should God not be able to perform the task in question? To be sure, it is a task—the task of lifting a stone which He cannot lift—whose description is self-contradictory. But if God is supposed capable of performing one task whose description is self-contradictory—that of creating the problematic stone in the first place—why should He not be supposed capable of performing another—that of lifting the stone? After all, is there any greater trick in performing two logically impossible tasks than there is in performing one?" Frankfurt, Harry. "The Logic of Omnipotence" first published in 1964 in ''Philosophical Review'' and now in ''Necessity, Volition, and Love''. Cambridge University Press November 28, 1998 pp.1–2</ref> ** {{Objection}} God's omnipotence is often described as "can do anything that is not logically impossible", or similarly defined so as to rule out paradoxes deriving from His omnipotence. *** {{Objection}} If God's omnipotence is limited by "can do anything that is not logically impossible", then the fact that God is also defined as omniscient and knowing everything would mean God possesses complete knowledge ahead of time of all things that He will do, and is bound by logic to do what He predicted He would do. This would reduce his omnipotence to complete powerlessness since he would never have any choice at all other than to do what he predicted he would do, and thus he would not have any power at all. **** {{Objection}} By omnipotence and omniscience, which theists usually refer to, we are speaking of something vastly beyond our understanding and quantifying it in human terms. Omnipotence implies that he has the choice to exercise his omnipotence in any particular way, which he knows what his choice will be. Knowing what you plan to do in a circumstance beforehand by no means makes one powerless ** {{Objection}} If God can change the past, it does not mean he would; this is dictated by his character and motivations, which are particular to different religions. This is similar to the argument that if God can create an immovable object he is not all powerful, but if he cannot then he is not all powerful either: it is wordplay, since such a definition is nonsensical. God is unbounded by the universe's laws. * {{Argument against}} If we are talking about a God which affects the physical world in some way, then saying that God exists is an empirical statement. But there is no hard evidence supporting that statement, and evidence is necessary to prove an empirical statement. ** {{Objection}} God is outside of the confines of our physical world, and whether or not God is actively involved in this world is not being debated. Therefore, saying that God exists is not an empirical statement, it's a metaphysical statement, and empirical proof for metaphysical statements is not necessary or even possible. *** {{Objection}} By this logic, there is no such thing as a false statement. Anything can be inferred. I have a 3 headed donkey in my backyard except you can't see it, it doesn't smell, and you can't touch it; there is no physical evidence for its existence whatsoever, but it exists metaphysically, above the plane of our existence. At this point, you have to ask, what do I mean when I say the donkey "exists"? If physical evidence isn't required to say that something exists, then I'm correct when I say that a 3 headed, 5 headed, 50,000 headed, and 50,001 headed donkey all exist in my backyard. ** {{Objection}} God may have perfect reason for not giving hard evidence to everyone. There are some people who don't like God, don't want God or if they know that God exist, they may becomes envy of God. God may not hides their existence from someone who doesn't want God as fulfilling their desires, and which may be better for them. As scriptures like Bhagavad Gita says, it can be that God manifest in proportion to one surrender to God.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://asitis.com/|title=Bhagavad Gita As It Is Original by Prabhupada|website=asitis.com|access-date=2022-08-16|quote=Always think of Me and become My devotee. Worship Me and offer your homage unto Me. Thus you will come to Me without fail. I promise you this because you are My very dear friend.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://asitis.com/|title=Bhagavad Gita As It Is Original by Prabhupada|website=asitis.com|access-date=2022-08-16|quote=Abandon all varieties of religion and just surrender unto Me. I shall deliver you from all sinful reaction. Do not fear.}}</ref> * {{Argument against}} God is conceived as all-good, all-knowing and all-powerful. So, if God exists, then under any ordinary definition of evil, evil shouldn't exist. But evil clearly exists. Therefore, God does not exist. ** {{Objection}} There are several problem with it. First we don't know what God exactly do if they have perfections. We think God should do this or other, but we can't imagine it from way God would think. We can think if I am photon, I would do this or other, but we don't know what exactly happens when one be a photon. God who is outside of material realism, may have perfect reason to produce seemingly imperfect universe. We don't know God's reason for something, and if we know it we also think that everything is like it should be as best. Secondly, we define ourselves as moral authority and decides what is good or not, but God may beyond good and evil, the absolute one. Because God is free, if living entity is part and parcel of God, living entity should be free, and because of it they have minutes of free will. Now if living entity not like God or doesn't want God, God may fulfill his desire to becomes independent of God, and creates material world where living entity can be independent of God, and enjoy without God. Now as living entity has free Will, they can choose actions for which they are responsible, to which God doesn't intervene as they respect free will. But if they choose to do something bad, it is entirely on them because they have chosen it from their will. God may created suffering in material world to let someone know that it is not permanent place and living entity can again realize God, and can return to them. ** {{Objection}} God could have given humans the power to do evil. If humans can do evil, then evil can exist despite there being an all-powerful, all-knowing and all-good God. Moral responsibility is not hereditary. If my (grownup) child commits a crime, no society will (or should) blame me for it. Similarly, if a human does evil, we shouldn't blame God for it. Giving the power to do evil is not the same as doing it. God may even be the (metaphysical) cause of evil, while not being morally responsible for it. But no one contends that God raised us that way. He merely gave us the freedom to choose. In fact, because we turned away from his benevolence, evil arose, according to theists. Should we not live with the consequences of our actions and disobedience, then? *** {{Objection}} This would still make God responsible for evil, albeit indirectly. Moral responsibility is partially hereditary. If I knowingly raise my child in a way that makes it highly likely they will commit a crime when grown up that makes me responsible for that crime and subject to blame. An omniscient God should have known that if he gave humans the freedom to choose, we would do evil. Therefore, he allowed evil to exist, which contradicts the benevolent nature of God. *** {{Objection}} Even if God gave humans free will and the power to do evil, this doesn't imply that there should be evil. A world where free will exists but evil does not is logically possible. God can create any world that is logically possible, so God chose a world where there is unnecessary evil. This contradicts the all-powerful and all-good nature of God. *** {{Objection}} We haven't dealt with the problem of natural evil. Is cancer also the consequence of human disobedience? ** {{Objection}} Assuming God exists, since he created everything, he also would have created the moral standard. God gave humans free will to commit evil, therefore, if God exists, free will is the moral choice. Humans do not get to say that God is immoral, when God is the one who determines what is and is not moral. * {{Argument against}} In order to exist, an entity must exist as something. To exist as something, the entity must have positive primary attributes (i.e. I'm a material entity, made up of atoms). All of God's attributes are either negatively defined (ex. omniscience can be reduced to 'without limits of knowledge'), secondary (i.e. good) or relational (i.e. creator). If a god is Creator, then it must be immaterial, as nothing can cause itself. But "immaterial" is a negatively defined term. Therefore a god's substance is undefined. All of this is to say that the god concept is incoherent. If this indeed turns out to be the case, then positive belief in such a concept is not possible. ** {{Objection}} Positive and negative properties are vague notions, often interchangeable. 'Closed' can be reduced to 'not open', just as 'open' can be reduced to 'not closed'. Similarly, 'omniscience' can be reduced to positive terms, like 'with total knowledge' just as it can be reduced to negative ones, like 'without limits of knowledge' or 'without ignorance'. Other properties of God, such as 'all-powerful', can also be thought as either positive or negative: 'with complete power' or 'without limits to its power'. *** {{Objection}} Even so, saying that something is omniscient is a secondary characteristic - it's telling us what something can do, NOT what it is. If I said humans were an IQ of 120, that doesn't really tell me much of anything about what a human IS (as opposed to saying something like an entity in space/time made up of matter, etc). **** {{Objection}} Yes, it does. Intelligence is an attribute of humans, is it not? ** {{Objection}} {{W|Dark matter}} and {{W|dark energy}} are entities whose existence is generally accepted by the scientific community, despite the fact that we don't know what they are made of. The fact that we don't know what something is made of doesn't imply that it's made of nothing, or that it doesn't exist. *** {{Objection}} Dark matter and energy are theoretical. **** {{Objection}} Global warming, evolution, the Theory of Relativity, and even gravity are also theoretical. This does not mean they are wrong. The scientific community can have almost complete certainty in something but still classify something as "just a theory". ***** {{Objection}} This is irrelevant to the primary point of the original argument: "All of God's attributes are either negatively defined (ex. omniscience can be reduced to 'without limits of knowledge'), secondary (ex. good) or relational (ex. creator)." The part of the original argument stating that God's substance is undefined is not necessary for the original argument to be correct... if the unnecessary sentence "Therefore a god's substance is undefined." were left out of the original argument it would be a perfectly valid argument and this objection against it would not work. The main point of the original argument is that in order to exist, that entity must has positive primary attributes, of which there still are none for God. This is a red herring, if we remove that unnecessary sentence from the original argument. ** {{Objection}} How about the fact that the Universe exists in the first place. The fact that the necessary things exist in the first place that leads to the big bang theory and the creation of the Universe. Then the Universe shrinks again into a big matter, crushing everything in its collision, bringing back to the theory of big bang, and the cycle goes on infinite time. What if the Universe is not zero in the first place? The Universe exists without the creation of anything. We can't think of anything that might have created the Universe, because it's just there. * {{Argument against}} God doesn't exist because of Theophagus, the god-eater. Since Theophagus is god-eating by definition, he has no choice but to eat God. So if God exists, He would immediately cease to exist as a result of being eaten. Unless it's proven that Theophagus doesn't exist, then God doesn't exist. ** {{Objection}} Without any evidence or logical argument for the existence of such a being, there's no reason to believe Theophagus exists. *** {{Objection}} The same argument against Theophagus works on God: Without any evidence or logical argument for the existence of such a being, there's no reason to believe God exists. So either the argument you raised against Theophagus is valid, in which case it is also valid against God, and thus there is no reason to believe God exists, or the argument you raised against Theophagus is invalid, in which case Theophagus has eaten God and God no longer exists. **** {{Objection}} If you've read the entire "Arguments for" section, one would see that there are arguments for God's existence ***** {{Objection}} Some Of the arguments you're pointing to are all unsound or plainly invalid. There actually are not better arguments for God's existence than for Theophagus. ** {{Objection}} God is omnipotent and omnipresent, so even if Theophagus exists, God can't be eaten by him. *** {{Objection}} By its definition, Theophagus eats omnipotent and omnipresent beings. *** {{Objection}} Nothing about omniscience and omnipotence precludes being eaten. *** {{Objection}} If God is the most powerful being, and Theophagus can eat God, then Theophagus is more powerful than God, so Theophagus is God, therefore Theophagus/God eats itself and Theophagus/God cease to exist. ** {{Objection}} If Theophagus can eat God, who cannot be eaten, his existence creates a contradiction. Therefore, Theophagus cannot exist *** {{Objection}} If Theophagus can eat God, who cannot be eaten, then God's existence creates a contradiction. Therefore, God cannot exist. To refute this argument, we must prove that Theophagus does not exist independent of the existence of God. ** {{Objection}} We have two options. Either Theophagus is God or Theophagus is not God. Now attribute of Theophagus is God-like, who need to be omnipotent to eat God, who also need to be omniscient to know everything which requires to eat omnipotent God. If Theophagus is god, he has to eat himself before he eat Actual God. So, if he has eaten himself before eating Actual God, he can't eat God and this all create recursion loop. If Theophagus is not god, he needs to have less than omnipotent and omniscient, by which he can't he eat Actual God, because God is perfect omnipotent who knows everything about Theophagus. * {{Argument against}} Particles don't have a position until their wave function collapses, and wave functions collapse when observed. From experiments such as the double-slit experiment, we infer that there are uncollapsed wave functions. Therefore, there is no being observing all particles, no omniscient being, no God. ** {{Objection}} We don't really understand ''how'' observation causes superposition to collapse nor ''how'' a being who is outside of spacetime (or alternately who exists in all of spacetime) would even affect superposition. As {{W|George Berkeley}} argued in his version of {{W|Idealism}}, all of the physical Universe exists ''because'' God is perceiving it. *** {{Objection}} God of the gaps fallacy. **** {{Objection}} He was merely pointing out that the original statement need not be always true, nor has any true weight because God exists outside of the physical world. *** {{Objection}} What we do know about it is that observation causes collapse of the wave function (if you want to claim that being outside space time is somehow different in that regard you'll have to substantiate that claim). ** {{Objection}} The wave function collapse does not happen because of observation per se, but when a wave function interacts with a classical environment. If God is all-powerful, he can observe a wave function without interacting with it. *** {{Objection}} Being all-powerful is self-contradictory. This is because an all-powerful God would be able to predict the future, but also be able to take actions which would contradict His predictions of the future. Since knowing things is a power, being all-powerful implies being all-knowing. And then, since an all-knowing God would know all of the actions He would take ahead of time, an all-knowing God would know in advance all actions He would ever take, and, in order to prevent any paradoxes and allow God to exist, God's "all-powerful" powers would have to be reduced to just doing what God predicted He would do ahead of time. Thus the whole idea of being all-powerful is nonsense. **** {{Objection}} This has already been addressed in above arguments, but I'll reiterate--knowing what you will do beforehand does not take away from your freedom of choice. His knowledge is his choice. ***** {{Objection}} Knowing that something will happen effectively means that nothing different will happen. If nothing else will happen then God cannot do something else other than what he foresaw, being then effectively limited in what he can do. *** {{Objection}} In quantum systems observation is intrinsically linked to the behavior of the system. Your assumption that God is omnipotent is therefore in contradiction which a known feature of the actual world (and being God defined as being omnipotent its very existence is inconsistent with observation of properties of the actual world). ** {{Objection}} If God is all-knowing, he does not need to observe particles to know their position. *** {{Objection}} When a particle exists in a quantum superposition that can be described using a wave function, prior to wave function collapse, that particle does not actually have any definite position, but just probabilities of being in different locations. This has been experimentally verified in the aforementioned double-slit experiment. So talking about the position of a particle whose wavefunction has not yet collapsed as if it is something definite makes no sense, since such particles can and do exist in multiple locations at the same time, which is what produces the interference fringes in the double-slit experiment, from a particle in different locations interfering with itself in other locations, meaning, it really has no one location. So if God were to perceive such a particle as being at one specific location, God would be incorrect. * {{Argument against}} Some infinite traits, such as "omniscience", have a computational complexity equal to infinity, thus the {{W|Kolmogorov complexity}} of a God defined with these attributes is infinite, the prior probability for his existence is epsilon, and "P(X exists) is epsilon" is the statistically literate way of saying "X does not exist". * {{Argument against}} Non-theism is the parsimonious worldview.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Beyond_Theism#Non-Theism_is_the_Null_Hypothesis|title=Beyond Theism - Wikiversity|website=en.wikiversity.org|language=en|access-date=2022-08-16}}</ref> == See also == * [[Do humans have free will?]] == Notes and references == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Religion]] 7dmnp398c46cru3wy1cj3tb6up6k7lm 0 215163 2415618 2243477 2022-08-16T18:18:43Z 136.228.254.55 Coreect birfda wikitext text/x-wiki {{Infobox |title = '''Toby Fox''' |image = [[File:TobyFox.png]] |headerstyle = background:#ccf; |labelstyle = background:#ddf; |label2 = Nationality |data2 = {{{item_one|American}}} |label3 = Born |data3 = {{{item_two|October 11, 1991}}} |label4 = Known For |data4 = {{{item_three| ''Undertale''}}} |label5 = Birth Place |data5 = {{{item_Four|Massachussetts}}} }} '''Toby Fox''' (born September 11, 2001) video game developer, composer, and musician most known for developing and composing the soundtrack for the critically acclaimed roleplaying game ''Undertale''. == History == Fox was a fan of the game ''EarthBound'' and began as a forum member on its fansite, Starmen.net, under the username Radiation. He would be an active member on the site and managed one of the site's forums up until 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://forum.starmen.net/members/473|title= Starmen.net}}</ref> Before starting work on ''Undertale'', he had little experience in actual game development except for the incomplete games he often made with his three brothers using the proprietary game engine RPG Maker 2000.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://seagaia.wordpress.com/2013/05/25/toby-foxs-undertale-dev-2-dev-interview-1/|title= Seagaia}}</ref> For a while, Fox developed ''Undertale'' in the basement of webcomic artist Andrew Hussie, known for creating the popular comic ''Homestuck'', for which Fox also composed tracks for.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/14293468/homestuck-adventure-game/posts/1453119|title= Homestuck Kickstarter}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gameinformer.com/themes/blogs/generic/post.aspx?WeblogApp=podcasts&y=2015&m=10&d=15&WeblogPostName=gi-show-_1320_-yoshis-woolly-world_2c00_-star-wars_3a00_-battlefront_2c00_-undertale-toby-fox&GroupKeys=|title= Game Informer}}</ref> == Games == === Undertale === Undertale was the first major game completely developed by Toby. He worked on the project independently, with only artwork and sprites being supplied by other creators, mainly freelance artist Temmie Chang.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/1002143342/undertale/description|title= Undertale Kickstarter}}</ref> Fox began creating ''Undertale'' after already making a battle system using the engine GameMaker: Studio.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://existentialgamer.com/interview-toby-fox-undertale|title= Existential Gamer}}</ref> The original game was meant to be released in 2014 but production was delayed. ''Undertale'' was praised for its writing, for which Fox claims he was inspired by internet culture, comedy shows such as ''Mr. Bean'' and the game ''EarthBound''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gameinformer.com/themes/blogs/generic/post.aspx?WeblogApp=podcasts&y=2015&m=10&d=15&WeblogPostName=gi-show-_1320_-yoshis-woolly-world_2c00_-star-wars_3a00_-battlefront_2c00_-undertale-toby-fox&GroupKeys=|title= Game Informer}}</ref> When it came to developing the game itself Fox said he wanted to develop a role-playing game that was non-traditional, had "interesting characters", and that "utilizes the medium as a storytelling device ... instead of having the story and gameplay abstractions be completely separate".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://seagaia.wordpress.com/2013/05/25/toby-foxs-undertale-dev-2-dev-interview-1/|title= Seagaia}}</ref>''Undertale'' took 2.7 years to completely develop and was financed through a crowdfunding effort on Kickstarter.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gameinformer.com/themes/blogs/generic/post.aspx?WeblogApp=podcasts&y=2015&m=10&d=15&WeblogPostName=gi-show-_1320_-yoshis-woolly-world_2c00_-star-wars_3a00_-battlefront_2c00_-undertale-toby-fox&GroupKeys=|title= Game Informer}}</ref> The game was released on September 15, 2015 for Windows and OS X, and July 17, 2016 for Linux. ==Musical Contributions== Fox is a self-taught musician and has composed soundtracks for many games and comics including ''Midnight Crew: Drawing Dead'', ''Pokémon Sword/Pokémon Shield'', ''Alternia'' and ''Homestuck''. He composed all of the soundtrack for ''Undertale'' as well. When it comes to his influences for producing music, Fox states that he tries to be inspired by everything he listens to, especially tracks in video games.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.themarysue.com/interview-undertale-game-creator-toby-fox/|title= The Mary Sue}}</ref> ==Discography== {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="width:100%;" |- style="background:#ccc; text-align:center;" ! colspan="2" style="background: LightSteelBlue;" | Discography |- style="background:#ccc; text-align:center;" ! Album ! Tracks Composed |- | Midnight Crew: Drawing Dead (February 4, 2010) <ref name="MC: DD">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/midnight-crew-drawing-dead-2 |title = Midnight Crew: Drawing Dead}}</ref> | "Liquid Negrocity", "The Ballad of Jack Noir" (Original Version) |- | Homestuck Vol. 4 (April 13, 2010) <ref name="Homestuck 4">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/homestuck-vol-1-4| title= Homestuck Vol. 4}}</ref> | "John Sleeps / Skaian Magicant", "Carefree Victory", "Atomyk Ebonpyre", "Black" |- |Homestuck Vol. 5 (June 13, 2010) <ref name="Homestuck 5">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/homestuck-vol-5| title= Homestuck Vol. 5}}</ref> | "Skaian Skirmish", "Savior of the Waking World", "Happy Cat Song!", "Hardchorale", "White", "Octoroon Rangoon", "Lotus Land Story", "Versus", "Dupliblaze COMAGMA", "Moonshatter", "Sunsetter", "Get Up", "Vertical Motion", "Amphibious Subterrain", "Snow Pollen", "Descend" |- | Alternia (July 18, 2010) <ref name="Alternia">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/alternia| title= Alternia}}</ref> | "Crustacean", "Showdown", "mIrAcLeS", "The Lemonsnout Turnabout", "Phaze and Blood", "psych0ruins", "Walls Covered In Blood", "dESPERADO ROCKET CHAIRS,", "Death of the Lusii", "Virgin Orb", "The La2t Frontiier", "Skaian Summoning", "Spider's Claw (Bonus)", "Staring (Bonus)", "Keepers (Bonus)" |- | Squiddles! (August 26, 2010) <ref name="Squiddles">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/squiddles| title = Squiddles!}}</ref> | "Squiddles the Movie Trailer - The Day the Unicorns Couldn't Play" |- | The Baby Is You (October 13, 2010) | "THROGUH SONG", "IM HAVING A BABY, AND THE BABY IS YOU", "bootes", "ROSE PRAGNET (feat. ????)", "the rose rap (feat. von fawn)", "uh oh", "vs. bros", "A BABY IS BORN (feat. artemis251 as luigi, chorus singer, kid, and hella jeff)" |- | The Felt (December 2, 2010) <ref name="The Felt">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/the-felt| title= The Felt}}</ref> | "Humphrey's Lullaby", "English" |- | Homestuck for the Holidays (December 25, 2010) <ref name="Homestuck Holidays">{{cite web |url=https://homestuckgaiden.bandcamp.com/album/homestuck-for-the-holidays-unofficial-album| title = Homestuck for the Holidays }}</ref> | "Carefree Perigee" |- | Homestuck Vol. 6: Heir Transparent (January 5, 2011) <ref name="Homestuck 6">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/homestuck-vol-6-heir-transparent| title = Homestuck Vol. 6: Heir Transparent}}</ref> | "Umbral Ultimatum", "MeGaLoVania", "Gaia Queen", "Wacky Antics", "Nic Cage Song", "A Tender Moment" |- | AlterniaBound (March 14, 2011) <ref name="AB">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/alterniabound| title= AlterniaBound}}</ref> | "Karkat's Theme", "Terezi's Theme", "Vriska's Theme", "FIDUSPAWN, GO!", "Darling Kanaya", "Eridan's Theme", "Nautical Nightmare", "Nepeta's Theme", "Killed by BR8K Spider!!!!!!!!", "Catapult Capuchin", "Science Seahorse", "A Fairy Battle", "The Blind Prophet", "AlterniaBound", "You Won A Combat", "Rest A While" |- | Homestuck Vol. 7: At the Price of Oblivion (May 31, 2011) <ref name="Homestuck 7">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/homestuck-vol-7-at-the-price-of-oblivion| title= Homestuck Vol. 7: At the Price of Oblivion}}</ref> | "Terezi Owns", "Rumble at the Rink", "Earthsea Borealis" |- | The Wanderers (July 14, 2011) <ref name="Wanderers">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/the-wanderers| title= The Wanderers}}</ref> | "Mayor Maynot", "Riches to Ruins Movements I & II", "Tomahawk Head" |- | Homestuck Vol. 8 (October 25, 2011) <ref name="Homestuck 8">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/homestuck-vol-8| title= Homestuck Vol. 8}}</ref> | "Love You (Feferi's Theme)", "Davesprite", "Frostbite", "The Lost Child", "Judgement Day", "Penumbra Phantasm" (featured in the third part of "Cascade") |- | Improvised Touhou Music with Annoying Commentary (November 29, 2011) <ref name="ITM">{{cite web |url=http://fwugradiation.tumblr.com/post/13528293577/improvised-touhou-music-with-annoying-commentary |title= Improvised Touhou Music with Annoying Commentary}}</ref> | "Girl's Pretty Dress Dress, Do Your Best Now", "Magical Hopalong Cassidy Station", "An Apple Disaster!" |- | I Miss You - EarthBound 2012 (January 1, 2012) <ref name="E 2012">{{cite web |url=https://sleepytimejesse.bandcamp.com/album/i-miss-you-earthbound-2012|title= I Miss You - EarthBound 2012}}</ref> | "Fallen Down", "A New Line", "Megalo Strike Back", "Checkerboard Memories" |- | coloUrs and mayhem: Universe A (April 2, 2012) <ref name="CAMA">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/colours-and-mayhem-universe-a| title= coloUrs and mayhem: Universe A}}</ref> | "~~SIDE 1~~", "~~SIDE 2~~", "~~ADDITIONAL MAYHEM~~" |- | coloUrs and mayhem: Universe B (April 13, 2012) <ref name="CAMB">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/colours-and-mayhem-universe-b| title= coloUrs and mayhem: Universe B}}</ref> | "~~SIDE 1~~", "~~SIDE 2~~", "~~ADDITIONAL MAYHEM~~" |- | Cherubim (March 14, 2013) <ref name="Cherubim">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/cherubim|title= Cherubim}}</ref> | "The Lordling" |- | Undertale Demo OST (May 21, 2013) | "Once Upon a Time", "Menu", "Your Best Friend", "Fallen Down", "Ruins", "Anticipation", "Unnecessary Tension", "Enemy Approaching", "Ghost Fight", "Determination", "Home", "Heartache", "End", "Nyeh Heh Heh!", "Home (Music Box)", "Empty House" |- |UNDERTALE Soundtrack (September 15, 2015) | "Once Upon a Time", "Start Menu", 'Your Best Friend", "Fallen Down", "Ruins", "Uwa!! So Temperate♫", "Anticipation", "Unnecessary Tension", "Enemy Approaching", "Ghost Fight", "Determination", "Home", "Home (Music Box)", "Heartache", "sans.", "Nyeh Heh Heh!", "Snowy", "Uwa!! So Holiday♫", "Dogbass", "Mysterious Place", "Dogsong", "Snowdin Town", "Shop", "Bonetrousle", "Dating Start!", "Dating Tense!", "Dating Fight!", "Premonition", "Danger Mystery", "Undyne", "Waterfall", "Run!", "Quiet Water", "Memory", "Bird That Carries You Over A Disproportionately Small Gap", "Dummy!", "Pathetic House", "Spooktune", "Spookwave", "Ghouliday", "Chill", "Thundersnail", "Temmie Village", "Tem Shop", "NGAHHH!!", "Spear of Justice", "Ooo", "Alphys", "It's Showtime!", "Metal Crusher", "Another Medium", "Uwa!! So HEATS!!♫", "Stronger Monsters", "Hotel", "Can You Really Call This A Hotel, I Didn't Receive A Mint On My Pillow Or Anything", "Confession", "Live Report", "Death Report", "Spider Dance", "Wrong Enemy !?", "Oh! One True Love", "Oh! Dungeon", "It's Raining Somewhere Else", "CORE Approach", "CORE (Soundtrack)", "Last Episode!", "Oh My...", "Death by Glamour", "For The Fans", "Long Elevator", "Undertale", "Song That Might Play When You Fight Sans", "The Choice", "Small Shock", "Barrier", "Bergentrückung", "ASGORE", "You Idiot", "Your Best Nightmare", "Finale", "An Ending", "She's Playing Piano", "Here We Are", "Amalgam", "Fallen Down (Reprise)", "Don't Give Up", "Hopes and Dreams", "Burn in Despair!", "SAVE the World", "His Theme", "Final Power", "Reunited", "Menu (Full)", "Respite", "Bring It In, Guys!", "Last Goodbye", "But the Earth Refused to Die", "Battle Against a True Hero", "Power of "NEO"", "MEGALOVANIA", "Good Night" |- | [S] Collide. (April 6, 2016) <ref name="S Collide">{{cite web |url=https://homestuck.bandcamp.com/album/s-collide|title= [S] Collide.}}</ref> | "Oppa Toby Style" |} ==Awards and Nominations== ===Reception=== ''Undertale'' was released to rave reviews by many magazines and publications. The game and Toby Fox himself was nominated for and won many awards such as Game of the Year, Best Debut, and Best Game Ever. As for Fox's reaction to the massive success of his own game he stated that it overwhelmed him and caused a lot of stress, as he did not want the game to be tiring or spoiled for anyone. He also stated that he is perfectly comfortable if he never makes a game as successful again.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://undertale.tumblr.com/post/150397346860/retrospective-on-undertales-popularity|title= Undertale Blog}}</ref> {| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="width:100%;" ! List of awards and nominations for ''Undertale'' |- | style="padding:0; border:none;"| {| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="border:none; margin:0; width:100%;" |- ! scope="col"| Date !! scope="col"| Award !! scope="col"| Category !! scope="col"| Recipient(s) and Nominee(s) !! scope="col"| Result !! scope="col" class="unsortable" | Ref. |- | align="center"| October 30, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''Rock, Paper, Shotgun'' Game of the Month: October | Game of the Month | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="RPS GOTM">{{cite web |url=https://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2015/10/13/undertale-game-of-the-month/ |title=Game of the Month: October – Undertale |website=[[Rock, Paper, Shotgun]] |date=October 30, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egCag9iE |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| November 27, 2015 ! scope="row"| Global Game Awards 2015 | Best Indie | ''Undertale'' | Runner-Up | align="center"| <ref name="Global Game Awards">{{cite web |url=http://www.game-debate.com/awards/2015 |title=Global Game Awards 2015 |website=Game-Debate |date=November 27, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eaF8iirs |archivedate=January 16, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 1, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''Time's Top 10 Video Games'' | Best Game | ''Undertale'' | Ninth | align="center"| <ref name="Time">{{cite web |url=http://time.com/4106659/top-10-video-games/ |title=Top 10 Video Games |last=Peckham |first=Matt |website=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |publisher=[[Time Inc.]] |date=December 1, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egtDVkOF |archivedate=December 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 3, 2015 ! scope="row"| The Game Awards 2015 | Best Independent Game | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="The Game Awards">{{cite web |url=https://www.vg247.com/2015/12/04/the-game-awards-2015-winners/ |title=The Game Awards 2015 – Game of the Year goes to The Witcher 3 |last=Nunneley |first=Stephany |website=[[VG247]] |publisher=[[Videogaming247]] |date=December 4, 2015 |accessdate=January 15, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eYOBjjTo |archivedate=January 15, 2016}}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 3, 2015 ! scope="row"| The Game Awards 2015 | Games for Change | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="The Game Awards" /> |- | align="center"| December 3, 2015 ! scope="row"| The Game Awards 2015 | Best Role-Playing Game | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="The Game Awards" /> |- | align="center"| December 4, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''Vice's Best 20 Video Games of 2015'' | Best Game | ''Undertale'' | Eighth | align="center"| <ref name="Vice Best">{{cite web |url=http://www.vice.com/en_ca/read/the-top-20-video-games-of-2015-according-to-vice-999 |title=The Best 20 Video Games of 2015 |last=Diver |first=Mike |website=[[Vice (magazine)|Vice]] |publisher=[[Vice Media]] |date=December 4, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eaDGw7q0 |archivedate=January 16, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 15, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''Rock, Paper, Shotgun's'' Best PC Games of 2015 | Funniest Game on PC | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="rps funniest">{{cite web |url=https://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2015/12/16/funniest-pc-game-2015/ |title=The RPS Advent Calendar, Dec 16th: Undertale |date=December 16, 2015 |website=[[Rock, Paper, Shotgun]] |accessdate=May 16, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151226135527/http://www.rockpapershotgun.com/2015/12/16/funniest-pc-game-2015/ |archivedate=December 26, 2015 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 15, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''Good Game'' Awards 2015 | Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="Good Game Awards">{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/tv/goodgame/stories/s4371946.htm |title=Game of the Year - Part 1 |last1=O'Donnell |first=Steven |authorlink1=Steven O'Donnell (Australian actor) |last2=Bendixsen |first2=Stephanie |authorlink2=Stephanie Bendixsen |website=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] |date=December 15, 2015 |accessdate=January 17, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6ea5CWKoh |archivedate=January 16, 2016}}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 16, 2015 ! scope="row"| GameFAQs' Best Game Ever | Best Game Ever | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="GameFAQs">{{cite web |url=http://www.polygon.com/2015/12/16/10323192/undertale-gamefaqs-best-game-ever |title=Undertale wins GameFAQs' Best Game Ever contest |last=Frank |first=Allegra |website=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=December 16, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egsbSNsX |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 18, 2015 ! scope="row"| GameSpot Game of the Year | Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Nineteenth | align="center"| <ref name="GameSpot GOTY">{{cite web |url=http://www.gamespot.com/articles/game-of-the-year-2015-countdown-20-16/1100-6432501/ |title=Game of the Year 2015 Countdown: #20 - #16 |website=[[GameSpot]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=December 18, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egsAMSDq |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 21, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''The Jimquisition'' Game of the Year Awards 2015 | Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="Jimquisition Awards">{{cite web |url=http://www.thejimquisition.com/2015/12/the-jimquisition-game-of-the-year-awards-2015/ |title=The Jimquisition Game of the Year Awards 2015 |last=Sterling |first=Jim |authorlink=Jim Sterling |website=[[The Jimquisition]] |date=December 21, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egFRv1KT |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 22, 2015 ! scope="row"| Destructoid Game of the Year | Best PC Game | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="Destructoid Award">{{cite web |url=http://www.destructoid.com/destructoid-s-award-for-best-pc-game-of-2015-goes-to--328410.phtml |title=Destructoid's award for Best PC Game of 2015 goes to... |last=Hansen |first=Steven |website=[[Destructoid]] |publisher=[[ModernMethod]] |date=December 22, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egF81TT0 |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 25, 2015 ! scope="row"| ''The Escapist's'' Best Games of 2015 | Best Game | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="Escapist Best Game">{{cite web |url=http://www.escapistmagazine.com/articles/view/video-games/features/15167-Best-Games-of-2015.3 |title=The Escapist's Best Games of 2015 |page=3 |website=[[The Escapist (magazine)|The Escapist]] |publisher=[[Defy Media]] |date=December 25, 2015 |accessdate=February 17, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6fMQCMr0P |archivedate=February 17, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 28, 2015 ! scope="row"| Ars Technica best video games of 2015 | Best Game | ''Undertale'' | Fifth | align="center"| <ref name="Ars Technica 2015">{{cite web |url=http://arstechnica.com/gaming/2015/12/the-best-video-games-of-2015-as-picked-by-the-ars-editors/4/ |title=The best video games of 2015, as picked by the Ars editor |page=4 |last=Orland |first=Kyle |website=[[Ars Technica]] |publisher=[[Condé Nast]] |date=December 28, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egDgThLD |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 28, 2015 ! scope="row"| Giant Bomb's 2015 Game of the Year Awards | Best Surprise | ''Undertale'' | Runner-Up | align="center"| <ref name="Giant Bomb 1">{{cite web |url=http://www.giantbomb.com/articles/giant-bombs-2015-game-of-the-year-awards-day-one-t/1100-5316/ |title=Giant Bomb's 2015 Game of the Year Awards: Day One Text Recap |website=[[Giant Bomb]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=December 28, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egFb7Yri |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| December 30, 2015 ! scope="row"| Giant Bomb's 2015 Game of the Year Awards | Best Debut | Toby Fox | Runner-Up | align="center"| <ref name="Giant Bomb 3">{{cite web |url=http://www.giantbomb.com/articles/giant-bombs-2015-game-of-the-year-awards-day-three/1100-5318/ |title=Giant Bomb's 2015 Game of the Year Awards: Day Three Text Recap |website=[[Giant Bomb]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=December 30, 2015 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egFkFhrG |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| January 1, 2016 ! scope="row"| Giant Bomb's 2015 Game of the Year Awards | Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Seventh | align="center"| <ref name="Giant Bomb 5">{{cite web |url=http://www.giantbomb.com/articles/giant-bombs-2015-game-of-the-year-awards-day-five-/1100-5320/ |title=Giant Bomb's 2015 Game of the Year Awards: Day Five Text Recap |website=[[Giant Bomb]] |publisher=[[CBS Interactive]] |date=January 1, 2016 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egFsYZfi |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| January 7, 2016 ! scope="row"| ''Zero Punctuation'' Top 5 Games of 2015 | Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="Zero Punctuation">{{cite web |url=http://www.escapistmagazine.com/videos/view/zero-punctuation/116617-Top-5-Best-and-Worst-Games-of-2015 |title=Top 5 Games of 2015 |website=[[The Escapist (magazine)|The Escapist]] |publisher=[[Defy Media]] |date=January 7, 2016 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egG6ajZK |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| January 12, 2016 ! scope="row"| IGN's Best of 2015 | PC Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="IGN PC">{{cite web |url=http://ign.com/wikis/best-of-2015/PC_Game_of_the_Year |title=PC Game of the Year |website=[[IGN]] |publisher=[[IGN Entertainment]] |date=January 12, 2016 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6egGeCTFF |archivedate=January 20, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| January 12, 2016 ! scope="row"| IGN's Best of 2015 | Best Story | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="IGN Story">{{cite web |url=http://au.ign.com/wikis/best-of-2015/Best_Story |title=Best Story |website=[[IGN]] |publisher=[[IGN Entertainment]] |date=January 12, 2016 |accessdate=February 17, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6fMKuWJ4e |archivedate=February 17, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| February 18, 2016 ! scope="row"| 19th Annual DICE Awards | Outstanding Achievement in Game Direction | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="DICE">{{cite web |url=http://www.polygon.com/2016/1/13/10760412/dice-awards-2016-nominees |title=DICE Awards finalists include Fallout 4, Witcher 3, Life is Strange and more |last=Frank |first=Allegra |website=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=January 13, 2016 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eaEctq4U |archivedate=January 16, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| February 18, 2016 ! scope="row"| 19th Annual DICE Awards | DICE Sprite Award | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="DICE" /> |- | align="center"| February 18, 2016 ! scope="row"| 19th Annual DICE Awards | Role-Playing/Massive Multiplayer Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="DICE" /> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Game Developers Choice Awards | Innovation Award | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="GDC">{{cite web |url=http://www.vg247.com/2016/01/08/the-witcher-3-metal-gear-solid-5-lead-nominees-for-2016-game-developers-choice-awards/ |title=The Witcher 3, Metal Gear Solid 5 lead nominees for GDC 2016 Awards |last=Nunneley |first=Stephany |website=[[VG247]] |publisher=[[Videogaming247]] |date=January 8, 2016 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eYOOuRrZ |archivedate=January 15, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Game Developers Choice Awards | Best Debut | {{sort|Fox|Toby Fox}} | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="GDC" /> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Game Developers Choice Awards | Best Narrative | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="GDC" /> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Independent Games Festival Awards | Seumas McNally Grand Prize | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="IGF">{{cite web |url=http://www.vg247.com/2016/01/06/her-story-2016-igf-awards/ |title=Her Story, Undertale, Darkest Dungeon receive multiple 2016 IGF Award nominations |last=Nunneley |first=Stephany |website=[[VG247]] |publisher=[[Videogaming247]] |date=January 6, 2016 |accessdate=January 21, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eYOWqOA1 |archivedate=January 15, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Independent Games Festival Awards | Excellence in Audio | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="IGF" /> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Independent Games Festival Awards | Excellence in Narrative | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="IGF" /> |- | align="center"| March 16, 2016 ! scope="row"| 2016 Independent Games Festival Awards | Audience Award | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="IGFwinners">{{cite web |url=http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/268277/Her_Story_takes_home_top_honors_at_the_18th_annual_IGF_Awards.php |title=Her Story takes home top honors at the 18th annual IGF Awards |website=[[Gamasutra]] |publisher=[[UBM TechWeb]] |date=March 16, 2016 |accessdate=March 16, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160411213833/http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/268277/Her_Story_takes_home_top_honors_at_the_18th_annual_IGF_Awards.php |archive-date=April 11, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| March 19, 2016 ! scope="row"| South by Southwest Gaming Awards | Game of the Year | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="SXSW nom">{{cite web |url=http://www.polygon.com/2016/1/25/10830286/sxsw-gaming-award-nominees-2016 |title=Bloodborne, Metal Gear Solid 5 among SXSW Gaming Award nominees |last=Frank |first=Allegra |website=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=January 25, 2016 |accessdate=February 17, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6eoMvq8Nt |archivedate=January 25, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| March 19, 2016 ! scope="row"| South by Southwest Gaming Awards | Excellence in Gameplay | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="SXSW nom" /> |- | align="center"| March 19, 2016 ! scope="row"| South by Southwest Gaming Awards | Most Fulfilling Crowdfunded Game | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="SXSW">{{cite web |url=http://www.polygon.com/2016/3/21/11277046/sxsw-gaming-awards-winners-2016 |title=The Witcher 3 takes top honors at yet another award show, the SXSW Gaming Awards |last=Sarkar |first=Samit |work=[[Polygon (website)|Polygon]] |publisher=[[Vox Media]] |date=March 21, 2016 |accessdate=June 5, 2016 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6gZ6BMatY |archivedate=April 6, 2016 }}</ref> |- | align="center"| March 19, 2016 ! scope="row"| South by Southwest Gaming Awards | Most Promising New Intellectual Property | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="SXSW nom" /> |- | align="center"| March 19, 2016 ! scope="row"| South by Southwest Gaming Awards | Matthew Crump Cultural Innovation Award | ''Undertale'' | Won | align="center"| <ref name="SXSW" /> |- | align="center"| April 7, 2016 ! scope="row"| British Academy Games Awards | Story | ''Undertale'' | Nominated | align="center"| <ref name="bafta noms">{{cite web | url = http://www.vg247.com/2016/03/10/rocket-league-the-witcher-3-fallout-4-others-up-for-bafta-best-game-award/ | title = Rocket League, The Witcher 3, Fallout 4, others up for BAFTA Best Game Award | website = [[VG247]] | first = Stephany | last = Nunnely | date = March 10, 2016 | accessdate = March 10, 2016 | publisher = [[Videogaming247]] |archive-url=http://www.webcitation.org/6hCnIWJHb |archive-date=May 2, 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.gamesindustry.biz/articles/2016-04-07-fallout-4-wins-best-game-at-baftas |website = [[GamesIndustry.biz]] | first = Rachel | last = Weber | title = Fallout 4 wins best game at BAFTAs | date = April 7, 2016 | accessdate = April 7, 2016 | publisher = [[Gamer Network]] |archive-url=http://www.webcitation.org/6hCmxLahf |archive-date=May 2, 2016 }}</ref> |} |} == References == {{reflist}} [[Category:Digital art]] il5ix7wcr0eezbcryzz2rgom9gdveco 0 215520 2415604 2414767 2022-08-16T17:30:27Z Sophivorus 85690 Add section about extensions into the outer structure wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Dialectic algorithm.png|thumb|Graphic representation of a small debate tree, with sustained arguments painted green and refuted arguments painted red.]] The '''debate algorithm''' (formerly '''DebateTree algorithm''' and '''dialectic algorithm''') is a {{W|recursive algorithm}} for computing the status (labeled SUSTAINED or REFUTED) of any argument out of the structure of its debate {{W|Tree structure|tree}}. The algorithm captures the intuitive idea that an argument should be considered refuted when it has unrefuted objections, and sustained otherwise. This page is aimed at merely ''describing'' the algorithm. To read about its usefulness, see the wikidebate [[Should we use the debate algorithm on wikidebates?|here]]. To learn about the broader context of the algorithm, see the resources [[#See also|here]]. == Algorithm == [[File:Dialectic algorithm.gif|thumb|Animation showing the debate algorithm as the debate tree grows. Notice how the leaves of the tree are always green.]] Given a debate tree, the debate algorithm labels each argument as either SUSTAINED or REFUTED based on the following definitions: ;SUSTAINED :Without sustained objections ;REFUTED :With sustained objections Considering that objections are also arguments, the algorithm will run recursively until the end of the debate tree (the leaves). Arguments at the end have no sustained objections (indeed, they have no objections at all) so they are labeled SUSTAINED, and the algorithm is then able to solve the status of all the other arguments. == Example == Below is an example of a small debate tree, with refuted arguments stroked. The structure of this debate tree is the same as the structure of the graph in this article. * {{Argument}} Causing unnecessary suffering on animals is morally wrong. Eating or otherwise exploiting animals is unnecessary and causes much suffering. Therefore, eating or otherwise exploiting animals is morally wrong and should be abolished. ** <s>{{Objection}} Non-human animals have no feelings and suffer no pain.</s> *** {{Objection}} Non-human animals behave very similar to us humans under circumstances that would cause us pain: they scream (or produce other loud noises), shake, contort, run, try to avoid the source of pain, etc. *** {{Objection}} Non-human animals, especially mammals and birds, have a nervous system very similar to our own. ** <s>{{Objection}} Animals in the wild suffer more, as starvation and predation is a constant threat to them. For a natural equilibrium, all animal species living in the wild live at the brink of starvation, as an excess of food leads to their numbers increasing, then collapsing.</s> *** {{Objection}} Animals in factory farms suffer guaranteed predation at a fraction of their natural life span. They don't lack food, true, but they are systematically mutilated, exploited, denied of basic freedom of movement, electrocuted, kicked, and many, many, many other atrocities. In traditional farms, animals are denied freedom of movement and reproduction, and also suffer guaranteed predation at a fraction of their natural life span. == Pseudocode == The essence of the debate algorithm can be summed up in a simple, beautiful recursive function: '''function''' getStatus(argument) '''let''' objections = getObjections(argument) '''for each''' objection '''in''' objections '''do''' '''if''' getStatus(objection) === SUSTAINED '''then''' '''return''' REFUTED '''return''' SUSTAINED The function calls itself recursively until it reaches the leaves of the debate tree. The leaves have no objections, so the algorithm returns SUSTAINED for each leaf and from there on solves the status for every other argument in the tree. An alternative, boolean formulation may be: '''function''' isSustained(argument) '''let''' objections = getObjections(argument) '''for each''' objection '''in''' objections '''do''' '''if''' isSustained(objection) '''then''' '''return''' FALSE '''return''' TRUE == Loops == Consider the following exchange: * {{Argument}} If God existed, then evil wouldn't exist. But evil exists. Therefore, God doesn't exist. ** {{Objection}} Your argument isn't valid because you're tainted by the Devil. *** {{Objection}} That's an ''ad hominem'' fallacy. **** {{Objection}} Your argument isn't valid because you're tainted by the Devil. ***** {{Objection}} That's an ''ad hominem'' fallacy. ****** {{Objection}} Your argument isn't valid because you're tainted by the Devil. *******... If each argument is only a copy-paste of the previous one, then this is only a human problem. However, if each argument is a "reuse" of the previous one, then this leads to an [[Wikipedia:Infinite loop|infinite loop]] in the debate algorithm. The possibility of such loops increases when [[Debate algorithm#Extensions|extensions]] are incorporated, since reusing a single premise is more likely than reusing an entire argument. == Extensions == === Inner structure === In the basic debate algorithm, the inner structure of the arguments is ignored. It's possible however to give the arguments some structure according to well known logical theories, and extend the debate algorithm into the new structure. For example, using the terms "sound", "valid" and "true" in non-standard ways: '''function''' isSound(argument) { '''if''' '''not''' isValid(argument) '''then''' '''return''' FALSE '''let''' premises = getPremises(argument) '''foreach''' premise '''in''' premises '''do''' '''if''' '''not''' isTrue(premise) '''then''' '''return''' FALSE '''return''' TRUE } '''function''' isValid(argument) { '''let''' objections = getObjections(argument) '''foreach''' objection '''in''' objections '''do''' '''if''' isSound(objection) '''then''' '''return''' FALSE '''return''' TRUE } '''function''' isTrue(premise) { '''let''' objections = getObjections(premise) '''foreach''' objection '''in''' objections '''do''' '''if''' isSound(objection) '''then''' '''return''' FALSE '''return''' TRUE } The algorithm can be further extended to calculate the truth value of each premise out of its propositional structure in the standard ways, and perhaps even out of its first-order structure. === Outer structure === This section describes how to apply methods akin to the debate algorithm to draw conclusions regarding a larger debate of which an argument may only be a part of. There are two kinds of debates: debates about facts and debates about conventions. For example, [[Does God exist?]] is a debate about a fact, while [[Should abortion be legal?]] is a debate about a convention. The proper way of drawing conclusions is different for each kind of debate. ==== Debates about facts ==== When debating facts, infer the option with at least one sustained argument for and none against, if every other option has no sustained arguments for. Needless to say, the current results of the debates aren't necessarily right or wrong. It's impossible to know, for certain anyway, if the current result of a debate is the absolute truth. However, if one option has few arguments, all refuted with several objections, and another option has many arguments with few objections refuted in various ways, then there's good reason to believe the second option. If the state of the debate is clear enough, one may, and should, infer the conclusion, but there will always be a leap of faith somewhere, even if tiny. Absolute certainty can never be achieved. However, when all arguments and all objections have been considered, the result will be our best guess as to the truth of the issue at hand. This is the most humans can aim for, and we should aim for it. Some key logical consequences are: * '''The number of arguments doesn't matter''' ― There may be just one argument in favor and hundreds against, but if the argument in favor is sustained and the hundreds are refuted, the answer will be what the argument in favor supports. Wikidebates are not a popularity contest. * '''Not all arguments for an option need to be sustained in order for that option to prevail''' ― Just one is required (and none on the other options). In fact, if an issue is truly controversial, it should even be expected that all options will have some refuted arguments. In pseudocode: function getBalance( option ) { balance = 0 arguments = getArguments( option ) for argument in arguments { balance = balance + getWeight( argument ) } return balance } function getWinner( debate ) { if ( getBalance( option1 ) > 0 and getBalance( option2 ) < 1 ) { return option1 } if ( getBalance( option1 ) < 1 and getBalance( option2 ) > 0 ) { return option2 } // And similarly combining any extra option // Else return nothing } ==== Debates about conventions ==== {{Quote|In the Affair of so much Importance to you, wherein you ask my Advice, I cannot for want of sufficient Premises, advise you ''what'' to determine, but if you please I will tell you ''how''. When these difficult Cases occur, they are difficult chiefly because while we have them under Consideration all the Reasons pro and con are not present to the Mind at the same time; but sometimes one Set present themselves, and at other times another, the first being out of Sight. Hence the various Purposes or Inclinations that alternately prevail, and the Uncertainty that perplexes us. To get over this, my Way is, to divide half a Sheet of Paper by a Line into two Columns, writing over the one Pro, and over the other Con. Then during three or four Days Consideration I put down under the different Heads short Hints of the different Motives that at different Times occur to me for or against the Measure. When I have thus got them all together in one View, I endeavour to estimate their respective Weights; and where I find two, one on each side, that seem equal, I strike them both out: If I find a Reason pro equal to some two Reasons con, I strike out the three. If I judge some two Reasons con equal to some three Reasons pro, I strike out the five; and thus proceeding I find at length where the Ballance lies; and if after a Day or two of farther Consideration nothing new that is of Importance occurs on either side, I come to a Determination accordingly. And tho' the Weight of Reasons cannot be taken with the Precision of Algebraic Quantities, yet when each is thus considered separately and comparatively, and the whole lies before me, I think I can judge better, and am less likely to make a rash Step; and in fact I have found great Advantage from this kind of Equation, in what may be called Moral or Prudential Algebra. Wishing sincerely that you may determine for the best, I am ever, my dear Friend, Yours most affectionately,|author=Letter by Benjamin Franklin to Joseph Priestley, September 19, 1772}} [[File:Barisan Injustice.jpg|thumb|When debating conventions, use your best judgment to weight the sustained arguments on each side, but ignore the refuted ones.]] Debating about conventions (such as laws) is different from debating about facts. When debating about facts, all arguments on the false side must ultimately be wrong, otherwise reality would be contradictory. By contrast, when debating about conventions, there may be sound arguments on all sides, and deciding becomes a matter of '''weighting''' the sound arguments on each side. But what is the "weight" of an argument and how do we measure it? The weight of an argument is its importance and relevance to the debate. And how do we measure weight? There's no agreed method (so far). Each reader must use his or her best judgment to weight the arguments. The '''balance''' of an option is the combined weight of the sustained arguments for it, minus the combined weight of the sustained arguments against it. '''In debates about conventions, infer the option with the best balance.''' This can be put in pseudocode thus: function getBalance( option ) { balance = 0 arguments = getArguments( option ) for argument in arguments { balance = balance + getWeight( argument ) } return balance } function getWinner( debate ) { if ( getBalance( option1 ) > getBalance( option2 ) ) { return option1 } if (getBalance( option1 ) < getBalance( option2 ) ) { return option2 } // Else no winner } == Implementations == [[File:Wikidebate logo.png|thumb|[[Wikidebate]] is currently the only site that features the debate algorithm. The logo evokes a debate tree.]] The first implementation of the debate algorithm was [https://web.archive.org/web/20150801164830/http://formalforum.org/ Formal Forum], a debate site that featured a propositional [[Debate algorithm#Extensions|extension]] of the algorithm and encouraged premise reuse. [[Debate algorithm#Loops|Loops]] where avoided by automatically checking for them before every submission. However, the creator felt this was only a patch that would only get worse over time and with further formalization, so decided to close the forum. Currently, the debate algorithm is available in the [[Wikidebate]] project. By clicking on the "Calculate status" button on any wikidebate ([[Should cannabis be legal?#debate-status|live example]]), the algorithm is run for every argument in the debate and arguments are colored according to their status. There's a wikidebate about the [[Should we use the debate algorithm on wikidebates?|usefulness of the algorithm for the project]] and the [[Wikidebate/Guidelines|wikidebate guidelines]] include some instructions on how to draw conclusions out of debates using methods akin to the debate algorithm. However, partly due to limitations in wiki software, every extra step in the formalization makes it harder for new users, so for now wikidebates incorporate only the most basic form of the algorithm (no [[Debate algorithm#Extensions|extensions]]). == See also == * [[Wikidebate]] - Debate project that uses the debate algorithm * [[Wikidebate/Guidelines#How to draw conclusions]] - Extension of this algorithm * [[Should we use the debate algorithm on wikidebates?]] - Wikidebate about the usefulness of the debate algorithm * [[MediaWiki:TemplateScript-Wikidebate.js|Wikidebate.js]] - JavaScript that implements the debate algorithm and other tools for wikidebates * [[User:Tordenofitami/Yes or no?|Yes or no?]] - Satiric wikidebate * {{W|Argument map}} * {{W|Diagrammatic reasoning}} * {{W|Argumentation framework}} * [https://www.lesswrong.com/posts/Ytav2fYGAp49ACt4o Discussion about the algorithm on LessWrong] * Rawhan et al. (2010) [http://www.arg.dundee.ac.uk/people/chris/publications/2010/ker.pdf Representing and Clasifying Arguments on the Semantic Web] [[Category:Algorithms]] [[Category:WikiJournal of Science/Submissions already reviewed]] g11ob35n31977am0gu6r5e262721wuu 2415605 2415604 2022-08-16T17:32:11Z Sophivorus 85690 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Dialectic algorithm.png|thumb|Graphic representation of a small debate tree, with sustained arguments painted green and refuted arguments painted red.]] The '''debate algorithm''' (formerly '''DebateTree algorithm''' and '''dialectic algorithm''') is a {{W|recursive algorithm}} for computing the status (labeled SUSTAINED / REFUTED, or simply GREEN / RED) of any argument out of the structure of its debate {{W|Tree structure|tree}}. The algorithm captures the intuitive idea that an argument should be considered refuted when it has unrefuted objections, and sustained otherwise. This page is aimed at merely ''describing'' the algorithm. To read about its usefulness, see the wikidebate [[Should we use the debate algorithm on wikidebates?|here]]. To learn about the broader context of the algorithm, see the resources [[#See also|here]]. == Algorithm == [[File:Dialectic algorithm.gif|thumb|Animation showing the debate algorithm as the debate tree grows. Notice how the leaves of the tree are always green.]] Given a debate tree, the debate algorithm labels each argument as either SUSTAINED or REFUTED based on the following definitions: ;SUSTAINED :Without sustained objections ;REFUTED :With sustained objections Considering that objections are also arguments, the algorithm will run recursively until the end of the debate tree (the leaves). Arguments at the end have no sustained objections (indeed, they have no objections at all) so they are labeled SUSTAINED, and the algorithm is then able to solve the status of all the other arguments. == Example == Below is an example of a small debate tree, with refuted arguments stroked. The structure of this debate tree is the same as the structure of the graph in this article. * {{Argument}} Causing unnecessary suffering on animals is morally wrong. Eating or otherwise exploiting animals is unnecessary and causes much suffering. Therefore, eating or otherwise exploiting animals is morally wrong and should be abolished. ** <s>{{Objection}} Non-human animals have no feelings and suffer no pain.</s> *** {{Objection}} Non-human animals behave very similar to us humans under circumstances that would cause us pain: they scream (or produce other loud noises), shake, contort, run, try to avoid the source of pain, etc. *** {{Objection}} Non-human animals, especially mammals and birds, have a nervous system very similar to our own. ** <s>{{Objection}} Animals in the wild suffer more, as starvation and predation is a constant threat to them. For a natural equilibrium, all animal species living in the wild live at the brink of starvation, as an excess of food leads to their numbers increasing, then collapsing.</s> *** {{Objection}} Animals in factory farms suffer guaranteed predation at a fraction of their natural life span. They don't lack food, true, but they are systematically mutilated, exploited, denied of basic freedom of movement, electrocuted, kicked, and many, many, many other atrocities. In traditional farms, animals are denied freedom of movement and reproduction, and also suffer guaranteed predation at a fraction of their natural life span. == Pseudocode == The essence of the debate algorithm can be summed up in a simple, beautiful recursive function: '''function''' getStatus(argument) '''let''' objections = getObjections(argument) '''for each''' objection '''in''' objections '''do''' '''if''' getStatus(objection) === SUSTAINED '''then''' '''return''' REFUTED '''return''' SUSTAINED The function calls itself recursively until it reaches the leaves of the debate tree. The leaves have no objections, so the algorithm returns SUSTAINED for each leaf and from there on solves the status for every other argument in the tree. An alternative, boolean formulation may be: '''function''' isSustained(argument) '''let''' objections = getObjections(argument) '''for each''' objection '''in''' objections '''do''' '''if''' isSustained(objection) '''then''' '''return''' FALSE '''return''' TRUE == Loops == Consider the following exchange: * {{Argument}} If God existed, then evil wouldn't exist. But evil exists. Therefore, God doesn't exist. ** {{Objection}} Your argument isn't valid because you're tainted by the Devil. *** {{Objection}} That's an ''ad hominem'' fallacy. **** {{Objection}} Your argument isn't valid because you're tainted by the Devil. ***** {{Objection}} That's an ''ad hominem'' fallacy. ****** {{Objection}} Your argument isn't valid because you're tainted by the Devil. *******... If each argument is only a copy-paste of the previous one, then this is only a human problem. However, if each argument is a "reuse" of the previous one, then this leads to an [[Wikipedia:Infinite loop|infinite loop]] in the debate algorithm. The possibility of such loops increases when [[Debate algorithm#Extensions|extensions]] are incorporated, since reusing a single premise is more likely than reusing an entire argument. == Extensions == === Inner structure === In the basic debate algorithm, the inner structure of the arguments is ignored. It's possible however to give the arguments some structure according to well known logical theories, and extend the debate algorithm into the new structure. For example, using the terms "sound", "valid" and "true" in non-standard ways: '''function''' isSound(argument) { '''if''' '''not''' isValid(argument) '''then''' '''return''' FALSE '''let''' premises = getPremises(argument) '''foreach''' premise '''in''' premises '''do''' '''if''' '''not''' isTrue(premise) '''then''' '''return''' FALSE '''return''' TRUE } '''function''' isValid(argument) { '''let''' objections = getObjections(argument) '''foreach''' objection '''in''' objections '''do''' '''if''' isSound(objection) '''then''' '''return''' FALSE '''return''' TRUE } '''function''' isTrue(premise) { '''let''' objections = getObjections(premise) '''foreach''' objection '''in''' objections '''do''' '''if''' isSound(objection) '''then''' '''return''' FALSE '''return''' TRUE } The algorithm can be further extended to calculate the truth value of each premise out of its propositional structure in the standard ways, and perhaps even out of its first-order structure. === Outer structure === This section describes how to apply methods akin to the debate algorithm to draw conclusions regarding a larger debate of which an argument may only be a part of. There are two kinds of debates: debates about facts and debates about conventions. For example, [[Does God exist?]] is a debate about a fact, while [[Should abortion be legal?]] is a debate about a convention. The proper way of drawing conclusions is different for each kind of debate. ==== Debates about facts ==== When debating facts, infer the option with at least one sustained argument for and none against, if every other option has no sustained arguments for. Needless to say, the current results of the debates aren't necessarily right or wrong. It's impossible to know, for certain anyway, if the current result of a debate is the absolute truth. However, if one option has few arguments, all refuted with several objections, and another option has many arguments with few objections refuted in various ways, then there's good reason to believe the second option. If the state of the debate is clear enough, one may, and should, infer the conclusion, but there will always be a leap of faith somewhere, even if tiny. Absolute certainty can never be achieved. However, when all arguments and all objections have been considered, the result will be our best guess as to the truth of the issue at hand. This is the most humans can aim for, and we should aim for it. Some key logical consequences are: * '''The number of arguments doesn't matter''' ― There may be just one argument in favor and hundreds against, but if the argument in favor is sustained and the hundreds are refuted, the answer will be what the argument in favor supports. Wikidebates are not a popularity contest. * '''Not all arguments for an option need to be sustained in order for that option to prevail''' ― Just one is required (and none on the other options). In fact, if an issue is truly controversial, it should even be expected that all options will have some refuted arguments. In pseudocode: function getBalance( option ) { balance = 0 arguments = getArguments( option ) for argument in arguments { balance = balance + getWeight( argument ) } return balance } function getWinner( debate ) { if ( getBalance( option1 ) > 0 and getBalance( option2 ) < 1 ) { return option1 } if ( getBalance( option1 ) < 1 and getBalance( option2 ) > 0 ) { return option2 } // And similarly combining any extra option // Else return nothing } ==== Debates about conventions ==== {{Quote|In the Affair of so much Importance to you, wherein you ask my Advice, I cannot for want of sufficient Premises, advise you ''what'' to determine, but if you please I will tell you ''how''. When these difficult Cases occur, they are difficult chiefly because while we have them under Consideration all the Reasons pro and con are not present to the Mind at the same time; but sometimes one Set present themselves, and at other times another, the first being out of Sight. Hence the various Purposes or Inclinations that alternately prevail, and the Uncertainty that perplexes us. To get over this, my Way is, to divide half a Sheet of Paper by a Line into two Columns, writing over the one Pro, and over the other Con. Then during three or four Days Consideration I put down under the different Heads short Hints of the different Motives that at different Times occur to me for or against the Measure. When I have thus got them all together in one View, I endeavour to estimate their respective Weights; and where I find two, one on each side, that seem equal, I strike them both out: If I find a Reason pro equal to some two Reasons con, I strike out the three. If I judge some two Reasons con equal to some three Reasons pro, I strike out the five; and thus proceeding I find at length where the Ballance lies; and if after a Day or two of farther Consideration nothing new that is of Importance occurs on either side, I come to a Determination accordingly. And tho' the Weight of Reasons cannot be taken with the Precision of Algebraic Quantities, yet when each is thus considered separately and comparatively, and the whole lies before me, I think I can judge better, and am less likely to make a rash Step; and in fact I have found great Advantage from this kind of Equation, in what may be called Moral or Prudential Algebra. Wishing sincerely that you may determine for the best, I am ever, my dear Friend, Yours most affectionately,|author=Letter by Benjamin Franklin to Joseph Priestley, September 19, 1772}} [[File:Barisan Injustice.jpg|thumb|When debating conventions, use your best judgment to weight the sustained arguments on each side, but ignore the refuted ones.]] Debating about conventions (such as laws) is different from debating about facts. When debating about facts, all arguments on the false side must ultimately be wrong, otherwise reality would be contradictory. By contrast, when debating about conventions, there may be sound arguments on all sides, and deciding becomes a matter of '''weighting''' the sound arguments on each side. But what is the "weight" of an argument and how do we measure it? The weight of an argument is its importance and relevance to the debate. And how do we measure weight? There's no agreed method (so far). Each reader must use his or her best judgment to weight the arguments. The '''balance''' of an option is the combined weight of the sustained arguments for it, minus the combined weight of the sustained arguments against it. '''In debates about conventions, infer the option with the best balance.''' This can be put in pseudocode thus: function getBalance( option ) { balance = 0 arguments = getArguments( option ) for argument in arguments { balance = balance + getWeight( argument ) } return balance } function getWinner( debate ) { if ( getBalance( option1 ) > getBalance( option2 ) ) { return option1 } if (getBalance( option1 ) < getBalance( option2 ) ) { return option2 } // Else no winner } == Implementations == [[File:Wikidebate logo.png|thumb|[[Wikidebate]] is currently the only site that features the debate algorithm. The logo evokes a debate tree.]] The first implementation of the debate algorithm was [https://web.archive.org/web/20150801164830/http://formalforum.org/ Formal Forum], a debate site that featured a propositional [[Debate algorithm#Extensions|extension]] of the algorithm and encouraged premise reuse. [[Debate algorithm#Loops|Loops]] where avoided by automatically checking for them before every submission. However, the creator felt this was only a patch that would only get worse over time and with further formalization, so decided to close the forum. Currently, the debate algorithm is available in the [[Wikidebate]] project. By clicking on the "Calculate status" button on any wikidebate ([[Should cannabis be legal?#debate-status|live example]]), the algorithm is run for every argument in the debate and arguments are colored according to their status. There's a wikidebate about the [[Should we use the debate algorithm on wikidebates?|usefulness of the algorithm for the project]] and the [[Wikidebate/Guidelines|wikidebate guidelines]] include some instructions on how to draw conclusions out of debates using methods akin to the debate algorithm. However, partly due to limitations in wiki software, every extra step in the formalization makes it harder for new users, so for now wikidebates incorporate only the most basic form of the algorithm (no [[Debate algorithm#Extensions|extensions]]). == See also == * [[Wikidebate]] - Debate project that uses the debate algorithm * [[Wikidebate/Guidelines#How to draw conclusions]] - Extension of this algorithm * [[Should we use the debate algorithm on wikidebates?]] - Wikidebate about the usefulness of the debate algorithm * [[MediaWiki:TemplateScript-Wikidebate.js|Wikidebate.js]] - JavaScript that implements the debate algorithm and other tools for wikidebates * [[User:Tordenofitami/Yes or no?|Yes or no?]] - Satiric wikidebate * {{W|Argument map}} * {{W|Diagrammatic reasoning}} * {{W|Argumentation framework}} * [https://www.lesswrong.com/posts/Ytav2fYGAp49ACt4o Discussion about the algorithm on LessWrong] * Rawhan et al. (2010) [http://www.arg.dundee.ac.uk/people/chris/publications/2010/ker.pdf Representing and Clasifying Arguments on the Semantic Web] [[Category:Algorithms]] [[Category:WikiJournal of Science/Submissions already reviewed]] qpmwjzr8elsjyafa51en3gerxp5jv8r 2415607 2415605 2022-08-16T17:33:48Z Sophivorus 85690 wikitext text/x-wiki [[File:Dialectic algorithm.png|thumb|Graphic representation of a small debate tree, with sustained arguments painted green and refuted arguments painted red.]] The '''debate algorithm''' (formerly '''DebateTree algorithm''' and '''dialectic algorithm''') is a {{W|recursive algorithm}} for computing the status (labeled SUSTAINED / REFUTED, or simply GREEN / RED) of any argument out of the structure of its debate {{W|Tree structure|tree}}. The algorithm captures the intuitive idea that an argument should be considered refuted when it has unrefuted objections, and sustained otherwise. This page is aimed at merely ''describing'' the algorithm. To read about its usefulness, see the wikidebate [[Should we use the debate algorithm on wikidebates?|here]]. To learn about the broader context of the algorithm, see the resources [[#See also|here]]. == Algorithm == [[File:Dialectic algorithm.gif|thumb|Animation showing the debate algorithm as the debate tree grows. Notice how the leaves of the tree are always green.]] Given a debate tree, the debate algorithm labels each argument as either SUSTAINED or REFUTED based on the following definitions: ;SUSTAINED :Without sustained objections ;REFUTED :With sustained objections Considering that objections are also arguments, the algorithm will run recursively until the end of the debate tree (the leaves). Arguments at the end have no sustained objections (indeed, they have no objections at all) so they are labeled SUSTAINED, and the algorithm is then able to solve the status of all the other arguments. == Example == Below is an example of a small debate tree, with refuted arguments stroked. The structure of this debate tree is the same as the structure of the graph in this article. * {{Argument}} Causing unnecessary suffering on animals is morally wrong. Eating or otherwise exploiting animals is unnecessary and causes much suffering. Therefore, eating or otherwise exploiting animals is morally wrong and should be abolished. ** <s>{{Objection}} Non-human animals have no feelings and suffer no pain.</s> *** {{Objection}} Non-human animals behave very similar to us humans under circumstances that would cause us pain: they scream (or produce other loud noises), shake, contort, run, try to avoid the source of pain, etc. *** {{Objection}} Non-human animals, especially mammals and birds, have a nervous system very similar to our own. ** <s>{{Objection}} Animals in the wild suffer more, as starvation and predation is a constant threat to them. For a natural equilibrium, all animal species living in the wild live at the brink of starvation, as an excess of food leads to their numbers increasing, then collapsing.</s> *** {{Objection}} Animals in factory farms suffer guaranteed predation at a fraction of their natural life span. They don't lack food, true, but they are systematically mutilated, exploited, denied of basic freedom of movement, electrocuted, kicked, and many, many, many other atrocities. In traditional farms, animals are denied freedom of movement and reproduction, and also suffer guaranteed predation at a fraction of their natural life span. == Pseudocode == The essence of the debate algorithm can be summed up in a simple, beautiful recursive function: '''function''' getStatus(argument) '''let''' objections = getObjections(argument) '''for each''' objection '''in''' objections '''do''' '''if''' getStatus(objection) === SUSTAINED '''then''' '''return''' REFUTED '''return''' SUSTAINED The function calls itself recursively until it reaches the leaves of the debate tree. The leaves have no objections, so the algorithm returns SUSTAINED for each leaf and from there on solves the status for every other argument in the tree. An alternative, boolean formulation may be: '''function''' isSustained(argument) '''let''' objections = getObjections(argument) '''for each''' objection '''in''' objections '''do''' '''if''' isSustained(objection) '''then''' '''return''' FALSE '''return''' TRUE == Loops == Consider the following exchange: * {{Argument}} If God existed, then evil wouldn't exist. But evil exists. Therefore, God doesn't exist. ** {{Objection}} Your argument isn't valid because you're tainted by the Devil. *** {{Objection}} That's an ''ad hominem'' fallacy. **** {{Objection}} Your argument isn't valid because you're tainted by the Devil. ***** {{Objection}} That's an ''ad hominem'' fallacy. ****** {{Objection}} Your argument isn't valid because you're tainted by the Devil. *******... If each argument is only a copy-paste of the previous one, then this is only a human problem. However, if each argument is a "reuse" of the previous one, then this leads to an [[Wikipedia:Infinite loop|infinite loop]] in the debate algorithm. The possibility of such loops increases when [[Debate algorithm#Extensions|extensions]] are incorporated, since reusing a single premise is more likely than reusing an entire argument. == Extensions == === Inner structure === In the basic debate algorithm, the inner structure of the arguments is ignored. It's possible however to give the arguments some structure according to well known logical theories, and extend the debate algorithm into the new structure. For example, using the terms "sound", "valid" and "true" in non-standard ways: '''function''' isSound( argument ) { '''if''' '''not''' isValid( argument ) '''then''' '''return''' FALSE '''let''' premises = getPremises( argument ) '''foreach''' premise '''in''' premises '''do''' '''if''' '''not''' isTrue( premise ) '''then''' '''return''' FALSE '''return''' TRUE } '''function''' isValid( argument ) { '''let''' objections = getObjections( argument ) '''foreach''' objection '''in''' objections '''do''' '''if''' isSound( objection ) '''then''' '''return''' FALSE '''return''' TRUE } '''function''' isTrue( premise ) { '''let''' objections = getObjections( premise ) '''foreach''' objection '''in''' objections '''do''' '''if''' isSound( objection ) '''then''' '''return''' FALSE '''return''' TRUE } The algorithm can be further extended to calculate the truth value of each premise out of its propositional structure in the standard ways, and perhaps even out of its first-order structure. === Outer structure === This section describes how to apply methods akin to the debate algorithm to draw conclusions regarding a larger debate of which an argument may only be a part of. There are two kinds of debates: debates about facts and debates about conventions. For example, [[Does God exist?]] is a debate about a fact, while [[Should abortion be legal?]] is a debate about a convention. The proper way of drawing conclusions is different for each kind of debate. ==== Debates about facts ==== When debating facts, infer the option with at least one sustained argument for and none against, if every other option has no sustained arguments for. Needless to say, the current results of the debates aren't necessarily right or wrong. It's impossible to know, for certain anyway, if the current result of a debate is the absolute truth. However, if one option has few arguments, all refuted with several objections, and another option has many arguments with few objections refuted in various ways, then there's good reason to believe the second option. If the state of the debate is clear enough, one may, and should, infer the conclusion, but there will always be a leap of faith somewhere, even if tiny. Absolute certainty can never be achieved. However, when all arguments and all objections have been considered, the result will be our best guess as to the truth of the issue at hand. This is the most humans can aim for, and we should aim for it. Some key logical consequences are: * '''The number of arguments doesn't matter''' ― There may be just one argument in favor and hundreds against, but if the argument in favor is sustained and the hundreds are refuted, the answer will be what the argument in favor supports. Wikidebates are not a popularity contest. * '''Not all arguments for an option need to be sustained in order for that option to prevail''' ― Just one is required (and none on the other options). In fact, if an issue is truly controversial, it should even be expected that all options will have some refuted arguments. In pseudocode: function getBalance( option ) { balance = 0 arguments = getArguments( option ) for argument in arguments { balance = balance + getWeight( argument ) } return balance } function getWinner( debate ) { if ( getBalance( option1 ) > 0 and getBalance( option2 ) < 1 ) { return option1 } if ( getBalance( option1 ) < 1 and getBalance( option2 ) > 0 ) { return option2 } // And similarly combining any extra option // Else return nothing } ==== Debates about conventions ==== {{Quote|In the Affair of so much Importance to you, wherein you ask my Advice, I cannot for want of sufficient Premises, advise you ''what'' to determine, but if you please I will tell you ''how''. When these difficult Cases occur, they are difficult chiefly because while we have them under Consideration all the Reasons pro and con are not present to the Mind at the same time; but sometimes one Set present themselves, and at other times another, the first being out of Sight. Hence the various Purposes or Inclinations that alternately prevail, and the Uncertainty that perplexes us. To get over this, my Way is, to divide half a Sheet of Paper by a Line into two Columns, writing over the one Pro, and over the other Con. Then during three or four Days Consideration I put down under the different Heads short Hints of the different Motives that at different Times occur to me for or against the Measure. When I have thus got them all together in one View, I endeavour to estimate their respective Weights; and where I find two, one on each side, that seem equal, I strike them both out: If I find a Reason pro equal to some two Reasons con, I strike out the three. If I judge some two Reasons con equal to some three Reasons pro, I strike out the five; and thus proceeding I find at length where the Ballance lies; and if after a Day or two of farther Consideration nothing new that is of Importance occurs on either side, I come to a Determination accordingly. And tho' the Weight of Reasons cannot be taken with the Precision of Algebraic Quantities, yet when each is thus considered separately and comparatively, and the whole lies before me, I think I can judge better, and am less likely to make a rash Step; and in fact I have found great Advantage from this kind of Equation, in what may be called Moral or Prudential Algebra. Wishing sincerely that you may determine for the best, I am ever, my dear Friend, Yours most affectionately,|author=Letter by Benjamin Franklin to Joseph Priestley, September 19, 1772}} [[File:Barisan Injustice.jpg|thumb|When debating conventions, use your best judgment to weight the sustained arguments on each side, but ignore the refuted ones.]] Debating about conventions (such as laws) is different from debating about facts. When debating about facts, all arguments on the false side must ultimately be wrong, otherwise reality would be contradictory. By contrast, when debating about conventions, there may be sound arguments on all sides, and deciding becomes a matter of '''weighting''' the sound arguments on each side. But what is the "weight" of an argument and how do we measure it? The weight of an argument is its importance and relevance to the debate. And how do we measure weight? There's no agreed method (so far). Each reader must use his or her best judgment to weight the arguments. The '''balance''' of an option is the combined weight of the sustained arguments for it, minus the combined weight of the sustained arguments against it. '''In debates about conventions, infer the option with the best balance.''' This can be put in pseudocode thus: function getBalance( option ) { balance = 0 arguments = getArguments( option ) for argument in arguments { balance = balance + getWeight( argument ) } return balance } function getWinner( debate ) { if ( getBalance( option1 ) > getBalance( option2 ) ) { return option1 } if ( getBalance( option1 ) < getBalance( option2 ) ) { return option2 } // Else no winner } == Implementations == [[File:Wikidebate logo.png|thumb|[[Wikidebate]] is currently the only site that features the debate algorithm. The logo evokes a debate tree.]] The first implementation of the debate algorithm was [https://web.archive.org/web/20150801164830/http://formalforum.org/ Formal Forum], a debate site that featured a propositional [[Debate algorithm#Extensions|extension]] of the algorithm and encouraged premise reuse. [[Debate algorithm#Loops|Loops]] where avoided by automatically checking for them before every submission. However, the creator felt this was only a patch that would only get worse over time and with further formalization, so decided to close the forum. Currently, the debate algorithm is available in the [[Wikidebate]] project. By clicking on the "Calculate status" button on any wikidebate ([[Should cannabis be legal?#debate-status|live example]]), the algorithm is run for every argument in the debate and arguments are colored according to their status. There's a wikidebate about the [[Should we use the debate algorithm on wikidebates?|usefulness of the algorithm for the project]] and the [[Wikidebate/Guidelines|wikidebate guidelines]] include some instructions on how to draw conclusions out of debates using methods akin to the debate algorithm. However, partly due to limitations in wiki software, every extra step in the formalization makes it harder for new users, so for now wikidebates incorporate only the most basic form of the algorithm (no [[Debate algorithm#Extensions|extensions]]). == See also == * [[Wikidebate]] - Debate project that uses the debate algorithm * [[Wikidebate/Guidelines#How to draw conclusions]] - Extension of this algorithm * [[Should we use the debate algorithm on wikidebates?]] - Wikidebate about the usefulness of the debate algorithm * [[MediaWiki:TemplateScript-Wikidebate.js|Wikidebate.js]] - JavaScript that implements the debate algorithm and other tools for wikidebates * [[User:Tordenofitami/Yes or no?|Yes or no?]] - Satiric wikidebate * {{W|Argument map}} * {{W|Diagrammatic reasoning}} * {{W|Argumentation framework}} * [https://www.lesswrong.com/posts/Ytav2fYGAp49ACt4o Discussion about the algorithm on LessWrong] * Rawhan et al. (2010) [http://www.arg.dundee.ac.uk/people/chris/publications/2010/ker.pdf Representing and Clasifying Arguments on the Semantic Web] [[Category:Algorithms]] [[Category:WikiJournal of Science/Submissions already reviewed]] kczh8jsvot2qz1s02b0u165urlzlzl7 0 215886 2415633 2414404 2022-08-16T22:08:46Z Sophivorus 85690 Move references inline wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikidebate}} {{Science}} Global warming (or climate change or global heating) poses a very real threat to the world's ecosystem and to human life. Some doubt its existence and others that human activity is responsible for global increases in temperature and related weather phenomena. This debate takes it for granted that global warming exists but asks to what extent humans create or hasten those conditions. == Humans are the main cause of global warming == === Arguments for === * {{Argument for}} Almost all—roughly 97%—earth scientist believe that global warming is real, has been occurring throughout the 20th and 21st centuries, and has a substantial man-made component.<ref name="ipcc">{{Cite web|quote=The following terms have been used to indicate the assessed likelihood of an outcome or a result: virtually certain 99–100% probability, very likely 90–100%, likely 66–100%, about as likely as not 33–66%, unlikely 0–33%, very unlikely 0–10%, exceptionally unlikely 0–1%. Additional terms (extremely likely: 95–100%, more likely than not >50–100%, more unlikely than likely 0–<50% and extremely unlikely 0–5%) may also be used when appropriate.|publisher=IPCC|url=http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/syr/AR5_SYR_FINAL_SPM.pdf|title=CLIMATE CHANGE 2014: Synthesis Report. Summary for Policymakers|accessdate=1 November 2015}}</ref><ref name="ipcc2">{{Cite web|quote=The evidence for human influence on the climate system has grown since the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4). It is extremely likely that more than half of the observed increase in global average surface temperature from 1951 to 2010 was caused by the anthropogenic increase in greenhouse gas concentrations and other anthropogenic forcings together|publisher=IPCC|url=http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/syr/AR5_SYR_FINAL_SPM.pdf|title=CLIMATE CHANGE 2014: Synthesis Report. Summary for Policymakers|accessdate=7 March 2015}}</ref><ref name="nap">{{Cite book| publisher=The National Academies Press| isbn = 0-309-14588-0| last = America's Climate Choices: Panel on Advancing the Science of Climate Change; National Research Council| title = Advancing the Science of Climate Change| location = Washington, D.C.| year = 2010| url = http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12782| quote = (p1)... there is a strong, credible body of evidence, based on multiple lines of research, documenting that climate is changing and that these changes are in large part caused by human activities. While much remains to be learned, the core phenomenon, scientific questions, and hypotheses have been examined thoroughly and have stood firm in the face of serious scientific debate and careful evaluation of alternative explanations. ***(p21-22) Some scientific conclusions or theories have been so thoroughly examined and tested, and supported by so many independent observations and results, that their likelihood of subsequently being found to be wrong is vanishingly small. Such conclusions and theories are then regarded as settled facts. This is the case for the conclusions that the Earth system is warming and that much of this warming is very likely due to human activities.</ref> ** {{Objection}} This is an {{W| argument from authority}}. *** {{Objection}} Yes, it's an argument from authority, but that doesn't change the fact that ~97% of experts agree. The argument should remain "sustained" and each reader will judge its weight. *** {{Objection}} Fallacious arguments from authority rely on someone propounding outside his field of expertise whereas climate scientists are by definition experts on climate. **** {{Objection}} That is only one kind of argument from authority. Experts have been wrong many many times in the past. Experts must prove their contentions like everybody else. ***** {{Objection}} The fact that others have been wrong about other things is a fallacious line of reasoning itself. ***** {{Objection}} Climate scientists experts do prove their assertions with their work. That's how the scientific community reaches a consensus in the first place. ****** {{Objection}} Only mathematicians "prove" their assertions. If empirical scientists proved their assertions, they wouldn't have been wrong before. Empirical scientists can only provide strong arguments for their conclusions, but they can always be wrong, as so many of them have been before. Thus citing their authority is not enough. Their actual arguments must be provided. ****** {{Objection}} Then post their actual arguments and evidence, rather than defending an argument that doesn't include them. ******* {{Objection}} They are cited above. ******** {{Objection}} That's lazy, better is to bring them to the wiki so we can debate them (and trim this branch of the debate). ** {{Objection}} 99.9% of bishops agree there is a God. This does not necessarily make it true—especially when funding requires following a creed. The global temperature has been increasing and variable for many thousand of years. The argument should be about whether change has become more rapid and how much of that is attributable to humans. *** {{Objection}} Widespread agreement certainly doesn't make anything ''wrong'' either. Scientists use a method which is verifiable so you can check their science yourself or create new experiments with new explanatory methods. Just nay-saying science as a field is hardly an argument. If someone could ''disprove'' human responsibility for global warming, that person would get a virtually limitless amount of funding: conservative science which just proves what we already know is not attractive to grantors. The consensus precisely ''is'' that human activity plays a non-negligible role in climate change. **** {{Objection}} The point is the number of believers or disbelievers is moot. Ether had a strong belief amongst scientists who were experts. The other point is to show the argument is much more nuanced. Given that other massive rises in global temperature have not eliminated life it is difficult to read hysterical statements and believe them. The argument needs to be more nuanced as the bold fear mongering that accepts no critique (critique is a staple of scientific discourse) only helps people state this is a hoax. ***** {{Objection}} This is not even an argument: saying that it can't be true because it's not nuanced enough? What is your point? === Arguments against === * {{Argument against}} The science shows that climate change is happening but not that it's influenced by human activity.{{Citation needed}} ** {{Objection}} That is actually the opposite of what the science says: virtually all climate scientists agree that human activity is accelerating any natural process of global warming.<ref name="ipcc" /><ref name="ipcc2" /> *** {{Objection}} That is not entirely accurate. The science is often using abductive reasoning and is also using "post hoc, ergo propter hoc" arguments by looking at correlations and extrapolating. Much is overstated and used to back up one political narrative whereas looking at actual data suggests a more complex argument is needed. For instance roughly 60% of the greenhouse effect is caused by natural water vapor (i.e. clouds) not CO2. CO2 has lots of origins, for instance every animal on Earth exhales CO2. Methane is often also discussed. It is true Methane, pound for pound, is 25× more potent than CO2 as a greenhouse gas however the concentration is 1/200th that of CO2 in the atmosphere so its contribution is effectively negligible—especially as it also comes from natural sources such as the wetlands we keep preserving so not all of it can be prevented. The yearly human addition to CO2 that occurs naturally is less than 4%.{{Cn}} It is true that only part of this addition gets absorbed again and hence the effect is incremental but we also need to acknowledge natural processes have a habit of correcting themselves such as high CO2 encourages more growth of carbon sinks. As Earth's custodians, and residents, we should curtail pollution and limit our contribution to global warming, if that is possible, but we should also reflect it is a long term natural and nuanced process if we are to be believed, because a hint of dishonesty sinks the argument. Hysterical statements that we are all doomed simply add to eye rolling from disbelievers as history has shown significant temperature changes without extinguishing life. Rhetoric has overtaken accuracy. **** {{Objection}} "Looking at correlations and extrapolating" is a key element of science and it's not abduction but induction: one of the {{W| History of scientific method| pillars of the scientific method}}.<ref name="scimeth">{{Cite web| url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-method/| title=Scientific Method| date=2015-11-13| last1=Andersen| first1=Hannah| last2=Hepburn| first2=Brian| work=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy| quote=Among the activities often identified as characteristic of science are systematic observation and experimentation, inductive and deductive reasoning, and the formation and testing of hypotheses and theories.}}</ref> If humans have such a small impact on global warming, then why would we curb our pollution? The argument that overstatements may embolden the opposition is also irrelevant if no one is overstating them: ''which'' statements are inaccurate? * {{Argument against}} The most extensive melting of polar ice caps occurred in 2005. The second most extensive melting of polar ice caps occurred in 2016.{{Citation needed}} The sunspot cycle, the major one, has a period of 11.2 years. This suggests that humans are a secondary cause, not the primary one. ** {{Objection}} It's true that the sunspots have an 11.2 year cycle, and that it affects Earth climate. However, data shows that since ~1960 solar irradiance has steadily declined irrespective of sunspot cycles, while Earth temperature has increased.<ref>{{Cite web| url=https://climate.nasa.gov/ask-nasa-climate/2910/what-is-the-suns-role-in-climate-change/| title=What Is the Sun's Role in Climate Change?| last=Change| first=NASA Global Climate| website=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet| access-date=2022-08-14}}</ref> ** {{Objection}} The melting of polar ice caps is not the only indicator of global warming. == See also == * [[Should we use nuclear energy?]] == Notes and references == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Earth sciences]]}} 80r9jnzjkfscmbygnqfsp4bvqhey16w 2415634 2415633 2022-08-16T22:14:24Z Sophivorus 85690 Normalize wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikidebate}} {{Science}} Global warming (or climate change or global heating) poses a very real threat to the world's ecosystem and to human life. Some doubt its existence and others that human activity is responsible for global increases in temperature and related weather phenomena. This debate takes it for granted that global warming exists but asks to what extent humans create or hasten those conditions. == Are humans the main cause of global warming? == === Arguments for === * {{Argument for}} Almost all—roughly 97%—earth scientist believe that global warming is real, has been occurring throughout the 20th and 21st centuries, and has a substantial man-made component.<ref name="ipcc">{{Cite web|quote=The following terms have been used to indicate the assessed likelihood of an outcome or a result: virtually certain 99–100% probability, very likely 90–100%, likely 66–100%, about as likely as not 33–66%, unlikely 0–33%, very unlikely 0–10%, exceptionally unlikely 0–1%. Additional terms (extremely likely: 95–100%, more likely than not >50–100%, more unlikely than likely 0–<50% and extremely unlikely 0–5%) may also be used when appropriate.|publisher=IPCC|url=http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/syr/AR5_SYR_FINAL_SPM.pdf|title=CLIMATE CHANGE 2014: Synthesis Report. Summary for Policymakers|accessdate=1 November 2015}}</ref><ref name="ipcc2">{{Cite web|quote=The evidence for human influence on the climate system has grown since the Fourth Assessment Report (AR4). It is extremely likely that more than half of the observed increase in global average surface temperature from 1951 to 2010 was caused by the anthropogenic increase in greenhouse gas concentrations and other anthropogenic forcings together|publisher=IPCC|url=http://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/syr/AR5_SYR_FINAL_SPM.pdf|title=CLIMATE CHANGE 2014: Synthesis Report. Summary for Policymakers|accessdate=7 March 2015}}</ref><ref name="nap">{{Cite book|publisher=The National Academies Press|isbn=0-309-14588-0|last=America's Climate Choices: Panel on Advancing the Science of Climate Change; National Research Council|title=Advancing the Science of Climate Change|location=Washington, D.C.|year=2010|url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=12782|quote=(p1)... there is a strong, credible body of evidence, based on multiple lines of research, documenting that climate is changing and that these changes are in large part caused by human activities. While much remains to be learned, the core phenomenon, scientific questions, and hypotheses have been examined thoroughly and have stood firm in the face of serious scientific debate and careful evaluation of alternative explanations. ***(p21-22) Some scientific conclusions or theories have been so thoroughly examined and tested, and supported by so many independent observations and results, that their likelihood of subsequently being found to be wrong is vanishingly small. Such conclusions and theories are then regarded as settled facts. This is the case for the conclusions that the Earth system is warming and that much of this warming is very likely due to human activities.}}</ref> ** {{Objection}} This is an{{W|argument from authority}}. *** {{Objection}} Yes, it's an argument from authority, but that doesn't change the fact that ~97% of experts agree. The argument should remain "sustained" and each reader will judge its weight. *** {{Objection}} Fallacious arguments from authority rely on someone propounding outside his field of expertise whereas climate scientists are by definition experts on climate. **** {{Objection}} That is only one kind of argument from authority. Experts have been wrong many many times in the past. Experts must prove their contentions like everybody else. ***** {{Objection}} The fact that others have been wrong about other things is a fallacious line of reasoning itself. ***** {{Objection}} Climate scientists experts do prove their assertions with their work. That's how the scientific community reaches a consensus in the first place. ****** {{Objection}} Only mathematicians "prove" their assertions. If empirical scientists proved their assertions, they wouldn't have been wrong before. Empirical scientists can only provide strong arguments for their conclusions, but they can always be wrong, as so many of them have been before. Thus citing their authority is not enough. Their actual arguments must be provided. ****** {{Objection}} Then post their actual arguments and evidence, rather than defending an argument that doesn't include them. ******* {{Objection}} They are cited above. ******** {{Objection}} That's lazy, better is to bring them to the wiki so we can debate them (and trim this branch of the debate). ** {{Objection}} 99.9% of bishops agree there is a God. This does not necessarily make it true—especially when funding requires following a creed. The global temperature has been increasing and variable for many thousand of years. The argument should be about whether change has become more rapid and how much of that is attributable to humans. *** {{Objection}} Widespread agreement certainly doesn't make anything ''wrong'' either. Scientists use a method which is verifiable so you can check their science yourself or create new experiments with new explanatory methods. Just nay-saying science as a field is hardly an argument. If someone could ''disprove'' human responsibility for global warming, that person would get a virtually limitless amount of funding: conservative science which just proves what we already know is not attractive to grantors. The consensus precisely ''is'' that human activity plays a non-negligible role in climate change. **** {{Objection}} The point is the number of believers or disbelievers is moot. Ether had a strong belief amongst scientists who were experts. The other point is to show the argument is much more nuanced. Given that other massive rises in global temperature have not eliminated life it is difficult to read hysterical statements and believe them. The argument needs to be more nuanced as the bold fear mongering that accepts no critique (critique is a staple of scientific discourse) only helps people state this is a hoax. ***** {{Objection}} This is not even an argument: saying that it can't be true because it's not nuanced enough? What is your point? === Arguments against === * {{Argument against}} The science shows that climate change is happening but not that it's influenced by human activity.{{Citation needed}} ** {{Objection}} That is actually the opposite of what the science says: virtually all climate scientists agree that human activity is accelerating any natural process of global warming.<ref name="ipcc" /><ref name="ipcc2" /> *** {{Objection}} That is not entirely accurate. The science is often using abductive reasoning and is also using "post hoc, ergo propter hoc" arguments by looking at correlations and extrapolating. Much is overstated and used to back up one political narrative whereas looking at actual data suggests a more complex argument is needed. For instance roughly 60% of the greenhouse effect is caused by natural water vapor (i.e. clouds) not CO2. CO2 has lots of origins, for instance every animal on Earth exhales CO2. Methane is often also discussed. It is true Methane, pound for pound, is 25× more potent than CO2 as a greenhouse gas however the concentration is 1/200th that of CO2 in the atmosphere so its contribution is effectively negligible—especially as it also comes from natural sources such as the wetlands we keep preserving so not all of it can be prevented. The yearly human addition to CO2 that occurs naturally is less than 4%.{{Cn}} It is true that only part of this addition gets absorbed again and hence the effect is incremental but we also need to acknowledge natural processes have a habit of correcting themselves such as high CO2 encourages more growth of carbon sinks. As Earth's custodians, and residents, we should curtail pollution and limit our contribution to global warming, if that is possible, but we should also reflect it is a long term natural and nuanced process if we are to be believed, because a hint of dishonesty sinks the argument. Hysterical statements that we are all doomed simply add to eye rolling from disbelievers as history has shown significant temperature changes without extinguishing life. Rhetoric has overtaken accuracy. **** {{Objection}} "Looking at correlations and extrapolating" is a key element of science and it's not abduction but induction: one of the {{W|History of scientific method|pillars of the scientific method}}.<ref name="scimeth">{{Cite web|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-method/|title=Scientific Method|date=2015-11-13|last1=Andersen|first1=Hannah|last2=Hepburn|first2=Brian|work=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|quote=Among the activities often identified as characteristic of science are systematic observation and experimentation, inductive and deductive reasoning, and the formation and testing of hypotheses and theories.}}</ref> If humans have such a small impact on global warming, then why would we curb our pollution? The argument that overstatements may embolden the opposition is also irrelevant if no one is overstating them: ''which'' statements are inaccurate? * {{Argument against}} The most extensive melting of polar ice caps occurred in 2005. The second most extensive melting of polar ice caps occurred in 2016.{{Citation needed}} The sunspot cycle, the major one, has a period of 11.2 years. This suggests that humans are a secondary cause, not the primary one. ** {{Objection}} It's true that the sunspots have an 11.2 year cycle, and that it affects Earth climate. However, data shows that since ~1960 solar irradiance has steadily declined irrespective of sunspot cycles, while Earth temperature has increased.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/ask-nasa-climate/2910/what-is-the-suns-role-in-climate-change/|title=What Is the Sun's Role in Climate Change?|last=Change|first=NASA Global Climate|website=Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet|access-date=2022-08-14}}</ref> ** {{Objection}} The melting of polar ice caps is not the only indicator of global warming. == See also == * [[Should we use nuclear energy?]] == Notes and references == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Earth sciences]] djit703ka5074dd8b84zz0gasxrmhaa 0 215890 2415624 2394960 2022-08-16T19:21:19Z Sophivorus 85690 Fix and improve some references wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikidebate}} {{History}} The [[Wikipedia:September 11 attacks|September 11, 2001 attacks]] in New York City and Washington D.C. forever changed the landscape of American culture and geopolitics around the globe. Is the official explanation of who conducted the attacks accurate and reliable? Or is it possible that some government agents had inside information or even planned the attack itself? == 9/11 was an inside job == === Arguments for === * {{Argument for}} There is evidence of insider trading shortly prior to the attacks,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poteshman|first=Allen M.|date=2006|title=Unusual Option Market Activity and the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/503645|journal=The Journal of Business|volume=79|issue=4|pages=1703–1726|doi=10.1086/503645|issn=0021-9398}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2021-03-31|title=9/11 conspiracy theories|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=9/11_conspiracy_theories&oldid=1015278683|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> which suggests that many people anticipated the attack. It's hard to imagine that such information would reach the ears of traders yet remain unknown to surveillance networks such as ECHELON. Even aside from that, a large uptick in put options for a handful of colocated organizations and their insurers is probably not a good sign, and a rather obvious feature to look for if one wanted to predict such attacks. The 500+ page 9/11 commission report only seems to mention possible insider trading in a one-paragraph endnote to chapter five, and they seem to write the abnormal trading off as a coincidence (which is crazy) and state that the (unnamed) traders had no connection with the attacks. A significant portion of these trades were made through Alex Brown inc. whose former president A. B. Krongard was appointed executive director of the CIA on March 16, 2001.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/mystery-terror-insider-dealers-9237061.html|title=Mystery of terror 'insider dealers'|date=2014-04-04|website=The Independent|language=en|access-date=2021-05-31}}</ref> This was not mentioned in the 9/11 commission report. Krongard also had ties with Israel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1996-10-02-1996276060-story.html|title=Alex. Brown chief bullish on Israel despite violence|last=Atkinson|first=Bill|website=baltimoresun.com|language=en-US|access-date=2021-05-31}}</ref> Perhaps an incidental connection but it seems like a very relevant detail, and apparently he is of Jewish descent. Unfortunately, critical perspectives on Zionism and Israel are frequently quashed with accusations of antisemitism, despite conflicts of interest that might exist between Zionists and citizens of the United States. Even now at the time of writing this in 2021 it's a topical subject, with Mark Ruffalo withdrawing his criticism of the Israel-Hamas conflict.<ref>Note from editor: I'm not necessarily opposed to Zionism per se, but it's disturbing to see legitimate criticism being conflated with antisemitism.</ref> Many of these same points have been incorporated into high-profile antisemitic propaganda. It is difficult to tease them apart from the antisemitic connotations that have been attached to them, but one must make this distinction or risk perceived association with antisemitic "movements". This is a truly unfortunate state of affairs, and has an incredibly powerful chilling effect. Legitimate information and criticism is often laced with disinformation and repackaged/published as a fringe conspiracy theory, and one has to wonder ''who benefits'' most from this phenomenon. It's not the average Jewish American and certainly not the average gentile American, but the people who have an interest in obscuring such information. Further evidence of a Zionist motive for involvement in the middle east comes from the comments of Philip Zelikow, the executive director of the 9/11 commission.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ipsnews.net/2004/03/iraq-war-launched-to-protect-israel-bush-adviser/|title=IRAQ: War Launched to Protect Israel - Bush Adviser|date=2004-03-29|website=Inter Press Service|access-date=2021-05-31}}</ref> Some allege that he is a dual citizen of the U.S. and Israel, but I was unable to verify that information. There is also strong evidence that Saddam Hussein intended to oppose the petrodollar system, rejecting payment in USD less than a year before 9/11/2001,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,998512,00.html|title=Foreign Exchange: Saddam Turns His Back on Greenbacks|last=Dowell|first=William|date=2000-11-13|work=Time|access-date=2021-05-31|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X}}</ref> which would have undermined the power and authority of the The Federal Reserve, an independent central bank that was chartered shortly before the great depression and has controlled the supply of USD ever since. They do not issue USD to the treasury, but buy and sell bonds on the open market, and this is essentially why we are so deeply in debt from our involvement in the middle east. A significant fraction of our debt is owned by foreigners<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_countries_by_external_debt&oldid=1025978460|title=List of countries by external debt}}</ref> and The Fed, to whom the U.S. government must also pay interest. In other words, the people of the United States had very little to gain from the war, and so if we ask "Cui Bono?", the answer is mostly Israel and foreign money lenders. It was an "inside job" in the sense that our government has been subverted and used against the interests of the American people, causing untold suffering to millions and destroying our economy and international reputation, while the profiteers have gotten away scot-free and now live lives of incredible luxury. Continued below... * {{Argument for}} ''But wait, there's more!'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Silverstein#World_Trade_Center Larry Silverstein] bought the WTC in January 2001 and insured it, and spent a lot of time at the buildings in the subsequent months. Summarizing the relevant parts of that Wiki page: "Silverstein has said in interviews that he usually spent his mornings in breakfast meetings at Windows on the World on top of the World Trade Center North Tower, and with new tenants in the building. However, the morning of September 11, 2001, his wife insisted that he attend a medical appointment. Due to the appointment, he escaped almost certain death". Apparently not satisfied with the payout he was offered, "Following the September 11, 2001, attacks, Silverstein sought to collect double the face amount (~$7.1 billion) on the basis that the two separate airplane strikes into two separate buildings constituted two occurrences within the meaning of the policies". He sued the insurance companies and eventually won over four billion dollars. Silverstein is well-connected in Israel. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Wolfowitz Paul Wolfowitz] was 28th United States Deputy Secretary of Defense, appointed in March 2001, is often called the "architect of the Iraq war" and has been a longtime supporter of Israel.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1931885.stm|title=Thousands in US rally for Israel|date=2002-04-15|access-date=2022-08-16|language=en-GB}}</ref> * {{Argument for}} Besides the twin towers, one more building in the World Trade Center complex collapsed, namely the 7 World Trade Center. This building was not hit by any plane, nor did it receive much more debris damage than any of the other buildings surrounding the twin towers. It did catch on fire and burn for some hours, but not nearly enough to make the building collapse as completely and as fast as it did, at nearly free-fall speed for the first few seconds of its collapse.<ref>{{Citation|last=WTC911demolition|title=WTC Building 7 Collapse - 23 angles|date=2011-10-02|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JnLcUxV1dPo&t=2m41s|accessdate=2019-06-16}}</ref> Prior to 9/11 no steel-framed high rise building had ever collapsed because of fire. But if the fire didn't cause the collapse, then the only remaining explanation is a controlled demolition, which would implicate high-level government officials. As extra support, some suspicious "drills" were reported that day on the building.{{Citation needed}} ** {{Objection}} The fires did not knock out all of the supports at once. They weakened the supports around column 79, causing floors 8 to 14 to collapse in the inside of the building. This then led to column 79 failing, causing the east penthouse to collapse, damaging surrounding columns. This set off a chain reaction of columns failing from the east side to the west side. This meant that the full weight of the building was loaded onto the perimeter support, which buckled between floors 7 and 17 eight seconds after the east penthouse collapsed, causing the remaining exterior of the building to collapse as a single unit.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nist.gov/engineering-laboratory/final-reports-nist-world-trade-center-disaster-investigation|title=Final Reports from the NIST World Trade Center Disaster Investigation|last=Thompson|first=Kristy D.|date=2011-06-30|website=NIST|language=en|access-date=2019-06-16}}</ref> So the collapse was not instant and can be explained by fires. You then say that this is unheard of and I cannot provide an example of a similar collapse. That's absolutely correct. It was completely unheard of for a high rise to have its lower floors on fire for many hours without firefighters stopping the fire. But it happened on 9/11. ** {{Objection}} There was no evidence of the explosives required for a controlled demolition. *** {{Objection}} Seriously?<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2013/12/09/how-to-debunk-wtc-thermite|title=How to Debunk WTC Thermite}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs10669-008-9182-4.pdf|title=Environmental anomalies at the World Trade Center - evidence for energetic materials}}</ref> * {{Argument for}} Husley, L. 2019. [http://ine.uaf.edu/wtc7 A Structural Reevaluation of the Collapse of World Trade Center 7]. Institute of Northern Engineering: ''"...The principal conclusion of our study is that fire did not cause the collapse of WTC 7 on 9/11, contrary to the conclusions of NIST and private engineering firms that studied the collapse. The secondary conclusion of our study is that the collapse of WTC 7 was a global failure involving the near-simultaneous failure of every column in the building...."'' ** {{Objection}} No tests were conducted for the presence of explosives residue and operational protocol (not to mention basic common sense) stipulates that these tests should have occurred. Without either being inside the building or having video footage of the interior of the building at the time, there is no reliable way for you to reach the conclusions you have reached, making the specificity of your claims outright preposterous. You are certainly correct that there was a chain reaction; however, this chain reaction could have been caused by the building's resistance to gravity being compromised by explosives. * {{Argument for}} The September 11 attacks were a thinly-veiled excuse to invade Iraq in order to establish American dominance, get oil, and to vindicate the first Bush Presidency's defense of Kuwait in the 1990s during the first Persian Gulf War. ** {{Objection}} Although the United States may have used this terrorist attack as a pretense for empire-building, that doesn't mean they caused it or allowed it to happen with prior knowledge. It's possible and even plausible that once the attack occurred they simply saw an opportunity and took it. It's also reasonable that different actors in the federal government had some complex motivations including retribution for the attacks as well as expansionism. ** {{Objection}} The USA imports little oil from the Middle East, with around 50% coming from North America and less than 15% from the Persian Gulf. It's not cheap oil if it requires shipping across the 12,000 miles between the two locations, and so Oil is not a good explanation for the attack to have been planned. * {{Argument for}} Osama Bin Laden had been an ally of the CIA before, if anyone remembers the Afghan-Soviet war, so it would be plausible that he had a connection with the US government in order to mount the attack via his terrorist cell and give the government an excuse for invasion in the middle east, an invasion which did produce many exclusive oil contracts afterwards, including those of Halliburton, an enterprise related to Dick Cheney and the Bush administration. Besides, it took quite a while for the US to find and kill Osama, not until the Obama administration. === Arguments against === * {{Argument against}} Any possible motive for the government to do this would not need to be executed in this way. ** {{Objection}} Citizens experiencing fear/anger are easier to manipulate, and this is being used as a tool to herd the populace into further wars. * {{Argument against}} The events of 9/11 can be explained far more simply as terrorist attacks than a complex conspiracy with unclear motivation. * {{Argument against}} There is no evidence of members of the conspiracy, even though this would require the perfect silence of a large amount of individuals at different levels of government, when the government has a difficult time keeping far less scandalous secrets hidden. Such theories strain credulity and there is simply no reason to accept them other than the desire to believe them. ** {{Objection}} They also have less reason to keep "far less scandalous" secrets hidden. Why would they resort to strong-arm tactics and censorship to cover up minor scandals? That makes no sense. ** {{Objection}} You haven't provided an argument here so much as an abuse of language. What the US government claimed happened was a complex conspiracy involving an international terrorist organisation. The US government has so far been unable to prove this is what happened, making it a theory. Somehow, many people in America (and worldwide) seem to have been convinced that critically questioning the US government's theory about an al Qaeda conspiracy makes one a conspiracy theorist. The very logic of language itself reveals the lunacy in slandering those who dispute the US government's 9/11 narrative with egregious smear attacks like, "conspiracy theorist" or "twofer". These are just simple lawyer's tricks, purpose-built to attack the credibility of the opposition. * {{Argument against}} Soon after the event, Al-Qaeda claimed responsibility for the attack. ** {{Objection}} Al-Qaeda are probably not above claiming responsibility for something they didn't actually do if it furthers their organisation's goals. If 9/11 were an inside job, Al-Qaeda would probably claim responsibility anyway either unprompted or at the suggestion of whatever secretive cabal really did it. ** {{Objection}} This is simply false. Whoever perpetrated the attack tried to fabricate evidence implicating the leader of al Qaeda in the form of a video tape. This video tape has been declared fraudulent by numerous scholars, including Professor Bruce Lawrence who, according to the Daily Mirror (UK), is the world's "foremost authority on (Osama) bin Laden". The actual Osama bin Laden gave two public interviews after 9/11 occurred in which his identity was confirmed. He categorically denied all involvement in both. The solitary link the US government has between al Qaeda and the 9/11 attacks is the written confession of a man claiming to be Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, who provided his confession after being waterboarded a reported 183 times at Guantanamo Bay. Moreover, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed was reported by the Asian Press to have died during an ISI raid in Karachi in 2002. There is literally no proof the man being held in US custody is even Khalid Sheikh Mohammed in the first place. *** {{Objection}} Professor Bruce Lawrence, the gentleman who you claimed to have made a comment about the allegedly "fraudulent" video from al-Qaeda, is a Humanities Professor of Religion at Duke University and publishes books about the Islamic faith. The only public comment he has ever made even slightly related to the 9/11 attacks is that he believes that Islam has no connection with terrorism. Besides, The Daily Mirror is a British tabloid that has published stories that were later revealed to be a hoax. * {{Argument against}} It would be impossible to keep a conspiracy this large secret. Someone would have leaked reliable and verifiable information at some point and every journalist in the world would be keen to break the biggest story in the 21st century. ** {{Objection}} The conspiracy that official story says committed the 9/11 attacks was a single Al-Qaeda cell, why should the conspiracy that really did it necessarily be much bigger to the point that discovery is inevitable? ** {{Objection}} They sign NDAs and it's probably difficult to "leak" information anonymously due to the advanced SIGINT capabilities of various governmental agencies e.g. the NSA. Even if you could, there's no guarantee that any given journalist isn't actually an informant. Snowden probably lives in constant fear of extradition and cannot return to his home country on pain of lifelong imprisonment. Russia could turn him over on a whim if he gets on their bad side too. It's hardly a way to live. His situation gives us information about the mindset, culture, and motivations of the people involved in such organizations. They can do no such thing as "leak information", or rather, they cannot be relied upon to do so. == See also == * [[Is capitalism sustainable?]] * [[Did the United States need to use atomic weapons to win World War II?]] == Notes and references == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Terrorism]] j2vrujd0an7tcxgov6mk6nk1w1xges5 2415625 2415624 2022-08-16T19:22:04Z Sophivorus 85690 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikidebate}} {{History}} The [[Wikipedia:September 11 attacks|September 11, 2001 attacks]] in New York City and Washington D.C. forever changed the landscape of American culture and geopolitics around the globe. Is the official explanation of who conducted the attacks accurate and reliable? Or is it possible that some government agents had inside information or even planned the attack itself? == 9/11 was an inside job == === Arguments for === * {{Argument for}} There is evidence of insider trading shortly prior to the attacks,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poteshman|first=Allen M.|date=2006|title=Unusual Option Market Activity and the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/503645|journal=The Journal of Business|volume=79|issue=4|pages=1703–1726|doi=10.1086/503645|issn=0021-9398}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2021-03-31|title=9/11 conspiracy theories|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=9/11_conspiracy_theories&oldid=1015278683|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> which suggests that many people anticipated the attack. It's hard to imagine that such information would reach the ears of traders yet remain unknown to surveillance networks such as ECHELON. Even aside from that, a large uptick in put options for a handful of colocated organizations and their insurers is probably not a good sign, and a rather obvious feature to look for if one wanted to predict such attacks. The 500+ page 9/11 commission report only seems to mention possible insider trading in a one-paragraph endnote to chapter five, and they seem to write the abnormal trading off as a coincidence (which is crazy) and state that the (unnamed) traders had no connection with the attacks. A significant portion of these trades were made through Alex Brown inc. whose former president A. B. Krongard was appointed executive director of the CIA on March 16, 2001.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/mystery-terror-insider-dealers-9237061.html|title=Mystery of terror 'insider dealers'|date=2014-04-04|website=The Independent|language=en|access-date=2021-05-31}}</ref> This was not mentioned in the 9/11 commission report. Krongard also had ties with Israel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1996-10-02-1996276060-story.html|title=Alex. Brown chief bullish on Israel despite violence|last=Atkinson|first=Bill|website=baltimoresun.com|language=en-US|access-date=2021-05-31}}</ref> Perhaps an incidental connection but it seems like a very relevant detail, and apparently he is of Jewish descent. Unfortunately, critical perspectives on Zionism and Israel are frequently quashed with accusations of antisemitism, despite conflicts of interest that might exist between Zionists and citizens of the United States. Even now at the time of writing this in 2021 it's a topical subject, with Mark Ruffalo withdrawing his criticism of the Israel-Hamas conflict.<ref>Note from editor: I'm not necessarily opposed to Zionism per se, but it's disturbing to see legitimate criticism being conflated with antisemitism.</ref> Many of these same points have been incorporated into high-profile antisemitic propaganda. It is difficult to tease them apart from the antisemitic connotations that have been attached to them, but one must make this distinction or risk perceived association with antisemitic "movements". This is a truly unfortunate state of affairs, and has an incredibly powerful chilling effect. Legitimate information and criticism is often laced with disinformation and repackaged/published as a fringe conspiracy theory, and one has to wonder ''who benefits'' most from this phenomenon. It's not the average Jewish American and certainly not the average gentile American, but the people who have an interest in obscuring such information. Further evidence of a Zionist motive for involvement in the middle east comes from the comments of Philip Zelikow, the executive director of the 9/11 commission.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ipsnews.net/2004/03/iraq-war-launched-to-protect-israel-bush-adviser/|title=IRAQ: War Launched to Protect Israel - Bush Adviser|date=2004-03-29|website=Inter Press Service|access-date=2021-05-31}}</ref> Some allege that he is a dual citizen of the U.S. and Israel, but I was unable to verify that information. There is also strong evidence that Saddam Hussein intended to oppose the petrodollar system, rejecting payment in USD less than a year before 9/11/2001,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,998512,00.html|title=Foreign Exchange: Saddam Turns His Back on Greenbacks|last=Dowell|first=William|date=2000-11-13|work=Time|access-date=2021-05-31|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X}}</ref> which would have undermined the power and authority of the The Federal Reserve, an independent central bank that was chartered shortly before the great depression and has controlled the supply of USD ever since. They do not issue USD to the treasury, but buy and sell bonds on the open market, and this is essentially why we are so deeply in debt from our involvement in the middle east. A significant fraction of our debt is owned by foreigners<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_countries_by_external_debt&oldid=1025978460|title=List of countries by external debt}}</ref> and The Fed, to whom the U.S. government must also pay interest. In other words, the people of the United States had very little to gain from the war, and so if we ask "Cui Bono?", the answer is mostly Israel and foreign money lenders. It was an "inside job" in the sense that our government has been subverted and used against the interests of the American people, causing untold suffering to millions and destroying our economy and international reputation, while the profiteers have gotten away scot-free and now live lives of incredible luxury. Continued below... * {{Argument for}} ''But wait, there's more!'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Silverstein#World_Trade_Center Larry Silverstein] bought the WTC in January 2001 and insured it, and spent a lot of time at the buildings in the subsequent months. Summarizing the relevant parts of that Wiki page: "Silverstein has said in interviews that he usually spent his mornings in breakfast meetings at Windows on the World on top of the World Trade Center North Tower, and with new tenants in the building. However, the morning of September 11, 2001, his wife insisted that he attend a medical appointment. Due to the appointment, he escaped almost certain death". Apparently not satisfied with the payout he was offered, "Following the September 11, 2001, attacks, Silverstein sought to collect double the face amount (~$7.1 billion) on the basis that the two separate airplane strikes into two separate buildings constituted two occurrences within the meaning of the policies". He sued the insurance companies and eventually won over four billion dollars. Silverstein is well-connected in Israel. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Wolfowitz Paul Wolfowitz] was 28th United States Deputy Secretary of Defense, appointed in March 2001, is often called the "architect of the Iraq war" and has been a longtime supporter of Israel.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1931885.stm|title=Thousands in US rally for Israel|date=2002-04-15|access-date=2022-08-16|language=en-GB}}</ref> * {{Argument for}} Besides the twin towers, one more building in the World Trade Center complex collapsed, namely the 7 World Trade Center. This building was not hit by any plane, nor did it receive much more debris damage than any of the other buildings surrounding the twin towers. It did catch on fire and burn for some hours, but not nearly enough to make the building collapse as completely and as fast as it did, at nearly free-fall speed for the first few seconds of its collapse.<ref>{{Citation|last=WTC911demolition|title=WTC Building 7 Collapse - 23 angles|date=2011-10-02|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JnLcUxV1dPo&t=2m41s|accessdate=2019-06-16}}</ref> Prior to 9/11 no steel-framed high rise building had ever collapsed because of fire. But if the fire didn't cause the collapse, then the only remaining explanation is a controlled demolition, which would implicate high-level government officials. As extra support, some suspicious "drills" were reported that day on the building.{{Citation needed}} ** {{Objection}} The fires did not knock out all of the supports at once. They weakened the supports around column 79, causing floors 8 to 14 to collapse in the inside of the building. This then led to column 79 failing, causing the east penthouse to collapse, damaging surrounding columns. This set off a chain reaction of columns failing from the east side to the west side. This meant that the full weight of the building was loaded onto the perimeter support, which buckled between floors 7 and 17 eight seconds after the east penthouse collapsed, causing the remaining exterior of the building to collapse as a single unit.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nist.gov/engineering-laboratory/final-reports-nist-world-trade-center-disaster-investigation|title=Final Reports from the NIST World Trade Center Disaster Investigation|last=Thompson|first=Kristy D.|date=2011-06-30|website=NIST|language=en|access-date=2019-06-16}}</ref> So the collapse was not instant and can be explained by fires. You then say that this is unheard of and I cannot provide an example of a similar collapse. That's absolutely correct. It was completely unheard of for a high rise to have its lower floors on fire for many hours without firefighters stopping the fire. But it happened on 9/11. ** {{Objection}} There was no evidence of the explosives required for a controlled demolition. *** {{Objection}} Seriously?<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2013/12/09/how-to-debunk-wtc-thermite|title=How to Debunk WTC Thermite}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs10669-008-9182-4.pdf|title=Environmental anomalies at the World Trade Center - evidence for energetic materials}}</ref> * {{Argument for}} Husley, L. 2019. [http://ine.uaf.edu/wtc7 A Structural Reevaluation of the Collapse of World Trade Center 7]. Institute of Northern Engineering: ''"...The principal conclusion of our study is that fire did not cause the collapse of WTC 7 on 9/11, contrary to the conclusions of NIST and private engineering firms that studied the collapse. The secondary conclusion of our study is that the collapse of WTC 7 was a global failure involving the near-simultaneous failure of every column in the building...."'' ** {{Objection}} No tests were conducted for the presence of explosives residue and operational protocol (not to mention basic common sense) stipulates that these tests should have occurred. Without either being inside the building or having video footage of the interior of the building at the time, there is no reliable way for you to reach the conclusions you have reached, making the specificity of your claims outright preposterous. You are certainly correct that there was a chain reaction; however, this chain reaction could have been caused by the building's resistance to gravity being compromised by explosives. * {{Argument for}} The September 11 attacks were a thinly-veiled excuse to invade Iraq in order to establish American dominance, get oil, and to vindicate the first Bush Presidency's defense of Kuwait in the 1990s during the first Persian Gulf War. ** {{Objection}} Although the United States may have used this terrorist attack as a pretense for empire-building, that doesn't mean they caused it or allowed it to happen with prior knowledge. It's possible and even plausible that once the attack occurred they simply saw an opportunity and took it. It's also reasonable that different actors in the federal government had some complex motivations including retribution for the attacks as well as expansionism. ** {{Objection}} The USA imports little oil from the Middle East, with around 50% coming from North America and less than 15% from the Persian Gulf. It's not cheap oil if it requires shipping across the 12,000 miles between the two locations, and so Oil is not a good explanation for the attack to have been planned. * {{Argument for}} Osama Bin Laden had been an ally of the CIA before, if anyone remembers the Afghan-Soviet war, so it would be plausible that he had a connection with the US government in order to mount the attack via his terrorist cell and give the government an excuse for invasion in the middle east, an invasion which did produce many exclusive oil contracts afterwards, including those of Halliburton, an enterprise related to Dick Cheney and the Bush administration. Besides, it took quite a while for the US to find and kill Osama, not until the Obama administration. === Arguments against === * {{Argument against}} Any possible motive for the government to do this would not need to be executed in this way. ** {{Objection}} Citizens experiencing fear/anger are easier to manipulate, and this is being used as a tool to herd the populace into further wars. * {{Argument against}} The events of 9/11 can be explained far more simply as terrorist attacks than a complex conspiracy with unclear motivation. * {{Argument against}} There is no evidence of members of the conspiracy, even though this would require the perfect silence of a large amount of individuals at different levels of government, when the government has a difficult time keeping far less scandalous secrets hidden. Such theories strain credulity and there is simply no reason to accept them other than the desire to believe them. ** {{Objection}} They also have less reason to keep "far less scandalous" secrets hidden. Why would they resort to strong-arm tactics and censorship to cover up minor scandals? That makes no sense. ** {{Objection}} You haven't provided an argument here so much as an abuse of language. What the US government claimed happened was a complex conspiracy involving an international terrorist organisation. The US government has so far been unable to prove this is what happened, making it a theory. Somehow, many people in America (and worldwide) seem to have been convinced that critically questioning the US government's theory about an al Qaeda conspiracy makes one a conspiracy theorist. The very logic of language itself reveals the lunacy in slandering those who dispute the US government's 9/11 narrative with egregious smear attacks like, "conspiracy theorist" or "twofer". These are just simple lawyer's tricks, purpose-built to attack the credibility of the opposition. * {{Argument against}} Soon after the event, Al-Qaeda claimed responsibility for the attack. ** {{Objection}} Al-Qaeda are probably not above claiming responsibility for something they didn't actually do if it furthers their organisation's goals. If 9/11 were an inside job, Al-Qaeda would probably claim responsibility anyway either unprompted or at the suggestion of whatever secretive cabal really did it. ** {{Objection}} This is simply false. Whoever perpetrated the attack tried to fabricate evidence implicating the leader of al Qaeda in the form of a video tape. This video tape has been declared fraudulent by numerous scholars, including Professor Bruce Lawrence who, according to the Daily Mirror (UK), is the world's "foremost authority on (Osama) bin Laden". The actual Osama bin Laden gave two public interviews after 9/11 occurred in which his identity was confirmed. He categorically denied all involvement in both. The solitary link the US government has between al Qaeda and the 9/11 attacks is the written confession of a man claiming to be Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, who provided his confession after being waterboarded a reported 183 times at Guantanamo Bay. Moreover, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed was reported by the Asian Press to have died during an ISI raid in Karachi in 2002. There is literally no proof the man being held in US custody is even Khalid Sheikh Mohammed in the first place. *** {{Objection}} Professor Bruce Lawrence, the gentleman who you claimed to have made a comment about the allegedly "fraudulent" video from al-Qaeda, is a Humanities Professor of Religion at Duke University and publishes books about the Islamic faith. The only public comment he has ever made even slightly related to the 9/11 attacks is that he believes that Islam has no connection with terrorism. Besides, The Daily Mirror is a British tabloid that has published stories that were later revealed to be a hoax. * {{Argument against}} It would be impossible to keep a conspiracy this large secret. Someone would have leaked reliable and verifiable information at some point and every journalist in the world would be keen to break the biggest story in the 21st century. ** {{Objection}} The conspiracy that official story says committed the 9/11 attacks was a single Al-Qaeda cell, why should the conspiracy that really did it necessarily be much bigger to the point that discovery is inevitable? ** {{Objection}} They sign NDAs and it's probably difficult to "leak" information anonymously due to the advanced SIGINT capabilities of various governmental agencies e.g. the NSA. Even if you could, there's no guarantee that any given journalist isn't actually an informant. Snowden probably lives in constant fear of extradition and cannot return to his home country on pain of lifelong imprisonment. Russia could turn him over on a whim if he gets on their bad side too. It's hardly a way to live. His situation gives us information about the mindset, culture, and motivations of the people involved in such organizations. They can do no such thing as "leak information", or rather, they cannot be relied upon to do so. == See also == * [[Is capitalism sustainable?]] * [[Did the United States need to use atomic weapons to win World War II?]] == Notes and references == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Terrorism]] 6z5v6ksoeuxdp2fig2t1ntd4l9sgm2h 2415666 2415625 2022-08-17T00:58:46Z 73.170.249.45 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikidebate}} {{History}} The [[Wikipedia:September 11 attacks|September 11, 2001 attacks]] in New York City and Washington D.C. forever changed the landscape of American culture and geopolitics around the globe. Is the official explanation of who conducted the attacks accurate and reliable? Or is it possible that some government agents had inside information or even planned the attack itself? == 9/11 was an inside job == === Arguments for === * {{Argument for}} There is evidence of insider trading shortly prior to the attacks,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Poteshman|first=Allen M.|date=2006|title=Unusual Option Market Activity and the Terrorist Attacks of September 11, 2001|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/503645|journal=The Journal of Business|volume=79|issue=4|pages=1703–1726|doi=10.1086/503645|issn=0021-9398}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2021-03-31|title=9/11 conspiracy theories|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=9/11_conspiracy_theories&oldid=1015278683|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> which suggests that many people anticipated the attack. It's hard to imagine that such information would reach the ears of traders yet remain unknown to surveillance networks such as ECHELON. Even aside from that, a large uptick in put options for a handful of colocated organizations and their insurers is probably not a good sign, and a rather obvious feature to look for if one wanted to predict such attacks. The 500+ page 9/11 commission report only seems to mention possible insider trading in a one-paragraph endnote to chapter five, and they seem to write the abnormal trading off as a coincidence (which is crazy) and state that the (unnamed) traders had no connection with the attacks. A significant portion of these trades were made through Alex Brown inc. whose former president A. B. Krongard was appointed executive director of the CIA on March 16, 2001.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/mystery-terror-insider-dealers-9237061.html|title=Mystery of terror 'insider dealers'|date=2014-04-04|website=The Independent|language=en|access-date=2021-05-31}}</ref> This was not mentioned in the 9/11 commission report. Krongard also had ties with Israel.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/news/bs-xpm-1996-10-02-1996276060-story.html|title=Alex. Brown chief bullish on Israel despite violence|last=Atkinson|first=Bill|website=baltimoresun.com|language=en-US|access-date=2021-05-31}}</ref> Perhaps an incidental connection but it seems like a very relevant detail, and apparently he is of Jewish descent. Unfortunately, critical perspectives on Zionism and Israel are frequently quashed with accusations of antisemitism, despite conflicts of interest that might exist between Zionists and citizens of the United States. Even now at the time of writing this in 2021 it's a topical subject, with Mark Ruffalo withdrawing his criticism of the Israel-Hamas conflict.<ref>Note from editor: I'm not necessarily opposed to Zionism per se, but it's disturbing to see legitimate criticism being conflated with antisemitism.</ref> Many of these same points have been incorporated into high-profile antisemitic propaganda. It is difficult to tease them apart from the antisemitic connotations that have been attached to them, but one must make this distinction or risk perceived association with antisemitic "movements". This is a truly unfortunate state of affairs, and has an incredibly powerful chilling effect. Legitimate information and criticism is often laced with disinformation and repackaged/published as a fringe conspiracy theory, and one has to wonder ''who benefits'' most from this phenomenon. It's not the average Jewish American and certainly not the average gentile American, but the people who have an interest in obscuring such information. Further evidence of a Zionist motive for involvement in the middle east comes from the comments of Philip Zelikow, the executive director of the 9/11 commission.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ipsnews.net/2004/03/iraq-war-launched-to-protect-israel-bush-adviser/|title=IRAQ: War Launched to Protect Israel - Bush Adviser|date=2004-03-29|website=Inter Press Service|access-date=2021-05-31}}</ref> Some allege that he is a dual citizen of the U.S. and Israel, but I was unable to verify that information. There is also strong evidence that Saddam Hussein intended to oppose the petrodollar system, rejecting payment in USD less than a year before 9/11/2001,<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,998512,00.html|title=Foreign Exchange: Saddam Turns His Back on Greenbacks|last=Dowell|first=William|date=2000-11-13|work=Time|access-date=2021-05-31|language=en-US|issn=0040-781X}}</ref> which would have undermined the power and authority of the The Federal Reserve, an independent central bank that was chartered shortly before the great depression and has controlled the supply of USD ever since. They do not issue USD to the treasury, but buy and sell bonds on the open market, and this is essentially why we are so deeply in debt from our involvement in the middle east. A significant fraction of our debt is owned by foreigners<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_countries_by_external_debt&oldid=1025978460|title=List of countries by external debt}}</ref> and The Fed, to whom the U.S. government must also pay interest. In other words, the people of the United States had very little to gain from the war, and so if we ask "Cui Bono?", the answer is mostly Israel and foreign money lenders. It was an "inside job" in the sense that our government has been subverted and used against the interests of the American people, causing untold suffering to millions and destroying our economy and international reputation, while the profiteers have gotten away scot-free and now live lives of incredible luxury. Continued below... * {{Argument for}} ''But wait, there's more!'' [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Silverstein#World_Trade_Center Larry Silverstein] bought the WTC in January 2001 and insured it, and spent a lot of time at the buildings in the subsequent months. Summarizing the relevant parts of that Wiki page: "Silverstein has said in interviews that he usually spent his mornings in breakfast meetings at Windows on the World on top of the World Trade Center North Tower, and with new tenants in the building. However, the morning of September 11, 2001, his wife insisted that he attend a medical appointment. Due to the appointment, he escaped almost certain death". Apparently not satisfied with the payout he was offered, "Following the September 11, 2001, attacks, Silverstein sought to collect double the face amount (~$7.1 billion) on the basis that the two separate airplane strikes into two separate buildings constituted two occurrences within the meaning of the policies". He sued the insurance companies and eventually won over four billion dollars. Silverstein is well-connected in Israel. [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Wolfowitz Paul Wolfowitz] was 28th United States Deputy Secretary of Defense, appointed in March 2001, is often called the "architect of the Iraq war" and has been a longtime supporter of Israel.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/1931885.stm|title=Thousands in US rally for Israel|date=2002-04-15|access-date=2022-08-16|language=en-GB}}</ref> * {{Argument for}} Besides the twin towers, one more building in the World Trade Center complex collapsed, namely the 7 World Trade Center. This building was not hit by any plane, nor did it receive much more debris damage than any of the other buildings surrounding the twin towers. It did catch on fire and burn for some hours, but not nearly enough to make the building collapse as completely and as fast as it did, at nearly free-fall speed for the first few seconds of its collapse.<ref>{{Citation|last=WTC911demolition|title=WTC Building 7 Collapse - 23 angles|date=2011-10-02|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JnLcUxV1dPo&t=2m41s|accessdate=2019-06-16}}</ref> Prior to 9/11 no steel-framed high rise building had ever collapsed because of fire. But if the fire didn't cause the collapse, then the only remaining explanation is a controlled demolition, which would implicate high-level government officials. As extra support, some suspicious "drills" were reported that day on the building.{{Citation needed}} ** {{Objection}} The fires did not knock out all of the supports at once. They weakened the supports around column 79, causing floors 8 to 14 to collapse in the inside of the building. This then led to column 79 failing, causing the east penthouse to collapse, damaging surrounding columns. This set off a chain reaction of columns failing from the east side to the west side. This meant that the full weight of the building was loaded onto the perimeter support, which buckled between floors 7 and 17 eight seconds after the east penthouse collapsed, causing the remaining exterior of the building to collapse as a single unit.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nist.gov/engineering-laboratory/final-reports-nist-world-trade-center-disaster-investigation|title=Final Reports from the NIST World Trade Center Disaster Investigation|last=Thompson|first=Kristy D.|date=2011-06-30|website=NIST|language=en|access-date=2019-06-16}}</ref> So the collapse was not instant and can be explained by fires. You then say that this is unheard of and I cannot provide an example of a similar collapse. That's absolutely correct. It was completely unheard of for a high rise to have its lower floors on fire for many hours without firefighters stopping the fire. But it happened on 9/11. ** {{Objection}} There was no evidence of the explosives required for a controlled demolition. *** {{Objection}} Seriously?<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2013/12/09/how-to-debunk-wtc-thermite|title=How to Debunk WTC Thermite}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs10669-008-9182-4.pdf|title=Environmental anomalies at the World Trade Center - evidence for energetic materials}}</ref> * {{Argument for}} Husley, L. 2019. [http://ine.uaf.edu/wtc7 A Structural Reevaluation of the Collapse of World Trade Center 7]. Institute of Northern Engineering: ''"...The principal conclusion of our study is that fire did not cause the collapse of WTC 7 on 9/11, contrary to the conclusions of NIST and private engineering firms that studied the collapse. The secondary conclusion of our study is that the collapse of WTC 7 was a global failure involving the near-simultaneous failure of every column in the building...."'' ** {{Objection}} No tests were conducted for the presence of explosives residue and operational protocol (not to mention basic common sense) stipulates that these tests should have occurred. Without either being inside the building or having video footage of the interior of the building at the time, there is no reliable way for you to reach the conclusions you have reached, making the specificity of your claims outright preposterous. You are certainly correct that there was a chain reaction; however, this chain reaction could have been caused by the building's resistance to gravity being compromised by explosives. * {{Argument for}} The September 11 attacks were a thinly-veiled excuse to invade Iraq in order to establish American dominance, get oil, and to vindicate the first Bush Presidency's defense of Kuwait in the 1990s during the first Persian Gulf War. ** {{Objection}} Although the United States may have used this terrorist attack as a pretense for empire-building, that doesn't mean they caused it or allowed it to happen with prior knowledge. It's possible and even plausible that once the attack occurred they simply saw an opportunity and took it. It's also reasonable that different actors in the federal government had some complex motivations including retribution for the attacks as well as expansionism. ** {{Objection}} The USA imports little oil from the Middle East, with around 50% coming from North America and less than 15% from the Persian Gulf. It's not cheap oil if it requires shipping across the 12,000 miles between the two locations, and so Oil is not a good explanation for the attack to have been planned. * {{Argument for}} Osama Bin Laden had been an ally of the CIA before, if anyone remembers the Afghan-Soviet war, so it would be plausible that he had a connection with the US government in order to mount the attack via his terrorist cell and give the government an excuse for invasion in the middle east, an invasion which did produce many exclusive oil contracts afterwards, including those of Halliburton, an enterprise related to Dick Cheney and the Bush administration. Besides, it took quite a while for the US to find and kill Osama, not until the Obama administration. === Arguments against === * {{Argument against}} Any possible motive for the government to do this would not need to be executed in this way. ** {{Objection}} Citizens experiencing fear/anger are easier to manipulate, and this is being used as a tool to herd the populace into further wars. * {{Argument against}} The events of 9/11 can be explained far more simply as terrorist attacks than a complex conspiracy with unclear motivation. * {{Argument against}} There is no evidence of members of the conspiracy, even though this would require the perfect silence of a large amount of individuals at different levels of government, when the government has a difficult time keeping far less scandalous secrets hidden. Such theories strain credulity and there is simply no reason to accept them other than the desire to believe them. ** {{Objection}} They also have less reason to keep "far less scandalous" secrets hidden. Why would they resort to strong-arm tactics and censorship to cover up minor scandals? That makes no sense. ** {{Objection}} You haven't provided an argument here so much as an abuse of language. What the US government claimed happened was a complex conspiracy involving an international terrorist organisation. The US government has so far been unable to prove this is what happened, making it a theory. Somehow, many people in America (and worldwide) seem to have been convinced that critically questioning the US government's theory about an al Qaeda conspiracy makes one a conspiracy theorist. The very logic of language itself reveals the lunacy in slandering those who dispute the US government's 9/11 narrative with egregious smear attacks like, "conspiracy theorist" or "twofer". These are just simple lawyer's tricks, purpose-built to attack the credibility of the opposition. * {{Argument against}} Soon after the event, Al-Qaeda claimed responsibility for the attack. ** {{Objection}} Al-Qaeda are probably not above claiming responsibility for something they didn't actually do if it furthers their organisation's goals. If 9/11 were an inside job, Al-Qaeda would probably claim responsibility anyway either unprompted or at the suggestion of whatever secretive cabal really did it. ** {{Objection}} This is simply false. Whoever perpetrated the attack tried to fabricate evidence implicating the leader of al Qaeda in the form of a video tape. This video tape has been declared fraudulent by numerous scholars, including Professor Bruce Lawrence who, according to the Daily Mirror (UK), is the world's "foremost authority on (Osama) bin Laden". The actual Osama bin Laden gave two public interviews after 9/11 occurred in which his identity was confirmed. He categorically denied all involvement in both. The solitary link the US government has between al Qaeda and the 9/11 attacks is the written confession of a man claiming to be Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, who provided his confession after being waterboarded a reported 183 times at Guantanamo Bay. Moreover, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed was reported by the Asian Press to have died during an ISI raid in Karachi in 2002. There is literally no proof the man being held in US custody is even Khalid Sheikh Mohammed in the first place. *** {{Objection}} Professor Bruce Lawrence, the gentleman who you claimed to have made a comment about the allegedly "fraudulent" video from al-Qaeda, is a Humanities Professor of Religion at Duke University and publishes books about the Islamic faith. The only public comment he has ever made even slightly related to the 9/11 attacks is that he believes that Islam has no connection with terrorism. Besides, The Daily Mirror is a British tabloid that has published stories that were later revealed to be a hoax. * {{Argument against}} It would be impossible to keep a conspiracy this large secret. Someone would have leaked reliable and verifiable information at some point and every journalist in the world would be keen to break the biggest story in the 21st century. ** {{Objection}} When there is leak of even the most minor sort, the groundwork has already been laid to discredit their mental well being. Short of Dick Cheney himself, there isn't any credibility in low level or anonymous leaks. ** {{Objection}} The conspiracy that official story says committed the 9/11 attacks was a single Al-Qaeda cell, why should the conspiracy that really did it necessarily be much bigger to the point that discovery is inevitable? ** {{Objection}} They sign NDAs and it's probably difficult to "leak" information anonymously due to the advanced SIGINT capabilities of various governmental agencies e.g. the NSA. Even if you could, there's no guarantee that any given journalist isn't actually an informant. Snowden probably lives in constant fear of extradition and cannot return to his home country on pain of lifelong imprisonment. Russia could turn him over on a whim if he gets on their bad side too. It's hardly a way to live. His situation gives us information about the mindset, culture, and motivations of the people involved in such organizations. They can do no such thing as "leak information", or rather, they cannot be relied upon to do so. == See also == * [[Is capitalism sustainable?]] * [[Did the United States need to use atomic weapons to win World War II?]] == Notes and references == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Terrorism]] 4hobshi3l62drqk743bpq0rvh9ebwhh 0 215893 2415639 2415557 2022-08-16T23:14:15Z Sophivorus 85690 Remove unintelligible argument wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikidebate}} {{Law}} This debate is about the question whether abortion should be ''legal'', not about whether abortion is ''moral'' or the best course of action. This debate assumes that murder should remain illegal. == Abortion should be legal == === Arguments for === * {{Argument for}} Abortion without proper medical support endangers the mother's life, which happens when women seek unsafe abortion due to abortion ban. This is one mode by which the act of banning abortion results in otherwise avoidable deaths. ** {{Objection}} Unsafe abortion without proper medical support is already illegal. The solution to prevent endangerment of the mother's life is to better enforce existing laws, not legalizing pre-existing offences. *** {{Objection}} No evidence has been presented that tightening of enforcement of abortion bans will reduce the unsafe illegal abortions to zero. Of these, non-zero number of mothers' deaths may still result. Whether the proposed intervention (of better enforcement) will eliminate all unsafe-abortion-caused otherwise avoidable deaths is an ''empirical'' question and cannot be answered by philosophising; in any case, it seems likely that at least one otherwise avoidable unsafe-abortion-caused death will ensue. * {{Argument for}} Procedures designed to save mother's life during pregnancy are often indistinguishable from abortion.<ref name="proconorg">[https://abortion.procon.org/ Should Abortion Be Legal?], procon.org by Britannica</ref> As a result, the act of banning abortion leads to reduced or delayed administration of life-saving procedures for the fear of legal prosecution.<ref name="proconorg" /> This is another mode by which the act of banning abortion results in otherwise avoidable deaths. The ban-caused additional mother deaths may be reduced by allowing life-saving abortions as an exception to the ban, but these deaths are still not necessarily reduced to zero since adding legal element to the deliberation adds risk to the medical doctor, who must be ready to prove that the abortion was necessary to save the mother's life. * {{Argument for}} If a woman lives in an environment exceedingly hostile to her situation (for example a pregnancy out of wedlock in a country under Sharia Law) then continuing with the pregnancy would risk her chances of a healthy and happy life, if not her life. ** {{Objection}} From a [[Wikipedia:Deontological ethics|deontological]] perspective, the end doesn't justify the means and the pragmatic benefits of abortion do not justify allowing it. ** {{Objection}} Some people have mental illnesses that cause them to ''need'' to burn down buildings, kill people or steal thins, but we don't legalize such acts because of such people. * {{Argument for}} Nobody is obliged to save someone else. ** {{Objection}} On the contrary, parents have a legal and moral obligation to protect the lives of their children. ** {{Objection}} Abortion isn't just refusing to save someone: it's taking active steps to end that someone's life. * {{Argument for}} There's a potential link between legalizing abortion and reducing crime.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/freakonomics-a-rogue-economist-explores-the-hidden-side-of-everything/oclc/73307236|title=Freakonomics: a rogue economist explores the hidden side of everything|last=Levitt|first=Steven D|last2=Dubner|first2=Stephen J|date=2006|isbn=9780061234002|language=English|oclc=73307236}}</ref>{{Clarify}} * {{Argument for}} Legalizing abortion is useful to help control overpopulation. ** {{Objection}} So is legalizing murder, promoting war, releasing deadly viruses, etc. *** {{Objection}} The other methods listed are almost unanimously agreed to be unethical, while abortion (when chosen by the pregnant) is a more balanced, ambiguous, and potentially acceptable method. **** {{Objection}} Even if abortion isn't as clearly unethical as other methods, it still isn't acceptable just by being better than the alternatives for controlling overpopulation. * {{Argument for}} Criminalizing abortion would not end abortion, though it may reduce the rate of abortions. If we are concerned about reducing the rate of abortions, there are better ways of doing this, e.g. publicly funded contraception. ** {{Objection}} An anti-abortion law would extend the law against murder. Laws on human life don't prevent actions but are [[W:symbolic law|symbolic]] to a moral stance of a nation. *** {{Objection}} The abortion-ban-caused otherwise avoidable deaths of mothers indicated in some of the above arguments are very much non-symbolic and outweigh anything that is merely symbolic. * {{Argument for}} Removing a fetus safely from a woman's body is much better than if she is forced to continue an unwanted pregnancy, which has a domino effect of now there is another mouth in the family to feed, and if it is a poor family, the kid will starve to death, which is much more painful and slower than what would originally occur. ** {{Objection}} A kid in a poor family may starve to death regardless of whether the pregnancy was unwanted or not. However, we do forbid poor people from killing wanted children to prevent painful starvation to death. * {{Argument for}} An unwanted child exists in vain, and vain existence is worse than no existence at all. ** {{Objection}} This assumes that the purpose of child's existence is identical with the purpose for which the child was conceived, often pleasure-seeking via sex. If the child accepts this assumption, the child can choose to maximize the pleasure of its parents, in align with the purpose for which it was conceived; the result is a meaningful life rather than a life in vain. Furthermore, the child does not need to accept this assumption and may seek its own purposes in life, just like wanted children, rather than seeing itself as a mere vehicle for its parents' purposes. * {{Argument for}} Interventions reducing abortion rates exist that save lives of unborn fetuses while being very unlikely to cause any otherwise avoidable deaths of mothers. One such intervention is letting aborting women sign paperwork serving to convince them to skip abortion for convenience's sake. The paperwork may point out: 1) the child can be adopted; 2) from certain moral perspectives, abortion for convenience's sake is a murder; 3) from biological and genetic perspective, an adopted child is still a success, and some adopted children went on to achieve great things and become very famous while doing so; 4) some mothers experience psychological difficulties as a result of abortion. More non-banning interventions are available. In fact, non-banning interventions have caused a huge decline in abortion rates in the U.S.<ref name="proconorg" /> * {{Argument for}} Wanton abortion is a self-limiting behavior in so far as the biological predispositions to the behavior are being less replicated as a result of the abortion. Wanton abortion is not a socially dangerous behavior. ** {{Objection}} This completely disregards the question whether abortion is a murder, and is a collectivist rather than individualist ethics. Instead of killing of a fetus as an evil to be avoided, it discusses social practicalities and assumes that the purpose of ethics is a pragmatic one, to eliminate socially dangerous behavior. This is a fundamentally unethical position, at least from the point of view of individualistic ethics. === Arguments against === Arguments against [[#Abortion should be legal in the first trimester]] are also against late-term abortion being legal; see there. * {{Argument against}} For late-term abortion, it is much harder to argue that it is not a murder: the fetus is significantly developed. == Abortion should be legal in the first trimester == The first trimester is a conventional time length meant to distinguish the period in which a fetus is totally dependent on the mother, from the rest of the pregnancy, in which the fetus may survive without her. Conception occurs on the third week of the first trimester. By the end of third month of pregnancy, a fetus is well-developed,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.webmd.com/baby/1to3-months|title=The first trimester: your baby's growth and development in early pregnancy|website=WebMD|language=en|access-date=2019-06-12}}</ref> with most of its organs fully developed or at least functioning. There is no sudden transformation happening on the day 90 of the pregnancy, just as there is no sudden transformation when we turn 18 and become officially legal adults. A fetus doesn't suddenly become independent on the 90 day mark, just as a person doesn't suddenly become an adult on the 18th birthday. These conventions are educated decisions necessary for legal reasons. === Arguments for === * {{Argument for}} During the first trimester, the fetus is attached to the mother by the placenta and umbilical cord, its health is dependent on her health and cannot live outside her womb. After the third trimester, the fetus is capable of surviving external from the mother's body, if properly nourished and cared. Therefore, a fetus in the first trimester cannot be regarded as a separate entity, is part of the mother's body and it's up to her what she wants to do with her own body. ** {{Objection}} A fetus has its own unique genetic code, so it is a different organism living inside its mother, and not just another part of her body. *** {{Objection}} Unfertilized egg cells have their own unique genetic code, and unfertilized egg cells are not organisms. ** {{Objection}} By this logic, people on artificial life support should have no right to life because of their dependence on something other than themselves for survival. *** {{Objection}} People in coma and relying on artificial life support have proxies making the decision whether to keep them on life support. The proxy can choose to withdraw life support. In the case of the fetus, the mother is the proxy and can choose to withdraw use of her body as life support **** {{Objection}} The withdrawal of life support can only occur when specific medical criteria are met. There has to be no chance for improvement of patient health and ability to function independently in the future. ***** {{Objection}} It still establishes the principle that killing a living human biological body of an innocent human is not automatically considered to be a murder. Some other principles need to be sought to differentiate. The principle could be that the mind or soul can appear in the body ''in future'', but we may counter that the mind or soul ''has not arrived yet'' in the first trimester, and therefore we only kill a host for the mind or soul that has never seen a mind or soul, so the mind or soul has no identity yet; it is only the biological host body that has an identity. And we have already established that human biological bodies are not preserved at any and all costs regardless of their relation to mind or soul. * {{Argument for}} Fetuses in the first trimester are incapable of feeling pain,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rcog.org.uk/en/guidelines-research-services/guidelines/fetal-awareness---review-of-research-and-recommendations-for-practice/|title=Fetal Awareness: Review of Research and Recommendations for Practice|website=Royal College of Obstetricians &amp; Gynaecologists|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-14}}</ref> having future goals and are not conscious. All of those conditions are good reasons to value the life of something, but something that does not meet them is not valuable. ** {{Objection}} People undergoing full-body anesthesia are incapable of feeling pain, having future goals and are not conscious. We put a value on their life because they have the potential to do all these things once they wake-up. Similarly, fetuses have the potential of having a valuable life. *** {{Objection}} Potentiality is not a sufficient defense in the first trimester as there is no way of knowing if or how many complications can occur that drastically decrease a person's quality of life or existential awareness. *** {{Objection}} Many animals can feel pain, have future goals and are conscious, yet there's no outcry to end meat eating. **** {{Objection}} Veganism is a growing movement. * {{Argument for}} A fetus in the first trimester should not be entitled to rights that born people are not entitled to. Born people do not have the right to someone else's body even if they need it to survive (I don't have a right to your blood even if I need a blood transfusion to live). ** {{Objection}} Assuming that the pregnancy is not due to rape or similar unfortunate circumstances, then the mother should have known that having sex involves the risk of her getting pregnant. If she willingly took the risk of putting another human in a situation where they would depend on her body, then she is responsible for taking care of them in the case that she actually gets pregnant. *** {{Objection}} We are not assuming as much. Even if we do, a ban is likely to result in otherwise avoidable deaths of mothers, and therefore disregards the mother's right to life. ** {{Objection}} The right to life is more important than the right to avoid the inconveniences of pregnancy, so we ought to prioritize the former over the latter and give fetuses their right to life. *** {{Objection}} In certain cases, the right to life of a fetus is in conflict with the right to life of the mother, a moral conflict. These cases may be alleviated by the ban allowing life-saving abortions, but this does not completely eliminate the threat of legal prosecution, adds ''legal'' element to the decision making in addition to ''medical'' and ''moral'', and thus such a exceptions-allowing ban can still result in otherwise avoidable deaths. === Arguments against === * {{Argument against}} Fetuses meet all seven characteristics of life,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171221004451/http://infohost.nmt.edu:80/~klathrop/7characterisitcs_of_life.htm|title=The 7 Characteristics of Life|date=2017-12-21|website=web.archive.org|access-date=2019-06-12}}</ref> and are human, so abortion is akin to murder as it's the act of taking human life. No civilized society permits one human to intentionally take the life of another human that has caused no violence, and abortion is no different. ** {{Objection}} The concept of personhood is different from the concept of human life. ** {{Objection}} In [[Wikipedia:In vitro fertilization|''in vitro'' fertilization]], fertilized eggs that are not implanted are routinely thrown away and no one considers that murder. *** {{Objection}} Then maybe throwing away in vitro fertilized eggs should be prohibited. Certainly opponents to fetal stem cell research think so. ** {{Objection}} A fetus during the first trimester is not yet human, since it hasn't developed the large neocortex that sets humans apart from other animals.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2922889|title=The dragons of Eden: speculations on the evolution of human intelligence|last=Sagan|first=Carl|isbn=0394410459|edition=First|location=New York|oclc=2922889}}</ref> ** {{Objection}} A person's right to life is contingent on what their life requires of other people. Nobody has a right to your blood because they need it to survive. ** {{Objection}} Why should the society permit the abortion banners to cause an otherwise avoidable loss of life of mothers? Is it because the killing is caused a little more indirectly than in the case of an abortion? Or is it because the lives of fetuses are more valuable than lives of mothers? * {{Argument against}} Many citizens who pay taxes are opposed to abortion, therefore it's morally wrong to use tax money to subsidize abortion. ** {{Objection}} It isn't necessary to use taxpayer money to subsidize abortion. This debate is about legalizing abortion, not subsidizing it. ** {{Objection}} Taxpayer dollars are used to enable poor people to access the same medical services as rich people and abortion is one of these services. ** {{Objection}} Subsidizing abortion is no different from any other subsidy. For those who are opposed, the place to express outrage is in the voting booth. ** {{Objection}} Many citizens who pay taxes are opposed to central government. But we can't defund the government. * {{Argument against}} An abortion can result in medical complications later in life: the risk of [[Wikipedia:Ectopic pregnancies|ectopic pregnancies]] doubles, the chance of a miscarriage and pelvic inflammatory disease also increases, not to mention intense psychological pain, stress and emotional burdens left after abortion, called "post-abortion syndrome".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/somatic-psychology/201010/post-abortion-stress-syndrome-pass-does-it-exist|title=Post Abortion Stress Syndrome (PASS) - Does It Exist?|website=Psychology Today|language=en|access-date=2017-11-16}}</ref> A procedure so risky shouldn't be supported by making it legal. ** {{Objection}} Abortion is a safe medical procedure. The vast majority of women (88%) who have an abortion do so in their first trimester. Medical abortions have less than 0.5% risk of serious complications and do not affect a woman's health or future ability to become pregnant or give birth. ** {{Objection}} Risk is not an adequate reason to forbid a medical procedure. Many procedures, such as surgeries on late-term cancer patients, carry the risk of causing physical harm and are not guaranteed to be beneficial, but we permit them as long as there is informed consent on the part of the patient. * {{Argument against}} Adoption is a viable alternative to abortion.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://adoptionnetwork.com/adoption-statistics|title=Adoption Statistics {{!}} Adoption Network|website=adoptionnetwork.com|language=en|access-date=2019-06-14}}</ref> ** {{Objection}} Adoption doesn't prevent the many months of unwanted pregnancy. ** {{Objection}} Adoption doesn't prevent the risk of health risks that pregnancy entails. *** {{Objection}} Abortion also entails health risks. * {{Argument against}} According to most legislations,<ref>See the [[Wikipedia:Unborn Victims of Violence Act|Unborn Victims of Violence Act]].</ref> killing a pregnant woman at any stage in the pregnancy is legally a double homicide. The law defines "child in utero" as "a member of the species ''Homo sapiens'', at any stage of development, who is carried in the womb". Therefore, under current (United States) Federal law, abortion at any stage of development is murder of a member of our species, which is illegal.<ref>The law is codified in two sections of the United States Code: Title 18, Chapter 1 (Crimes), §1841 (18 USC 1841) and Title 10, Chapter 22 (Uniform Code of Military Justice) §919a (Article 119a).</ref> In other words, Federal legal precedent stands on the side of fetal personhood. ** {{Objection}} The debate is not about what the current laws are, but about what the laws should be. ** {{Objection}} This argument only applies to the United States, but this debate is not restricted to any one country. ** {{Objection}} Since death penalty is legal in some states, the fact that fetuses are members of our species doesn't by itself imply that their life can't be legally taken. * {{Argument against}} Certain societal intervention such as better sex education can make abortions unnecessary.<ref name="proconorg" /><!--Con 3 in the source--> ** {{Objection}} This is an argument against banning, not for banning: non-banning interventions can reduce the phenomenon that we find objectionable--killing of fetuses for convenience sake--without at the same time causing another phenomenon that we find objectionable--abortion-ban-caused otherwise avoidable deaths of mothers. == Abortion should be legal in case of risk to the mother's life == In the United States, around 6% of abortions are reported to be due to physical or emotional health problems with the mother.<ref name=":0" /> * {{Argument for}} If the life of the mother is compromised, she should have the right to abort as a matter of self-defense. * {{Argument against}} The mother could indirectly defend herself with the intent not to abort. For example, taking chemotherapy for Uterine cancer may have the unintended side effect of abortion but that was not the intent. This is known as the [[W:Principle of double effect|Principle of double effect]]. == Abortion should be legal in case of rape or incest == In the United States, around 1% of abortions are reported to be due to rape or incest.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/policy/abortion/abreasons.html|title=Reasons given for having abortions in the United States|website=www.johnstonsarchive.net|access-date=2019-06-12}}</ref> * {{Argument for}} Forcing a woman to continue with a forced pregnancy is a violation of her rights. ** {{Objection}} Still, you would be killing someone else without that someone's consent. *** {{Objection}} Virtually all legal killings are against the victim's consent. * {{Argument for}} A fetus conceived through rape or incest is like an intruder and can be expelled like such. ** {{Objection}} A fetus shouldn't be treated like an intruder because it did not willfully intrude, someone put it there. No reasonable person would expel an unconscious person into the winter cold and leave it to die, if it was thrown into his property by a kidnapper. * {{Argument for}} Having children due to rape or incest can be seriously deleterious to the mother. Abortion in such cases is the best of the bad outcomes available in most cases. ** {{Objection}} Adoption services already exist. If a mother wishes not to raise the child, these seem like a much more palatable option than killing a fetus that could go on to do great things. * {{Argument against}} Proper medical care can ensure that a woman victim of rape or incest will not get pregnant. ** {{Objection}} Often a rape victim is too afraid to speak up or is unaware of being pregnant, thus the morning after pill is ineffective in these situations. ** {{Objection}} If conception has already taken place, any way of making her no longer pregnant is an abortion. * {{Argument for}} if we ban abortion, women who have been raped are now forced to have kids, and with the unfortunately high occurrence of rape, this may cause the population to explode, piling on to the already major problem of overpopulation. Not to mention, most bastard children live in such poor conditions and have so little morale for their existence that they will likely suffer their entire lives and never amount to anything. In that case, it's better for everyone involved that they didn't exist ** {{Objection}} rate of rape seems to be inconsequential to population growth. If we take the US, there seems to be roughly 85000 reported rapes per year. If we conservatively assume that this is half of the total rapes, that conservatively there's a 5% chance of getting pregnant per sexual intercourse (which tends to apply only to younger people), that right now there are no rape-related births in the US (likely untrue) and, finally, that no illegal abortion would take place, the number of pregnancies as a consequence of rape if abortion would be illegal would be roughly 0,2% of total birth in the US. Real percentage would probably be orders of magnitude lower. == See also == * [[Wikipedia:Abortion debate|Abortion debate]] on Wikipedia * [[Obstetrics and Gynecology/Abortion]] * [[Should governments fund research to develop artificial womb technologies?]] – Another potential debate that has a central point which examines issues that could help to reduce political conflict within the controversy surrounding abortion. == Notes and references == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Politics]] [[Category:Death]] [[Category:Legal ethics]] [[Category:Wikiversity Law Review]] ns5937vj2siz572w3jb65gsc1uuzusx 2415640 2415639 2022-08-16T23:28:02Z Sophivorus 85690 Improve references wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikidebate}} {{Law}} This debate is about the question whether abortion should be ''legal'', not about whether abortion is ''moral'' or the best course of action. This debate assumes that murder should remain illegal. == Abortion should be legal == === Arguments for === * {{Argument for}} Abortion without proper medical support endangers the mother's life, which happens when women seek unsafe abortion due to abortion ban. This is one mode by which the act of banning abortion results in otherwise avoidable deaths. ** {{Objection}} Unsafe abortion without proper medical support is already illegal. The solution to prevent endangerment of the mother's life is to better enforce existing laws, not legalizing pre-existing offences. *** {{Objection}} No evidence has been presented that tightening of enforcement of abortion bans will reduce the unsafe illegal abortions to zero. Of these, non-zero number of mothers' deaths may still result. Whether the proposed intervention (of better enforcement) will eliminate all unsafe-abortion-caused otherwise avoidable deaths is an ''empirical'' question and cannot be answered by philosophising; in any case, it seems likely that at least one otherwise avoidable unsafe-abortion-caused death will ensue. * {{Argument for}} Procedures designed to save mother's life during pregnancy are often indistinguishable from abortion.<ref name="proconorg">{{Cite web|url=https://abortion.procon.org/|title=Abortion - Top Arguments For and Against - ProCon.org|website=Abortion|language=en-US|access-date=2022-08-16}}</ref> As a result, the act of banning abortion leads to reduced or delayed administration of life-saving procedures for the fear of legal prosecution.<ref name="proconorg" /> This is another mode by which the act of banning abortion results in otherwise avoidable deaths. The ban-caused additional mother deaths may be reduced by allowing life-saving abortions as an exception to the ban, but these deaths are still not necessarily reduced to zero since adding legal element to the deliberation adds risk to the medical doctor, who must be ready to prove that the abortion was necessary to save the mother's life. * {{Argument for}} If a woman lives in an environment exceedingly hostile to her situation (for example a pregnancy out of wedlock in a country under Sharia Law) then continuing with the pregnancy would risk her chances of a healthy and happy life, if not her life. ** {{Objection}} From a [[Wikipedia:Deontological ethics|deontological]] perspective, the end doesn't justify the means and the pragmatic benefits of abortion do not justify allowing it. ** {{Objection}} Some people have mental illnesses that cause them to ''need'' to burn down buildings, kill people or steal thins, but we don't legalize such acts because of such people. * {{Argument for}} Nobody is obliged to save someone else. ** {{Objection}} On the contrary, parents have a legal and moral obligation to protect the lives of their children. ** {{Objection}} Abortion isn't just refusing to save someone: it's taking active steps to end that someone's life. * {{Argument for}} There's a potential link between legalizing abortion and reducing crime.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/freakonomics-a-rogue-economist-explores-the-hidden-side-of-everything/oclc/73307236|title=Freakonomics: a rogue economist explores the hidden side of everything|last=Levitt|first=Steven D|last2=Dubner|first2=Stephen J|date=2006|isbn=9780061234002|language=English|oclc=73307236}}</ref>{{Clarify}} * {{Argument for}} Legalizing abortion is useful to help control overpopulation. ** {{Objection}} So is legalizing murder, promoting war, releasing deadly viruses, etc. *** {{Objection}} The other methods listed are almost unanimously agreed to be unethical, while abortion (when chosen by the pregnant) is a more balanced, ambiguous, and potentially acceptable method. **** {{Objection}} Even if abortion isn't as clearly unethical as other methods, it still isn't acceptable just by being better than the alternatives for controlling overpopulation. * {{Argument for}} Criminalizing abortion would not end abortion, though it may reduce the rate of abortions. If we are concerned about reducing the rate of abortions, there are better ways of doing this, e.g. publicly funded contraception. ** {{Objection}} An anti-abortion law would extend the law against murder. Laws on human life don't prevent actions but are [[W:symbolic law|symbolic]] to a moral stance of a nation. *** {{Objection}} The abortion-ban-caused otherwise avoidable deaths of mothers indicated in some of the above arguments are very much non-symbolic and outweigh anything that is merely symbolic. * {{Argument for}} Removing a fetus safely from a woman's body is much better than if she is forced to continue an unwanted pregnancy, which has a domino effect of now there is another mouth in the family to feed, and if it is a poor family, the kid will starve to death, which is much more painful and slower than what would originally occur. ** {{Objection}} A kid in a poor family may starve to death regardless of whether the pregnancy was unwanted or not. However, we do forbid poor people from killing wanted children to prevent painful starvation to death. * {{Argument for}} An unwanted child exists in vain, and vain existence is worse than no existence at all. ** {{Objection}} This assumes that the purpose of child's existence is identical with the purpose for which the child was conceived, often pleasure-seeking via sex. If the child accepts this assumption, the child can choose to maximize the pleasure of its parents, in align with the purpose for which it was conceived; the result is a meaningful life rather than a life in vain. Furthermore, the child does not need to accept this assumption and may seek its own purposes in life, just like wanted children, rather than seeing itself as a mere vehicle for its parents' purposes. * {{Argument for}} Interventions reducing abortion rates exist that save lives of unborn fetuses while being very unlikely to cause any otherwise avoidable deaths of mothers. One such intervention is letting aborting women sign paperwork serving to convince them to skip abortion for convenience's sake. The paperwork may point out: 1) the child can be adopted; 2) from certain moral perspectives, abortion for convenience's sake is a murder; 3) from biological and genetic perspective, an adopted child is still a success, and some adopted children went on to achieve great things and become very famous while doing so; 4) some mothers experience psychological difficulties as a result of abortion. More non-banning interventions are available. In fact, non-banning interventions have caused a huge decline in abortion rates in the U.S.<ref name="proconorg" /> * {{Argument for}} Wanton abortion is a self-limiting behavior in so far as the biological predispositions to the behavior are being less replicated as a result of the abortion. Wanton abortion is not a socially dangerous behavior. ** {{Objection}} This completely disregards the question whether abortion is a murder, and is a collectivist rather than individualist ethics. Instead of killing of a fetus as an evil to be avoided, it discusses social practicalities and assumes that the purpose of ethics is a pragmatic one, to eliminate socially dangerous behavior. This is a fundamentally unethical position, at least from the point of view of individualistic ethics. === Arguments against === Arguments against [[#Abortion should be legal in the first trimester]] are also against late-term abortion being legal; see there. * {{Argument against}} For late-term abortion, it is much harder to argue that it is not a murder: the fetus is significantly developed. == Abortion should be legal in the first trimester == The first trimester is a conventional time length meant to distinguish the period in which a fetus is totally dependent on the mother, from the rest of the pregnancy, in which the fetus may survive without her. Conception occurs on the third week of the first trimester. By the end of third month of pregnancy, a fetus is well-developed,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.webmd.com/baby/1to3-months|title=The first trimester: your baby's growth and development in early pregnancy|website=WebMD|language=en|access-date=2019-06-12}}</ref> with most of its organs fully developed or at least functioning. There is no sudden transformation happening on the day 90 of the pregnancy, just as there is no sudden transformation when we turn 18 and become officially legal adults. A fetus doesn't suddenly become independent on the 90 day mark, just as a person doesn't suddenly become an adult on the 18th birthday. These conventions are educated decisions necessary for legal reasons. === Arguments for === * {{Argument for}} During the first trimester, the fetus is attached to the mother by the placenta and umbilical cord, its health is dependent on her health and cannot live outside her womb. After the third trimester, the fetus is capable of surviving external from the mother's body, if properly nourished and cared. Therefore, a fetus in the first trimester cannot be regarded as a separate entity, is part of the mother's body and it's up to her what she wants to do with her own body. ** {{Objection}} A fetus has its own unique genetic code, so it is a different organism living inside its mother, and not just another part of her body. *** {{Objection}} Unfertilized egg cells have their own unique genetic code, and unfertilized egg cells are not organisms. ** {{Objection}} By this logic, people on artificial life support should have no right to life because of their dependence on something other than themselves for survival. *** {{Objection}} People in coma and relying on artificial life support have proxies making the decision whether to keep them on life support. The proxy can choose to withdraw life support. In the case of the fetus, the mother is the proxy and can choose to withdraw use of her body as life support **** {{Objection}} The withdrawal of life support can only occur when specific medical criteria are met. There has to be no chance for improvement of patient health and ability to function independently in the future. ***** {{Objection}} It still establishes the principle that killing a living human biological body of an innocent human is not automatically considered to be a murder. Some other principles need to be sought to differentiate. The principle could be that the mind or soul can appear in the body ''in future'', but we may counter that the mind or soul ''has not arrived yet'' in the first trimester, and therefore we only kill a host for the mind or soul that has never seen a mind or soul, so the mind or soul has no identity yet; it is only the biological host body that has an identity. And we have already established that human biological bodies are not preserved at any and all costs regardless of their relation to mind or soul. * {{Argument for}} Fetuses in the first trimester are incapable of feeling pain,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rcog.org.uk/en/guidelines-research-services/guidelines/fetal-awareness---review-of-research-and-recommendations-for-practice/|title=Fetal Awareness: Review of Research and Recommendations for Practice|website=Royal College of Obstetricians &amp; Gynaecologists|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-14}}</ref> having future goals and are not conscious. All of those conditions are good reasons to value the life of something, but something that does not meet them is not valuable. ** {{Objection}} People undergoing full-body anesthesia are incapable of feeling pain, having future goals and are not conscious. We put a value on their life because they have the potential to do all these things once they wake-up. Similarly, fetuses have the potential of having a valuable life. *** {{Objection}} Potentiality is not a sufficient defense in the first trimester as there is no way of knowing if or how many complications can occur that drastically decrease a person's quality of life or existential awareness. *** {{Objection}} Many animals can feel pain, have future goals and are conscious, yet there's no outcry to end meat eating. **** {{Objection}} Veganism is a growing movement. * {{Argument for}} A fetus in the first trimester should not be entitled to rights that born people are not entitled to. Born people do not have the right to someone else's body even if they need it to survive (I don't have a right to your blood even if I need a blood transfusion to live). ** {{Objection}} Assuming that the pregnancy is not due to rape or similar unfortunate circumstances, then the mother should have known that having sex involves the risk of her getting pregnant. If she willingly took the risk of putting another human in a situation where they would depend on her body, then she is responsible for taking care of them in the case that she actually gets pregnant. *** {{Objection}} We are not assuming as much. Even if we do, a ban is likely to result in otherwise avoidable deaths of mothers, and therefore disregards the mother's right to life. ** {{Objection}} The right to life is more important than the right to avoid the inconveniences of pregnancy, so we ought to prioritize the former over the latter and give fetuses their right to life. *** {{Objection}} In certain cases, the right to life of a fetus is in conflict with the right to life of the mother, a moral conflict. These cases may be alleviated by the ban allowing life-saving abortions, but this does not completely eliminate the threat of legal prosecution, adds ''legal'' element to the decision making in addition to ''medical'' and ''moral'', and thus such a exceptions-allowing ban can still result in otherwise avoidable deaths. === Arguments against === * {{Argument against}} Fetuses meet all seven characteristics of life,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171221004451/http://infohost.nmt.edu:80/~klathrop/7characterisitcs_of_life.htm|title=The 7 Characteristics of Life|date=2017-12-21|website=web.archive.org|access-date=2019-06-12}}</ref> and are human, so abortion is akin to murder as it's the act of taking human life. No civilized society permits one human to intentionally take the life of another human that has caused no violence, and abortion is no different. ** {{Objection}} The concept of personhood is different from the concept of human life. ** {{Objection}} In [[Wikipedia:In vitro fertilization|''in vitro'' fertilization]], fertilized eggs that are not implanted are routinely thrown away and no one considers that murder. *** {{Objection}} Then maybe throwing away in vitro fertilized eggs should be prohibited. Certainly opponents to fetal stem cell research think so. ** {{Objection}} A fetus during the first trimester is not yet human, since it hasn't developed the large neocortex that sets humans apart from other animals.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2922889|title=The dragons of Eden: speculations on the evolution of human intelligence|last=Sagan|first=Carl|isbn=0394410459|edition=First|location=New York|oclc=2922889}}</ref> ** {{Objection}} A person's right to life is contingent on what their life requires of other people. Nobody has a right to your blood because they need it to survive. ** {{Objection}} Why should the society permit the abortion banners to cause an otherwise avoidable loss of life of mothers? Is it because the killing is caused a little more indirectly than in the case of an abortion? Or is it because the lives of fetuses are more valuable than lives of mothers? * {{Argument against}} Many citizens who pay taxes are opposed to abortion, therefore it's morally wrong to use tax money to subsidize abortion. ** {{Objection}} It isn't necessary to use taxpayer money to subsidize abortion. This debate is about legalizing abortion, not subsidizing it. ** {{Objection}} Taxpayer dollars are used to enable poor people to access the same medical services as rich people and abortion is one of these services. ** {{Objection}} Subsidizing abortion is no different from any other subsidy. For those who are opposed, the place to express outrage is in the voting booth. ** {{Objection}} Many citizens who pay taxes are opposed to central government. But we can't defund the government. * {{Argument against}} An abortion can result in medical complications later in life: the risk of [[Wikipedia:Ectopic pregnancies|ectopic pregnancies]] doubles, the chance of a miscarriage and pelvic inflammatory disease also increases, not to mention intense psychological pain, stress and emotional burdens left after abortion, called "post-abortion syndrome".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/somatic-psychology/201010/post-abortion-stress-syndrome-pass-does-it-exist|title=Post Abortion Stress Syndrome (PASS) - Does It Exist?|website=Psychology Today|language=en|access-date=2017-11-16}}</ref> A procedure so risky shouldn't be supported by making it legal. ** {{Objection}} Abortion is a safe medical procedure. The vast majority of women (88%) who have an abortion do so in their first trimester. Medical abortions have less than 0.5% risk of serious complications and do not affect a woman's health or future ability to become pregnant or give birth. ** {{Objection}} Risk is not an adequate reason to forbid a medical procedure. Many procedures, such as surgeries on late-term cancer patients, carry the risk of causing physical harm and are not guaranteed to be beneficial, but we permit them as long as there is informed consent on the part of the patient. * {{Argument against}} Adoption is a viable alternative to abortion.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://adoptionnetwork.com/adoption-statistics|title=Adoption Statistics {{!}} Adoption Network|website=adoptionnetwork.com|language=en|access-date=2019-06-14}}</ref> ** {{Objection}} Adoption doesn't prevent the many months of unwanted pregnancy. ** {{Objection}} Adoption doesn't prevent the risk of health risks that pregnancy entails. *** {{Objection}} Abortion also entails health risks. * {{Argument against}} According to most legislations,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2022-07-05|title=Unborn Victims of Violence Act|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unborn_Victims_of_Violence_Act&oldid=1096628558|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> killing a pregnant woman at any stage in the pregnancy is legally a double homicide. The law defines "child in utero" as "a member of the species ''Homo sapiens'', at any stage of development, who is carried in the womb". Therefore, under current (United States) Federal law, abortion at any stage of development is murder of a member of our species, which is illegal.<ref>The law is codified in two sections of the United States Code: Title 18, Chapter 1 (Crimes), §1841 (18 USC 1841) and Title 10, Chapter 22 (Uniform Code of Military Justice) §919a (Article 119a).</ref> In other words, Federal legal precedent stands on the side of fetal personhood. ** {{Objection}} The debate is not about what the current laws are, but about what the laws should be. ** {{Objection}} This argument only applies to the United States, but this debate is not restricted to any one country. ** {{Objection}} Since death penalty is legal in some states, the fact that fetuses are members of our species doesn't by itself imply that their life can't be legally taken. * {{Argument against}} Certain societal intervention such as better sex education can make abortions unnecessary.<ref name="proconorg" /> ** {{Objection}} This is an argument against banning, not for banning: non-banning interventions can reduce the phenomenon that we find objectionable--killing of fetuses for convenience sake--without at the same time causing another phenomenon that we find objectionable--abortion-ban-caused otherwise avoidable deaths of mothers. == Abortion should be legal in case of risk to the mother's life == In the United States, around 6% of abortions are reported to be due to physical or emotional health problems with the mother.<ref name=":0" /> * {{Argument for}} If the life of the mother is compromised, she should have the right to abort as a matter of self-defense. * {{Argument against}} The mother could indirectly defend herself with the intent not to abort. For example, taking chemotherapy for Uterine cancer may have the unintended side effect of abortion but that was not the intent. This is known as the [[W:Principle of double effect|Principle of double effect]]. == Abortion should be legal in case of rape or incest == In the United States, around 1% of abortions are reported to be due to rape or incest.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/policy/abortion/abreasons.html|title=Reasons given for having abortions in the United States|website=www.johnstonsarchive.net|access-date=2019-06-12}}</ref> * {{Argument for}} Forcing a woman to continue with a forced pregnancy is a violation of her rights. ** {{Objection}} Still, you would be killing someone else without that someone's consent. *** {{Objection}} Virtually all legal killings are against the victim's consent. * {{Argument for}} A fetus conceived through rape or incest is like an intruder and can be expelled like such. ** {{Objection}} A fetus shouldn't be treated like an intruder because it did not willfully intrude, someone put it there. No reasonable person would expel an unconscious person into the winter cold and leave it to die, if it was thrown into his property by a kidnapper. * {{Argument for}} Having children due to rape or incest can be seriously deleterious to the mother. Abortion in such cases is the best of the bad outcomes available in most cases. ** {{Objection}} Adoption services already exist. If a mother wishes not to raise the child, these seem like a much more palatable option than killing a fetus that could go on to do great things. * {{Argument against}} Proper medical care can ensure that a woman victim of rape or incest will not get pregnant. ** {{Objection}} Often a rape victim is too afraid to speak up or is unaware of being pregnant, thus the morning after pill is ineffective in these situations. ** {{Objection}} If conception has already taken place, any way of making her no longer pregnant is an abortion. * {{Argument for}} if we ban abortion, women who have been raped are now forced to have kids, and with the unfortunately high occurrence of rape, this may cause the population to explode, piling on to the already major problem of overpopulation. Not to mention, most bastard children live in such poor conditions and have so little morale for their existence that they will likely suffer their entire lives and never amount to anything. In that case, it's better for everyone involved that they didn't exist ** {{Objection}} rate of rape seems to be inconsequential to population growth. If we take the US, there seems to be roughly 85000 reported rapes per year. If we conservatively assume that this is half of the total rapes, that conservatively there's a 5% chance of getting pregnant per sexual intercourse (which tends to apply only to younger people), that right now there are no rape-related births in the US (likely untrue) and, finally, that no illegal abortion would take place, the number of pregnancies as a consequence of rape if abortion would be illegal would be roughly 0,2% of total birth in the US. Real percentage would probably be orders of magnitude lower. == See also == * [[Wikipedia:Abortion debate|Abortion debate]] on Wikipedia * [[Obstetrics and Gynecology/Abortion]] * [[Should governments fund research to develop artificial womb technologies?]] – Another potential debate that has a central point which examines issues that could help to reduce political conflict within the controversy surrounding abortion. == Notes and references == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Politics]] [[Category:Death]] [[Category:Legal ethics]] [[Category:Wikiversity Law Review]] 6n1hr8pz8psz7doe3o4ijqnpadupw23 2415821 2415640 2022-08-17T11:14:38Z Sophivorus 85690 Add objection wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikidebate}} {{Law}} This debate is about the question whether abortion should be ''legal'', not about whether abortion is ''moral'' or the best course of action. This debate assumes that murder should remain illegal. == Abortion should be legal == === Arguments for === * {{Argument for}} Abortion without proper medical support endangers the mother's life, which happens when women seek unsafe abortion due to abortion ban. This is one mode by which the act of banning abortion results in otherwise avoidable deaths. ** {{Objection}} Unsafe abortion without proper medical support is already illegal. The solution to prevent endangerment of the mother's life is to better enforce existing laws, not legalizing pre-existing offences. *** {{Objection}} Test again. *** {{Objection}} No evidence has been presented that tightening of enforcement of abortion bans will reduce the unsafe illegal abortions to zero. Of these, non-zero number of mothers' deaths may still result. Whether the proposed intervention (of better enforcement) will eliminate all unsafe-abortion-caused otherwise avoidable deaths is an ''empirical'' question and cannot be answered by philosophising; in any case, it seems likely that at least one otherwise avoidable unsafe-abortion-caused death will ensue. * {{Argument for}} Procedures designed to save mother's life during pregnancy are often indistinguishable from abortion.<ref name="proconorg">{{Cite web|url=https://abortion.procon.org/|title=Abortion - Top Arguments For and Against - ProCon.org|website=Abortion|language=en-US|access-date=2022-08-16}}</ref> As a result, the act of banning abortion leads to reduced or delayed administration of life-saving procedures for the fear of legal prosecution.<ref name="proconorg" /> This is another mode by which the act of banning abortion results in otherwise avoidable deaths. The ban-caused additional mother deaths may be reduced by allowing life-saving abortions as an exception to the ban, but these deaths are still not necessarily reduced to zero since adding legal element to the deliberation adds risk to the medical doctor, who must be ready to prove that the abortion was necessary to save the mother's life. * {{Argument for}} If a woman lives in an environment exceedingly hostile to her situation (for example a pregnancy out of wedlock in a country under Sharia Law) then continuing with the pregnancy would risk her chances of a healthy and happy life, if not her life. ** {{Objection}} From a [[Wikipedia:Deontological ethics|deontological]] perspective, the end doesn't justify the means and the pragmatic benefits of abortion do not justify allowing it. ** {{Objection}} Some people have mental illnesses that cause them to ''need'' to burn down buildings, kill people or steal thins, but we don't legalize such acts because of such people. * {{Argument for}} Nobody is obliged to save someone else. ** {{Objection}} On the contrary, parents have a legal and moral obligation to protect the lives of their children. ** {{Objection}} Abortion isn't just refusing to save someone: it's taking active steps to end that someone's life. * {{Argument for}} There's a potential link between legalizing abortion and reducing crime.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/freakonomics-a-rogue-economist-explores-the-hidden-side-of-everything/oclc/73307236|title=Freakonomics: a rogue economist explores the hidden side of everything|last=Levitt|first=Steven D|last2=Dubner|first2=Stephen J|date=2006|isbn=9780061234002|language=English|oclc=73307236}}</ref>{{Clarify}} * {{Argument for}} Legalizing abortion is useful to help control overpopulation. ** {{Objection}} So is legalizing murder, promoting war, releasing deadly viruses, etc. *** {{Objection}} The other methods listed are almost unanimously agreed to be unethical, while abortion (when chosen by the pregnant) is a more balanced, ambiguous, and potentially acceptable method. **** {{Objection}} Even if abortion isn't as clearly unethical as other methods, it still isn't acceptable just by being better than the alternatives for controlling overpopulation. * {{Argument for}} Criminalizing abortion would not end abortion, though it may reduce the rate of abortions. If we are concerned about reducing the rate of abortions, there are better ways of doing this, e.g. publicly funded contraception. ** {{Objection}} An anti-abortion law would extend the law against murder. Laws on human life don't prevent actions but are [[W:symbolic law|symbolic]] to a moral stance of a nation. *** {{Objection}} The abortion-ban-caused otherwise avoidable deaths of mothers indicated in some of the above arguments are very much non-symbolic and outweigh anything that is merely symbolic. * {{Argument for}} Removing a fetus safely from a woman's body is much better than if she is forced to continue an unwanted pregnancy, which has a domino effect of now there is another mouth in the family to feed, and if it is a poor family, the kid will starve to death, which is much more painful and slower than what would originally occur. ** {{Objection}} A kid in a poor family may starve to death regardless of whether the pregnancy was unwanted or not. However, we do forbid poor people from killing wanted children to prevent painful starvation to death. * {{Argument for}} An unwanted child exists in vain, and vain existence is worse than no existence at all. ** {{Objection}} This assumes that the purpose of child's existence is identical with the purpose for which the child was conceived, often pleasure-seeking via sex. If the child accepts this assumption, the child can choose to maximize the pleasure of its parents, in align with the purpose for which it was conceived; the result is a meaningful life rather than a life in vain. Furthermore, the child does not need to accept this assumption and may seek its own purposes in life, just like wanted children, rather than seeing itself as a mere vehicle for its parents' purposes. * {{Argument for}} Interventions reducing abortion rates exist that save lives of unborn fetuses while being very unlikely to cause any otherwise avoidable deaths of mothers. One such intervention is letting aborting women sign paperwork serving to convince them to skip abortion for convenience's sake. The paperwork may point out: 1) the child can be adopted; 2) from certain moral perspectives, abortion for convenience's sake is a murder; 3) from biological and genetic perspective, an adopted child is still a success, and some adopted children went on to achieve great things and become very famous while doing so; 4) some mothers experience psychological difficulties as a result of abortion. More non-banning interventions are available. In fact, non-banning interventions have caused a huge decline in abortion rates in the U.S.<ref name="proconorg" /> * {{Argument for}} Wanton abortion is a self-limiting behavior in so far as the biological predispositions to the behavior are being less replicated as a result of the abortion. Wanton abortion is not a socially dangerous behavior. ** {{Objection}} This completely disregards the question whether abortion is a murder, and is a collectivist rather than individualist ethics. Instead of killing of a fetus as an evil to be avoided, it discusses social practicalities and assumes that the purpose of ethics is a pragmatic one, to eliminate socially dangerous behavior. This is a fundamentally unethical position, at least from the point of view of individualistic ethics. === Arguments against === Arguments against [[#Abortion should be legal in the first trimester]] are also against late-term abortion being legal; see there. * {{Argument against}} For late-term abortion, it is much harder to argue that it is not a murder: the fetus is significantly developed. == Abortion should be legal in the first trimester == The first trimester is a conventional time length meant to distinguish the period in which a fetus is totally dependent on the mother, from the rest of the pregnancy, in which the fetus may survive without her. Conception occurs on the third week of the first trimester. By the end of third month of pregnancy, a fetus is well-developed,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.webmd.com/baby/1to3-months|title=The first trimester: your baby's growth and development in early pregnancy|website=WebMD|language=en|access-date=2019-06-12}}</ref> with most of its organs fully developed or at least functioning. There is no sudden transformation happening on the day 90 of the pregnancy, just as there is no sudden transformation when we turn 18 and become officially legal adults. A fetus doesn't suddenly become independent on the 90 day mark, just as a person doesn't suddenly become an adult on the 18th birthday. These conventions are educated decisions necessary for legal reasons. === Arguments for === * {{Argument for}} During the first trimester, the fetus is attached to the mother by the placenta and umbilical cord, its health is dependent on her health and cannot live outside her womb. After the third trimester, the fetus is capable of surviving external from the mother's body, if properly nourished and cared. Therefore, a fetus in the first trimester cannot be regarded as a separate entity, is part of the mother's body and it's up to her what she wants to do with her own body. ** {{Objection}} A fetus has its own unique genetic code, so it is a different organism living inside its mother, and not just another part of her body. *** {{Objection}} Unfertilized egg cells have their own unique genetic code, and unfertilized egg cells are not organisms. ** {{Objection}} By this logic, people on artificial life support should have no right to life because of their dependence on something other than themselves for survival. *** {{Objection}} People in coma and relying on artificial life support have proxies making the decision whether to keep them on life support. The proxy can choose to withdraw life support. In the case of the fetus, the mother is the proxy and can choose to withdraw use of her body as life support **** {{Objection}} The withdrawal of life support can only occur when specific medical criteria are met. There has to be no chance for improvement of patient health and ability to function independently in the future. ***** {{Objection}} It still establishes the principle that killing a living human biological body of an innocent human is not automatically considered to be a murder. Some other principles need to be sought to differentiate. The principle could be that the mind or soul can appear in the body ''in future'', but we may counter that the mind or soul ''has not arrived yet'' in the first trimester, and therefore we only kill a host for the mind or soul that has never seen a mind or soul, so the mind or soul has no identity yet; it is only the biological host body that has an identity. And we have already established that human biological bodies are not preserved at any and all costs regardless of their relation to mind or soul. * {{Argument for}} Fetuses in the first trimester are incapable of feeling pain,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rcog.org.uk/en/guidelines-research-services/guidelines/fetal-awareness---review-of-research-and-recommendations-for-practice/|title=Fetal Awareness: Review of Research and Recommendations for Practice|website=Royal College of Obstetricians &amp; Gynaecologists|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-14}}</ref> having future goals and are not conscious. All of those conditions are good reasons to value the life of something, but something that does not meet them is not valuable. ** {{Objection}} People undergoing full-body anesthesia are incapable of feeling pain, having future goals and are not conscious. We put a value on their life because they have the potential to do all these things once they wake-up. Similarly, fetuses have the potential of having a valuable life. *** {{Objection}} Potentiality is not a sufficient defense in the first trimester as there is no way of knowing if or how many complications can occur that drastically decrease a person's quality of life or existential awareness. *** {{Objection}} Many animals can feel pain, have future goals and are conscious, yet there's no outcry to end meat eating. **** {{Objection}} Veganism is a growing movement. * {{Argument for}} A fetus in the first trimester should not be entitled to rights that born people are not entitled to. Born people do not have the right to someone else's body even if they need it to survive (I don't have a right to your blood even if I need a blood transfusion to live). ** {{Objection}} Assuming that the pregnancy is not due to rape or similar unfortunate circumstances, then the mother should have known that having sex involves the risk of her getting pregnant. If she willingly took the risk of putting another human in a situation where they would depend on her body, then she is responsible for taking care of them in the case that she actually gets pregnant. *** {{Objection}} We are not assuming as much. Even if we do, a ban is likely to result in otherwise avoidable deaths of mothers, and therefore disregards the mother's right to life. ** {{Objection}} The right to life is more important than the right to avoid the inconveniences of pregnancy, so we ought to prioritize the former over the latter and give fetuses their right to life. *** {{Objection}} In certain cases, the right to life of a fetus is in conflict with the right to life of the mother, a moral conflict. These cases may be alleviated by the ban allowing life-saving abortions, but this does not completely eliminate the threat of legal prosecution, adds ''legal'' element to the decision making in addition to ''medical'' and ''moral'', and thus such a exceptions-allowing ban can still result in otherwise avoidable deaths. === Arguments against === * {{Argument against}} Fetuses meet all seven characteristics of life,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171221004451/http://infohost.nmt.edu:80/~klathrop/7characterisitcs_of_life.htm|title=The 7 Characteristics of Life|date=2017-12-21|website=web.archive.org|access-date=2019-06-12}}</ref> and are human, so abortion is akin to murder as it's the act of taking human life. No civilized society permits one human to intentionally take the life of another human that has caused no violence, and abortion is no different. ** {{Objection}} The concept of personhood is different from the concept of human life. ** {{Objection}} In [[Wikipedia:In vitro fertilization|''in vitro'' fertilization]], fertilized eggs that are not implanted are routinely thrown away and no one considers that murder. *** {{Objection}} Then maybe throwing away in vitro fertilized eggs should be prohibited. Certainly opponents to fetal stem cell research think so. ** {{Objection}} A fetus during the first trimester is not yet human, since it hasn't developed the large neocortex that sets humans apart from other animals.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2922889|title=The dragons of Eden: speculations on the evolution of human intelligence|last=Sagan|first=Carl|isbn=0394410459|edition=First|location=New York|oclc=2922889}}</ref> ** {{Objection}} A person's right to life is contingent on what their life requires of other people. Nobody has a right to your blood because they need it to survive. ** {{Objection}} Why should the society permit the abortion banners to cause an otherwise avoidable loss of life of mothers? Is it because the killing is caused a little more indirectly than in the case of an abortion? Or is it because the lives of fetuses are more valuable than lives of mothers? * {{Argument against}} Many citizens who pay taxes are opposed to abortion, therefore it's morally wrong to use tax money to subsidize abortion. ** {{Objection}} It isn't necessary to use taxpayer money to subsidize abortion. This debate is about legalizing abortion, not subsidizing it. ** {{Objection}} Taxpayer dollars are used to enable poor people to access the same medical services as rich people and abortion is one of these services. ** {{Objection}} Subsidizing abortion is no different from any other subsidy. For those who are opposed, the place to express outrage is in the voting booth. ** {{Objection}} Many citizens who pay taxes are opposed to central government. But we can't defund the government. * {{Argument against}} An abortion can result in medical complications later in life: the risk of [[Wikipedia:Ectopic pregnancies|ectopic pregnancies]] doubles, the chance of a miscarriage and pelvic inflammatory disease also increases, not to mention intense psychological pain, stress and emotional burdens left after abortion, called "post-abortion syndrome".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/somatic-psychology/201010/post-abortion-stress-syndrome-pass-does-it-exist|title=Post Abortion Stress Syndrome (PASS) - Does It Exist?|website=Psychology Today|language=en|access-date=2017-11-16}}</ref> A procedure so risky shouldn't be supported by making it legal. ** {{Objection}} Abortion is a safe medical procedure. The vast majority of women (88%) who have an abortion do so in their first trimester. Medical abortions have less than 0.5% risk of serious complications and do not affect a woman's health or future ability to become pregnant or give birth. ** {{Objection}} Risk is not an adequate reason to forbid a medical procedure. Many procedures, such as surgeries on late-term cancer patients, carry the risk of causing physical harm and are not guaranteed to be beneficial, but we permit them as long as there is informed consent on the part of the patient. * {{Argument against}} Adoption is a viable alternative to abortion.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://adoptionnetwork.com/adoption-statistics|title=Adoption Statistics {{!}} Adoption Network|website=adoptionnetwork.com|language=en|access-date=2019-06-14}}</ref> ** {{Objection}} Adoption doesn't prevent the many months of unwanted pregnancy. ** {{Objection}} Adoption doesn't prevent the risk of health risks that pregnancy entails. *** {{Objection}} Abortion also entails health risks. * {{Argument against}} According to most legislations,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2022-07-05|title=Unborn Victims of Violence Act|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unborn_Victims_of_Violence_Act&oldid=1096628558|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> killing a pregnant woman at any stage in the pregnancy is legally a double homicide. The law defines "child in utero" as "a member of the species ''Homo sapiens'', at any stage of development, who is carried in the womb". Therefore, under current (United States) Federal law, abortion at any stage of development is murder of a member of our species, which is illegal.<ref>The law is codified in two sections of the United States Code: Title 18, Chapter 1 (Crimes), §1841 (18 USC 1841) and Title 10, Chapter 22 (Uniform Code of Military Justice) §919a (Article 119a).</ref> In other words, Federal legal precedent stands on the side of fetal personhood. ** {{Objection}} The debate is not about what the current laws are, but about what the laws should be. ** {{Objection}} This argument only applies to the United States, but this debate is not restricted to any one country. ** {{Objection}} Since death penalty is legal in some states, the fact that fetuses are members of our species doesn't by itself imply that their life can't be legally taken. * {{Argument against}} Certain societal intervention such as better sex education can make abortions unnecessary.<ref name="proconorg" /> ** {{Objection}} This is an argument against banning, not for banning: non-banning interventions can reduce the phenomenon that we find objectionable--killing of fetuses for convenience sake--without at the same time causing another phenomenon that we find objectionable--abortion-ban-caused otherwise avoidable deaths of mothers. == Abortion should be legal in case of risk to the mother's life == In the United States, around 6% of abortions are reported to be due to physical or emotional health problems with the mother.<ref name=":0" /> * {{Argument for}} If the life of the mother is compromised, she should have the right to abort as a matter of self-defense. * {{Argument against}} The mother could indirectly defend herself with the intent not to abort. For example, taking chemotherapy for Uterine cancer may have the unintended side effect of abortion but that was not the intent. This is known as the [[W:Principle of double effect|Principle of double effect]]. == Abortion should be legal in case of rape or incest == In the United States, around 1% of abortions are reported to be due to rape or incest.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/policy/abortion/abreasons.html|title=Reasons given for having abortions in the United States|website=www.johnstonsarchive.net|access-date=2019-06-12}}</ref> * {{Argument for}} Forcing a woman to continue with a forced pregnancy is a violation of her rights. ** {{Objection}} Still, you would be killing someone else without that someone's consent. *** {{Objection}} Virtually all legal killings are against the victim's consent. * {{Argument for}} A fetus conceived through rape or incest is like an intruder and can be expelled like such. ** {{Objection}} A fetus shouldn't be treated like an intruder because it did not willfully intrude, someone put it there. No reasonable person would expel an unconscious person into the winter cold and leave it to die, if it was thrown into his property by a kidnapper. * {{Argument for}} Having children due to rape or incest can be seriously deleterious to the mother. Abortion in such cases is the best of the bad outcomes available in most cases. ** {{Objection}} Adoption services already exist. If a mother wishes not to raise the child, these seem like a much more palatable option than killing a fetus that could go on to do great things. * {{Argument against}} Proper medical care can ensure that a woman victim of rape or incest will not get pregnant. ** {{Objection}} Often a rape victim is too afraid to speak up or is unaware of being pregnant, thus the morning after pill is ineffective in these situations. ** {{Objection}} If conception has already taken place, any way of making her no longer pregnant is an abortion. * {{Argument for}} if we ban abortion, women who have been raped are now forced to have kids, and with the unfortunately high occurrence of rape, this may cause the population to explode, piling on to the already major problem of overpopulation. Not to mention, most bastard children live in such poor conditions and have so little morale for their existence that they will likely suffer their entire lives and never amount to anything. In that case, it's better for everyone involved that they didn't exist ** {{Objection}} rate of rape seems to be inconsequential to population growth. If we take the US, there seems to be roughly 85000 reported rapes per year. If we conservatively assume that this is half of the total rapes, that conservatively there's a 5% chance of getting pregnant per sexual intercourse (which tends to apply only to younger people), that right now there are no rape-related births in the US (likely untrue) and, finally, that no illegal abortion would take place, the number of pregnancies as a consequence of rape if abortion would be illegal would be roughly 0,2% of total birth in the US. Real percentage would probably be orders of magnitude lower. == See also == * [[Wikipedia:Abortion debate|Abortion debate]] on Wikipedia * [[Obstetrics and Gynecology/Abortion]] * [[Should governments fund research to develop artificial womb technologies?]] – Another potential debate that has a central point which examines issues that could help to reduce political conflict within the controversy surrounding abortion. == Notes and references == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Politics]] [[Category:Death]] [[Category:Legal ethics]] [[Category:Wikiversity Law Review]] ajelde6qtnvyja548h2yujh1tnfhx2f 2415822 2415821 2022-08-17T11:14:59Z Sophivorus 85690 Undo revision 2415821 by [[Special:Contributions/Sophivorus|Sophivorus]] ([[User talk:Sophivorus|talk]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikidebate}} {{Law}} This debate is about the question whether abortion should be ''legal'', not about whether abortion is ''moral'' or the best course of action. This debate assumes that murder should remain illegal. == Abortion should be legal == === Arguments for === * {{Argument for}} Abortion without proper medical support endangers the mother's life, which happens when women seek unsafe abortion due to abortion ban. This is one mode by which the act of banning abortion results in otherwise avoidable deaths. ** {{Objection}} Unsafe abortion without proper medical support is already illegal. The solution to prevent endangerment of the mother's life is to better enforce existing laws, not legalizing pre-existing offences. *** {{Objection}} No evidence has been presented that tightening of enforcement of abortion bans will reduce the unsafe illegal abortions to zero. Of these, non-zero number of mothers' deaths may still result. Whether the proposed intervention (of better enforcement) will eliminate all unsafe-abortion-caused otherwise avoidable deaths is an ''empirical'' question and cannot be answered by philosophising; in any case, it seems likely that at least one otherwise avoidable unsafe-abortion-caused death will ensue. * {{Argument for}} Procedures designed to save mother's life during pregnancy are often indistinguishable from abortion.<ref name="proconorg">{{Cite web|url=https://abortion.procon.org/|title=Abortion - Top Arguments For and Against - ProCon.org|website=Abortion|language=en-US|access-date=2022-08-16}}</ref> As a result, the act of banning abortion leads to reduced or delayed administration of life-saving procedures for the fear of legal prosecution.<ref name="proconorg" /> This is another mode by which the act of banning abortion results in otherwise avoidable deaths. The ban-caused additional mother deaths may be reduced by allowing life-saving abortions as an exception to the ban, but these deaths are still not necessarily reduced to zero since adding legal element to the deliberation adds risk to the medical doctor, who must be ready to prove that the abortion was necessary to save the mother's life. * {{Argument for}} If a woman lives in an environment exceedingly hostile to her situation (for example a pregnancy out of wedlock in a country under Sharia Law) then continuing with the pregnancy would risk her chances of a healthy and happy life, if not her life. ** {{Objection}} From a [[Wikipedia:Deontological ethics|deontological]] perspective, the end doesn't justify the means and the pragmatic benefits of abortion do not justify allowing it. ** {{Objection}} Some people have mental illnesses that cause them to ''need'' to burn down buildings, kill people or steal thins, but we don't legalize such acts because of such people. * {{Argument for}} Nobody is obliged to save someone else. ** {{Objection}} On the contrary, parents have a legal and moral obligation to protect the lives of their children. ** {{Objection}} Abortion isn't just refusing to save someone: it's taking active steps to end that someone's life. * {{Argument for}} There's a potential link between legalizing abortion and reducing crime.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/freakonomics-a-rogue-economist-explores-the-hidden-side-of-everything/oclc/73307236|title=Freakonomics: a rogue economist explores the hidden side of everything|last=Levitt|first=Steven D|last2=Dubner|first2=Stephen J|date=2006|isbn=9780061234002|language=English|oclc=73307236}}</ref>{{Clarify}} * {{Argument for}} Legalizing abortion is useful to help control overpopulation. ** {{Objection}} So is legalizing murder, promoting war, releasing deadly viruses, etc. *** {{Objection}} The other methods listed are almost unanimously agreed to be unethical, while abortion (when chosen by the pregnant) is a more balanced, ambiguous, and potentially acceptable method. **** {{Objection}} Even if abortion isn't as clearly unethical as other methods, it still isn't acceptable just by being better than the alternatives for controlling overpopulation. * {{Argument for}} Criminalizing abortion would not end abortion, though it may reduce the rate of abortions. If we are concerned about reducing the rate of abortions, there are better ways of doing this, e.g. publicly funded contraception. ** {{Objection}} An anti-abortion law would extend the law against murder. Laws on human life don't prevent actions but are [[W:symbolic law|symbolic]] to a moral stance of a nation. *** {{Objection}} The abortion-ban-caused otherwise avoidable deaths of mothers indicated in some of the above arguments are very much non-symbolic and outweigh anything that is merely symbolic. * {{Argument for}} Removing a fetus safely from a woman's body is much better than if she is forced to continue an unwanted pregnancy, which has a domino effect of now there is another mouth in the family to feed, and if it is a poor family, the kid will starve to death, which is much more painful and slower than what would originally occur. ** {{Objection}} A kid in a poor family may starve to death regardless of whether the pregnancy was unwanted or not. However, we do forbid poor people from killing wanted children to prevent painful starvation to death. * {{Argument for}} An unwanted child exists in vain, and vain existence is worse than no existence at all. ** {{Objection}} This assumes that the purpose of child's existence is identical with the purpose for which the child was conceived, often pleasure-seeking via sex. If the child accepts this assumption, the child can choose to maximize the pleasure of its parents, in align with the purpose for which it was conceived; the result is a meaningful life rather than a life in vain. Furthermore, the child does not need to accept this assumption and may seek its own purposes in life, just like wanted children, rather than seeing itself as a mere vehicle for its parents' purposes. * {{Argument for}} Interventions reducing abortion rates exist that save lives of unborn fetuses while being very unlikely to cause any otherwise avoidable deaths of mothers. One such intervention is letting aborting women sign paperwork serving to convince them to skip abortion for convenience's sake. The paperwork may point out: 1) the child can be adopted; 2) from certain moral perspectives, abortion for convenience's sake is a murder; 3) from biological and genetic perspective, an adopted child is still a success, and some adopted children went on to achieve great things and become very famous while doing so; 4) some mothers experience psychological difficulties as a result of abortion. More non-banning interventions are available. In fact, non-banning interventions have caused a huge decline in abortion rates in the U.S.<ref name="proconorg" /> * {{Argument for}} Wanton abortion is a self-limiting behavior in so far as the biological predispositions to the behavior are being less replicated as a result of the abortion. Wanton abortion is not a socially dangerous behavior. ** {{Objection}} This completely disregards the question whether abortion is a murder, and is a collectivist rather than individualist ethics. Instead of killing of a fetus as an evil to be avoided, it discusses social practicalities and assumes that the purpose of ethics is a pragmatic one, to eliminate socially dangerous behavior. This is a fundamentally unethical position, at least from the point of view of individualistic ethics. === Arguments against === Arguments against [[#Abortion should be legal in the first trimester]] are also against late-term abortion being legal; see there. * {{Argument against}} For late-term abortion, it is much harder to argue that it is not a murder: the fetus is significantly developed. == Abortion should be legal in the first trimester == The first trimester is a conventional time length meant to distinguish the period in which a fetus is totally dependent on the mother, from the rest of the pregnancy, in which the fetus may survive without her. Conception occurs on the third week of the first trimester. By the end of third month of pregnancy, a fetus is well-developed,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.webmd.com/baby/1to3-months|title=The first trimester: your baby's growth and development in early pregnancy|website=WebMD|language=en|access-date=2019-06-12}}</ref> with most of its organs fully developed or at least functioning. There is no sudden transformation happening on the day 90 of the pregnancy, just as there is no sudden transformation when we turn 18 and become officially legal adults. A fetus doesn't suddenly become independent on the 90 day mark, just as a person doesn't suddenly become an adult on the 18th birthday. These conventions are educated decisions necessary for legal reasons. === Arguments for === * {{Argument for}} During the first trimester, the fetus is attached to the mother by the placenta and umbilical cord, its health is dependent on her health and cannot live outside her womb. After the third trimester, the fetus is capable of surviving external from the mother's body, if properly nourished and cared. Therefore, a fetus in the first trimester cannot be regarded as a separate entity, is part of the mother's body and it's up to her what she wants to do with her own body. ** {{Objection}} A fetus has its own unique genetic code, so it is a different organism living inside its mother, and not just another part of her body. *** {{Objection}} Unfertilized egg cells have their own unique genetic code, and unfertilized egg cells are not organisms. ** {{Objection}} By this logic, people on artificial life support should have no right to life because of their dependence on something other than themselves for survival. *** {{Objection}} People in coma and relying on artificial life support have proxies making the decision whether to keep them on life support. The proxy can choose to withdraw life support. In the case of the fetus, the mother is the proxy and can choose to withdraw use of her body as life support **** {{Objection}} The withdrawal of life support can only occur when specific medical criteria are met. There has to be no chance for improvement of patient health and ability to function independently in the future. ***** {{Objection}} It still establishes the principle that killing a living human biological body of an innocent human is not automatically considered to be a murder. Some other principles need to be sought to differentiate. The principle could be that the mind or soul can appear in the body ''in future'', but we may counter that the mind or soul ''has not arrived yet'' in the first trimester, and therefore we only kill a host for the mind or soul that has never seen a mind or soul, so the mind or soul has no identity yet; it is only the biological host body that has an identity. And we have already established that human biological bodies are not preserved at any and all costs regardless of their relation to mind or soul. * {{Argument for}} Fetuses in the first trimester are incapable of feeling pain,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rcog.org.uk/en/guidelines-research-services/guidelines/fetal-awareness---review-of-research-and-recommendations-for-practice/|title=Fetal Awareness: Review of Research and Recommendations for Practice|website=Royal College of Obstetricians &amp; Gynaecologists|language=en-US|access-date=2019-06-14}}</ref> having future goals and are not conscious. All of those conditions are good reasons to value the life of something, but something that does not meet them is not valuable. ** {{Objection}} People undergoing full-body anesthesia are incapable of feeling pain, having future goals and are not conscious. We put a value on their life because they have the potential to do all these things once they wake-up. Similarly, fetuses have the potential of having a valuable life. *** {{Objection}} Potentiality is not a sufficient defense in the first trimester as there is no way of knowing if or how many complications can occur that drastically decrease a person's quality of life or existential awareness. *** {{Objection}} Many animals can feel pain, have future goals and are conscious, yet there's no outcry to end meat eating. **** {{Objection}} Veganism is a growing movement. * {{Argument for}} A fetus in the first trimester should not be entitled to rights that born people are not entitled to. Born people do not have the right to someone else's body even if they need it to survive (I don't have a right to your blood even if I need a blood transfusion to live). ** {{Objection}} Assuming that the pregnancy is not due to rape or similar unfortunate circumstances, then the mother should have known that having sex involves the risk of her getting pregnant. If she willingly took the risk of putting another human in a situation where they would depend on her body, then she is responsible for taking care of them in the case that she actually gets pregnant. *** {{Objection}} We are not assuming as much. Even if we do, a ban is likely to result in otherwise avoidable deaths of mothers, and therefore disregards the mother's right to life. ** {{Objection}} The right to life is more important than the right to avoid the inconveniences of pregnancy, so we ought to prioritize the former over the latter and give fetuses their right to life. *** {{Objection}} In certain cases, the right to life of a fetus is in conflict with the right to life of the mother, a moral conflict. These cases may be alleviated by the ban allowing life-saving abortions, but this does not completely eliminate the threat of legal prosecution, adds ''legal'' element to the decision making in addition to ''medical'' and ''moral'', and thus such a exceptions-allowing ban can still result in otherwise avoidable deaths. === Arguments against === * {{Argument against}} Fetuses meet all seven characteristics of life,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171221004451/http://infohost.nmt.edu:80/~klathrop/7characterisitcs_of_life.htm|title=The 7 Characteristics of Life|date=2017-12-21|website=web.archive.org|access-date=2019-06-12}}</ref> and are human, so abortion is akin to murder as it's the act of taking human life. No civilized society permits one human to intentionally take the life of another human that has caused no violence, and abortion is no different. ** {{Objection}} The concept of personhood is different from the concept of human life. ** {{Objection}} In [[Wikipedia:In vitro fertilization|''in vitro'' fertilization]], fertilized eggs that are not implanted are routinely thrown away and no one considers that murder. *** {{Objection}} Then maybe throwing away in vitro fertilized eggs should be prohibited. Certainly opponents to fetal stem cell research think so. ** {{Objection}} A fetus during the first trimester is not yet human, since it hasn't developed the large neocortex that sets humans apart from other animals.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/2922889|title=The dragons of Eden: speculations on the evolution of human intelligence|last=Sagan|first=Carl|isbn=0394410459|edition=First|location=New York|oclc=2922889}}</ref> ** {{Objection}} A person's right to life is contingent on what their life requires of other people. Nobody has a right to your blood because they need it to survive. ** {{Objection}} Why should the society permit the abortion banners to cause an otherwise avoidable loss of life of mothers? Is it because the killing is caused a little more indirectly than in the case of an abortion? Or is it because the lives of fetuses are more valuable than lives of mothers? * {{Argument against}} Many citizens who pay taxes are opposed to abortion, therefore it's morally wrong to use tax money to subsidize abortion. ** {{Objection}} It isn't necessary to use taxpayer money to subsidize abortion. This debate is about legalizing abortion, not subsidizing it. ** {{Objection}} Taxpayer dollars are used to enable poor people to access the same medical services as rich people and abortion is one of these services. ** {{Objection}} Subsidizing abortion is no different from any other subsidy. For those who are opposed, the place to express outrage is in the voting booth. ** {{Objection}} Many citizens who pay taxes are opposed to central government. But we can't defund the government. * {{Argument against}} An abortion can result in medical complications later in life: the risk of [[Wikipedia:Ectopic pregnancies|ectopic pregnancies]] doubles, the chance of a miscarriage and pelvic inflammatory disease also increases, not to mention intense psychological pain, stress and emotional burdens left after abortion, called "post-abortion syndrome".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/somatic-psychology/201010/post-abortion-stress-syndrome-pass-does-it-exist|title=Post Abortion Stress Syndrome (PASS) - Does It Exist?|website=Psychology Today|language=en|access-date=2017-11-16}}</ref> A procedure so risky shouldn't be supported by making it legal. ** {{Objection}} Abortion is a safe medical procedure. The vast majority of women (88%) who have an abortion do so in their first trimester. Medical abortions have less than 0.5% risk of serious complications and do not affect a woman's health or future ability to become pregnant or give birth. ** {{Objection}} Risk is not an adequate reason to forbid a medical procedure. Many procedures, such as surgeries on late-term cancer patients, carry the risk of causing physical harm and are not guaranteed to be beneficial, but we permit them as long as there is informed consent on the part of the patient. * {{Argument against}} Adoption is a viable alternative to abortion.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://adoptionnetwork.com/adoption-statistics|title=Adoption Statistics {{!}} Adoption Network|website=adoptionnetwork.com|language=en|access-date=2019-06-14}}</ref> ** {{Objection}} Adoption doesn't prevent the many months of unwanted pregnancy. ** {{Objection}} Adoption doesn't prevent the risk of health risks that pregnancy entails. *** {{Objection}} Abortion also entails health risks. * {{Argument against}} According to most legislations,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2022-07-05|title=Unborn Victims of Violence Act|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Unborn_Victims_of_Violence_Act&oldid=1096628558|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> killing a pregnant woman at any stage in the pregnancy is legally a double homicide. The law defines "child in utero" as "a member of the species ''Homo sapiens'', at any stage of development, who is carried in the womb". Therefore, under current (United States) Federal law, abortion at any stage of development is murder of a member of our species, which is illegal.<ref>The law is codified in two sections of the United States Code: Title 18, Chapter 1 (Crimes), §1841 (18 USC 1841) and Title 10, Chapter 22 (Uniform Code of Military Justice) §919a (Article 119a).</ref> In other words, Federal legal precedent stands on the side of fetal personhood. ** {{Objection}} The debate is not about what the current laws are, but about what the laws should be. ** {{Objection}} This argument only applies to the United States, but this debate is not restricted to any one country. ** {{Objection}} Since death penalty is legal in some states, the fact that fetuses are members of our species doesn't by itself imply that their life can't be legally taken. * {{Argument against}} Certain societal intervention such as better sex education can make abortions unnecessary.<ref name="proconorg" /> ** {{Objection}} This is an argument against banning, not for banning: non-banning interventions can reduce the phenomenon that we find objectionable--killing of fetuses for convenience sake--without at the same time causing another phenomenon that we find objectionable--abortion-ban-caused otherwise avoidable deaths of mothers. == Abortion should be legal in case of risk to the mother's life == In the United States, around 6% of abortions are reported to be due to physical or emotional health problems with the mother.<ref name=":0" /> * {{Argument for}} If the life of the mother is compromised, she should have the right to abort as a matter of self-defense. * {{Argument against}} The mother could indirectly defend herself with the intent not to abort. For example, taking chemotherapy for Uterine cancer may have the unintended side effect of abortion but that was not the intent. This is known as the [[W:Principle of double effect|Principle of double effect]]. == Abortion should be legal in case of rape or incest == In the United States, around 1% of abortions are reported to be due to rape or incest.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/policy/abortion/abreasons.html|title=Reasons given for having abortions in the United States|website=www.johnstonsarchive.net|access-date=2019-06-12}}</ref> * {{Argument for}} Forcing a woman to continue with a forced pregnancy is a violation of her rights. ** {{Objection}} Still, you would be killing someone else without that someone's consent. *** {{Objection}} Virtually all legal killings are against the victim's consent. * {{Argument for}} A fetus conceived through rape or incest is like an intruder and can be expelled like such. ** {{Objection}} A fetus shouldn't be treated like an intruder because it did not willfully intrude, someone put it there. No reasonable person would expel an unconscious person into the winter cold and leave it to die, if it was thrown into his property by a kidnapper. * {{Argument for}} Having children due to rape or incest can be seriously deleterious to the mother. Abortion in such cases is the best of the bad outcomes available in most cases. ** {{Objection}} Adoption services already exist. If a mother wishes not to raise the child, these seem like a much more palatable option than killing a fetus that could go on to do great things. * {{Argument against}} Proper medical care can ensure that a woman victim of rape or incest will not get pregnant. ** {{Objection}} Often a rape victim is too afraid to speak up or is unaware of being pregnant, thus the morning after pill is ineffective in these situations. ** {{Objection}} If conception has already taken place, any way of making her no longer pregnant is an abortion. * {{Argument for}} if we ban abortion, women who have been raped are now forced to have kids, and with the unfortunately high occurrence of rape, this may cause the population to explode, piling on to the already major problem of overpopulation. Not to mention, most bastard children live in such poor conditions and have so little morale for their existence that they will likely suffer their entire lives and never amount to anything. In that case, it's better for everyone involved that they didn't exist ** {{Objection}} rate of rape seems to be inconsequential to population growth. If we take the US, there seems to be roughly 85000 reported rapes per year. If we conservatively assume that this is half of the total rapes, that conservatively there's a 5% chance of getting pregnant per sexual intercourse (which tends to apply only to younger people), that right now there are no rape-related births in the US (likely untrue) and, finally, that no illegal abortion would take place, the number of pregnancies as a consequence of rape if abortion would be illegal would be roughly 0,2% of total birth in the US. Real percentage would probably be orders of magnitude lower. == See also == * [[Wikipedia:Abortion debate|Abortion debate]] on Wikipedia * [[Obstetrics and Gynecology/Abortion]] * [[Should governments fund research to develop artificial womb technologies?]] – Another potential debate that has a central point which examines issues that could help to reduce political conflict within the controversy surrounding abortion. == Notes and references == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Politics]] [[Category:Death]] [[Category:Legal ethics]] [[Category:Wikiversity Law Review]] 6n1hr8pz8psz7doe3o4ijqnpadupw23 0 215894 2415638 2394987 2022-08-16T23:12:35Z Sophivorus 85690 Improve references wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikidebate}} {{Law}} '''Capital punishment''', also known as the '''death penalty''', is a government-sanctioned practice whereby a person is killed by the state as a punishment for a crime. The sentence that someone be punished in such a manner is referred to as a '''death sentence''', whereas the act of carrying out the sentence is known as an '''execution'''. Crimes that are punishable by death are known as '''capital crimes''', '''capital offences''' or '''capital felonies'''. Currently, the legal status of capital punishment varies by region. Should it be legal? Under what circumstances? == Capital punishment should be legal in case of murder == === Arguments for === * {{Argument for}} Life in prison is arguably no more humane, but harder and more expensive to implement. * {{Argument for}} For the family and friends of a murder victim, the suffering of losing a loved one may never end. However, for some, the execution of the murderer provides a kind of closure that allows them to move on. For them, justice will never be served until the murderer is put to death. ** {{Objection}} There are a lot of people who would want the death penalty for a lot of other crimes, even (relatively) trivial crimes. Justice is not about just following the victims' wishes. ** {{Objection}} This is a false assumption. It isn't the death penalty, but more likely the efficiency of the legal process, that provides closure to the victims loved ones.<ref>http://scholarship.law.marquette.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=5144&context=mulr</ref> * {{Argument for}} The justice system attempts to punish proportionally to the crime. If the death penalty is not an option, then murder will probably be met with life prison. But there are other crimes that are met with life prison, like severely hurting someone. So if the punishment can't get any worse, what would stop criminals from delivering that final blow and killing its victim? If only to prevent that final blow, the death penalty should be an option. ** {{Objection}} There can be worse crimes than killing someone, for example killing more than one person or torturing before killing. If the punishment can't get any worse, what would stop criminals from killing other victims after the first one, or torturing before killing? ** {{Objection}} Murder is often committed in the heat of the moment, so having the penalty be death or life in prison won't make a difference. * {{Argument for}} Death penalty is the ultimate warning. If citizens know that premeditated murder can lead them to death, they are much less likely to commit it. ** {{Objection}} The death penalty has been with us for almost as long as murder. If its goal is to dissuade people from premeditated murder, then it isn't working. Some countries with capital punishment have a high murder rate, while other countries without it have a low murder rate. If anything helps to prevent murders, it isn't the fear of capital punishment. *** {{Objection}} The causal relationship is not clear just by what you've written. Perhaps those nations believe capital punishment is necessary because they have a high murder rate. ** {{Objection}} The death penalty isn't the ultimate warning. Torture followed by death would be a much stronger warning. Should we torture criminals before killing them, then? * {{Argument for}} Keeping murderers in prison for life is very expensive. It isn't fair that citizens are forced to pay for their maintenance if they aren't providing any useful service. ** {{Objection}} Prisoners can provide useful services from prison and thus pay for themselves. === Arguments against === * {{Argument against}} If punishment is meant to rehabilitate criminals, then the death penalty can't be an option, simply because dead people can't learn! ** {{Objection}} They can't murder anyone in cold blood either. ** {{Objection}} And why should the goal of punishment always be to rehabilitate criminals? It may be the goal for some punishments, even most, but not necessarily all. Premeditated murder is one of the most severe crimes one can commit, the motivations for its punishment need not be the same as for petty theft or other less severe crimes. *** {{Objection}} What other valid goals are there? The death penalty doesn't work as a deterrent, and the goal ought not to be to simply indulge the feelings of a victim's loved ones. * {{Argument against}} The right to life is a fundamental human right (Article 3 of The Universal Declaration of Human Rights). Defending this right by executing murderers is hypocritical and even contradictory. ** {{Objection}} This is a moral debate, not a legal one. Your argument is akin to saying that premeditated murder should be punished by death in Texas because their constitution says so. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, like every other legal document, is based on moral arguments. If arguing shows that premeditated murder should be punished by death, then the declaration may need amendment. The fact that some people at some point in history reached the conclusion that the right to life is inalienable, doesn't imply that they couldn't have been mistaken, just like so many other authors of legal documents have been throughout history. * {{Argument against}} Life in prison is sufficient punishment for any crime. Death is unnecessary and excessive. Death may even be a relief for many murderers who lived a terrible life outside prison and an even worse one inside the prison. * {{Argument against}} Capital punishment is expensive and thus a huge financial burden to the taxpayers due to the extensive legal process required. In the US it currently costs more to execute someone that to put it in jail for life.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thebalance.com/gdp-and-growth-4073942|title=GDP Growth & Recessions|website=The Balance|language=en|access-date=2022-08-16}}</ref> ** {{Objection}} This is issue is not inherent to capital punishment per se. * {{Argument against}} Capital punishment is irreversible. Both judge and jury are people, and it's inevitable for people to make mistakes. If someone is wrongly convicted and sentenced to life in prison and later found innocent, he or she could still be released and properly compensated. ** {{Objection}} It is impossible to compensate people for time lost and other hardships they experienced from the legal process. People do make mistakes, but this should not undermine pragmatic means of addressing intractable anti-social behavior like premeditated homicide. Someone guilty of premeditated murder (especially more than one instance) may be a danger to other prisoners being kept for less serious offenses. Putting them in long-term solitary confinement is inhumane and unlikely to improve their disposition. * {{Argument against}} Even accepting that capital punishment is morally and / or ethically appropriate, the government is prone to errors and fallible and we shouldn't let it decide who lives and who dies. == See also == * [[Should abortion be legal?]] == Notes and references == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Politics]] [[Category:Death]] [[Category:Legal ethics]] [[Category:Wikiversity Law Review]] itxed9p4esvkvp950s112gvrkuhrckj 0 215895 2415637 2394964 2022-08-16T23:03:55Z Sophivorus 85690 Normalize wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikidebate}} {{Law}} {{Medicine}} '''Voluntary euthanasia''', also known as '''assisted death''', is a medical process which is similar to but distinct from the question [[should suicide be legal?]] In euthanasia, a person facing terminal illness has life-prolonging treatment denied and some actions by medical practitioners can active kill the patient. Does this represent a violation of doctors' commitment to do no harm or is it actually an example of it? Euthanasia is the practice of intentionally ending a life in order to relieve pain and suffering. Voluntary euthanasia is different from non-voluntary euthanasia and involuntary euthanasia in that it has the consent of the patient. Some forms of voluntary euthanasia are legal in Belgium, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and the US states of Oregon and Washington. Voluntary euthanasia should be legal worldwide. == Voluntary euthanasia should be legal == === Arguments for === * {{Argument for}} Every person has a fundamental right over his or her own body and life. Forbidding voluntary euthanasia would be preventing willing but unable individuals to exercise this right. The practice of euthanasia isn't expensive or complicated (quite the opposite), so society has no reason left to deny it to a willing individual. * {{Argument for}} Another reason is that the parents don't want their child to suffer so they tell them to take euthanasia. === Arguments against === * {{Argument against}} If euthanasia were legalized, some health insurance companies would see it as a profit-enhancing and cost-saving tool. It is well known that many health insurance companies have an economic interest in denying treatment to their patients, and they routinely find excuses to do so. If euthanasia were made an alternative, then it would not be long until they start recommending it instead of more expensive treatments, even if such treatments may lead to recovery. ** {{Objection}} One still has the decision and just because ones decision could be influenced, the possibility to decide shouldn't be removed. As an example, we are always being influenced by advertisement to buy certain products, but just because it would be bad for us if we followed all those suggestions we aren't forbidden to buy the products. * {{Argument against}} If voluntary euthanasia is made legal, then it won't always be voluntary. Emotional and psychological pressures could become overpowering for depressed or dependent people. If the choice of euthanasia is considered as good as a decision as receiving care, many people will feel guilty for not choosing death. Financial considerations, added to the concern about 'being a burden', could serve as powerful forces that would lead people to 'choose' euthanasia or assisted suicide. ** {{Objection}} Dependent people already feel the pressure of 'being a burden'. The legality of the act does not bear upon serious suicidal considerations. Put another way, think about who a dependent person might be concerned with burdening. It might be their family, friends, or care providers, but certainly not the state. * {{Argument against}} Legalizing euthanasia can lead to suicide contagion. When the media portrays assisted suicide as a means of 'taking control' or claims that someone helping another person kill themselves is 'death with dignity', then society (including teenagers) is receiving the dangerous message that suicide is a legitimate answer to life's problems.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationalreview.com/human-exceptionalism/suicide-contagion-real-wesley-j-smith/|title=Suicide Contagion is Real|date=2013-05-21|website=National Review|language=en-US|access-date=2022-08-16}}</ref> ** {{Objection}} The argument relies on speculation as to the behavior of media and the behavior of society as a result. One might also speculate that the "contagion" effect is limited to adolescents, since the study also showed that the effect lessens with age.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www2.uottawa.ca/about-us/media|title=Media|website=About us|language=en|access-date=2022-08-16}}</ref> ** {{Objection}} The argument fails to show that an increase in suicide rates ought to be addressed through law (or at all). * {{Argument against}} Laws against euthanasia and assisted suicide are in place to prevent abuse and to protect people from unscrupulous medics and others. ** {{Objection}} If euthanasia were legal, abuse may arise in some instances, but your argument does not sufficiently show that it would be the norm. The mere possibility for abuse is not a reason to outlaw such a service. What your argument really suggests is the need for well regulated euthanasia and a thorough record of consent, incorporating practices that are resistant to malicious manipulation. == See also == * [[Should suicide be legal?]] * [[Should capital punishment be legal?]] == Notes and references == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Politics]] [[Category:Death]] [[Category:Wikiversity Law Review]] [[Category:Legal ethics]] 0gnz7oz9nbvwc9fascjhxdytla1p6ep 0 216001 2415623 2414746 2022-08-16T19:07:42Z Sophivorus 85690 Improve references wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikidebate}} Humans are the only animals who can choose their diets and we base these decisions based on convenience, culture, ethics, nutrition, and taste. Does veganism hold out a prospect for a sustainable, ethical, and nutritious diet? Is it too much to ask with too little benefit? For the purposes of this debate, '''veganism''' is both the practice of abstaining from the use of animal products, particularly in diet, and an associated abolitionist philosophy that rejects the commodity status of animals. == We should go vegan == === Arguments for === * {{Argument for}} Causing unnecessary suffering on animals is morally wrong. Exploiting animals is unnecessary and causes much suffering. Therefore, exploiting animals is morally wrong and should be abolished. ** {{Objection}} This does not preclude hunting and eating wild game. The custom of hunting white-tail deer in the United States is a good example of well-managed and ethical harvesting of wild game. More tags for antlered deer (which are usually male) or either sex (not issued for regular season, as far as I know) are issued than for antlerless/female deer to minimize impact on the population. Hunters generally prefer older antlered deer that have lived through the majority of their expected lifespan. They are harvested in a manner no less humane (and usually much more humane) than how they'd typically expire from senescence or predation by other wild animals. This combination of cultural habits and effective regulation is an example of sustainable and ethical consumption of meat. *** {{Objection}} "Unnecessary suffering" was specified which requires exhausting your options before resorting to murder. **** {{Objection}} Killing and consuming non-human animals cannot be murder by definition. *** {{Objection}} This doesn't prevent ethically harvesting humans after murder by the same logic. **** {{Objection}} It doesn't have to. Other arguments suffice for that concern. ** {{Objection}} Animals in the wild suffer more, as starvation and predation is a constant threat to them. For a natural equilibrium, all animal species living in the wild live at the brink of starvation, as an excess of food leads to their numbers increasing, then collapsing. Being stunned then sent to be butchered is far better than being eaten by lions. *** {{Objection}} Animals in factory farms suffer guaranteed predation at a fraction of their natural life span. They don't lack food, true, but they are systematically mutilated, exploited, denied of basic freedom of movement, electrocuted, kicked, and many, many, many other atrocities. In traditional farms, animals are denied freedom of movement and reproduction, and also suffer guaranteed predation at a fraction of their natural life span. *** {{Objection}} Even if it were true that animals in the wild suffer more, that doesn't authorize us to further exploit animals ourselves. We're not taking animals out of their suffering in the wild to put them into factory farms. Rather, we're breeding them exclusively for that purpose. **** {{Objection}} Even if we're breeding them exclusively for that purpose, it doesn't matter. Their suffering is less valuable than what we extract from their delicious corpses. ** {{Objection}} Plants also feel and suffer. Therefore, by this argument, we shouldn't eat plants and we would have to starve. *** {{Objection}} A central nervous system is necessary for suffering. Plants don't have a central nervous system so they don't suffer. *** {{Objection}} Even if plants suffered, their suffering would be necessary because we need to eat plants to survive. On the other hand, we don't need to exploit animals to survive and thrive. **** {{Objection}} We don't need to exploit plants either. The Inuit people survive on an almost completely carnivorous diet. ** {{Objection}} Nowadays there's {{W|cultured meat}}. *** {{Objection}} Yes, but only at small scale and high cost. We have yet to see if it ever becomes a viable commercial option. ** {{Objection}} Non-human animals have no feelings and suffer no pain. *** {{Objection}} Non-human animals behave very similarly to us humans under circumstances that would cause us pain: they scream (or produce other noises), shake, contort, run, try to avoid the source of pain, etc. *** {{Objection}} Non-human animals, especially mammals and birds, have an evolutionary history and nervous system very similar to our own. * {{Argument for}} Animal agriculture is the main cause of deforestation around the world.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Steinfeld|first=Henning|last2=Gerber|first2=Pierre|last3=Wassenaar|first3=T.|last4=Castel|first4=V.|last5=Rosales|first5=Mauricio|last6=de Haan|first6=C.|date=2006|title=Livestock's long shadow|url=https://www.fao.org/3/a0701e/a0701e00.htm}}</ref> Farmers chop and burn trees to make room for cattle to graze, and to grow crops, most of which is used to feed cattle living in feedlots. To fight against global warming and protect biodiversity, humanity should go vegan. ** {{Objection}} This only implies that we shouldn't increase animal agriculture. If we don't increase it, there would be no need to cut down forests to make more room for animal agriculture. If we wanted to increase forest coverage by taking area away from animal agriculture, we could decrease meat and dairy consumption, so the deforestation argument doesn't warrant a complete change to veganism. * {{Argument for}} It takes much more land to sustain an omnivore diet than a vegan diet. World population is expected to reach 11 billion before it starts to decrease.<ref name=":1">{{Citation|title=DON'T PANIC — Hans Rosling showing the facts about population|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FACK2knC08E|accessdate=2022-08-16|language=en}}</ref> Feeding all those people will be impossible if the current trend towards a diet with more animal products continues. To prevent even more starvation, humanity should go vegan. ** {{Objection}} Veganism is not going to stop a [[Wikipedia:Malthusianism|malthusian crisis]]. At best it's a stop-gap measure. If malthusian growth is an accurate model for the populations you're going to feed with all that extra food, then other measures (preferably a one child policy) must be implemented before hunger can be addressed without compounding the problem. *** {{Objection}} World population is expected to reach 11 billion before it starts to decrease.<ref name=":1" /> More and better birth control and higher standards of living are leading to less children per women, so veganism doesn't need to stop a malthusian crisis. **** {{Objection}} It is not clear whether these selective pressures affect a nation's population uniformly or instead a more specific sub-population. Without a clear idea of what is selected for, this could have far-reaching and potentially negative effects on genetic fitness. A one-child policy is less likely to disfavor specific traits and more likely an effective course of action to combat hunger and lessen human impact on the environment than a set of lifestyle choices or cultural changes. ** {{Objection}} The food herbivores eat cannot be digested effectively by humans, so eating meat means more food, not less. For example, cows can digest grass, while humans cannot, so it would not make sense to eat grass directly. More land dedicated to meat production would mean more food, not less. ** {{Objection}} In the developed world a lot of food is thrown away, as not all of the surplus can be redistributed to other areas of the world, due to logistical, economical, political, etc. problems. This means that if developing countries started consuming less food, this food wouldn't magically teleport to the tables of people who have food shortages. *** {{Objection}} Then fix those problems. Either way, animal product-based diets are more resource intensive from energy, land, and water. More efficient food sources are better all things being equal and we are in the midst of huge crises of resources—environmentally, economically, politically. We shouldn't compound those with meat and other animal products. ** {{Objection}} That current trend towards more meat in the diet would naturally go away due to supply and demand. If meat becomes more expensive, and then people would eat less meat, veganism would grow more common even if nobody was advocating it for simple economic reasons, and the problem would solve itself. Also overpopulation is a problem that solves itself, just look at any animal species, when a species of animal becomes overpopulated, they naturally have their population either stabilize or go down. *** {{Objection}} This assumes a lot about markets being rational (they are not) and if we aren't even arguing for some kind of state intervention in a market—humans can choose to deliberately control markets as private actors. There used to be a market for child labor but we deliberately chose to stop employing it rather than let the invisible hand somehow naturally move away from it. If the exploitation of children, slaves, or non-human animals is wrong, then we shouldn't just put our faith in a promissory note of markets to somehow stop exploitation. * {{Argument for}} Billions of animals are slaughtered without mercy every year, in systematic and extremely cruel ways.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2Y_GqN4-5Mw|title=Earthlings - YouTube|website=www.youtube.com|access-date=2022-08-16}}</ref> ** {{Objection}} This only implies that we should avoid or abolish factory farming, not that we should go vegan. ** {{Objection}} The meat industry is getting more humane.{{Citation needed}} *** {{Objection}} Not really, but even if it did, it will always be more humane to not eat and otherwise exploit the animals. * {{Argument for}} It takes anywhere between 5,000 and 20,000 litres of water to produce 1kg of meat.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2013/jan/10/how-much-water-food-production-waste|title=How much water is needed to produce food and how much do we waste?|publisher=Guardian Media Group|work=The Guardian|quote=Meat production requires a much higher amount of water than vegetables. IME state that to produce 1kg of meat requires between 5,000 and 20,000 litres of water whereas to produce 1kg of wheat requires between 500 and 4,000 litres of water.}}</ref> Such inefficiency is unacceptable when over a billion people lack access to clean water. ** {{Objection}} Meat production may be a very inefficient use of water, but saving that water doesn't mean that it will be given to the people who lack it, and saving for the sake of saving makes no sense, as water follows a cycle and will return, eventually. *** {{Objection}} Saving water ''is'' an end unto itself as it's a precious resource and the treatment of water is an important part of the water cycle in the anthropocene. In addition to the waste that goes into ''using'' the water to grow animals for food, they are also huge ''polluters'' of the water system—specifically pig farms. Just never using that water in the first place relieves a huge strain on our infrastructure. ** {{Objection}} This argument only implies that we should reduce or avoid meat, not every other animal product. ** {{Objection}} Beyond the raising, meat requires minimal additional water whereas something like rice, lentils, beans all requires 2-3× their volume in water to be edible. *** {{Objection}} Rice doesn't actually need much water to grow—rather it is used as a pesticide. If someone were eating exclusively very water-intensive vegan foods, then this would be a problem but no one would be as a diet composed entirely of almonds is not nutritious. ** {{Objection}} Lack of access to clean water is a matter of technology being affordable (borewells, desalination etc). We don't have a shortage or scarcity of clean drinking water as we do with exhaustible resources like oil or natural gas. ** {{Objection}} Because not everything grows everywhere, but animals can be raised locally, removing all meat from the diet necessitates a larger amount of pollution from transporting food. * {{Argument for}} The main cause of premature death among humans are cardiovascular diseases. The main cause of cardiovascular diseases are clogged arteries.{{Citation needed}} The main cause of clogged arteries are animal products.{{Citation needed}} ** {{Objection}} That is an oversimplification of the matter. First of all, the main cause of cardiovascular disease is not clogged arteries, rather that cardiovascular disease is often used to refer to clogged arteries. However, when one takes into account all possible diseases of the cardiovascular system, the leading cause is actually genetic.{{Citation needed}} Furthermore, while it is true that atherosclerosis, or clogged arteries, is often linked to one's diet, it is not necessarily true that animal products are the problem. In the past, cholesterol has been blamed for heart disease, but this, as well as most other claims made by dieticians, is still very disputed and inconclusive. *** {{Objection}} We all evolved in very dangerous environments and our species survived but that doesn't mean we should expose ourselves to increased danger. It's correct that there is some shaky science on whether or not animal protein is more dangerous than plant protein but it's definitely true that eating certain animal products (e.g. red meat) is associated with very serious and debilitating health problems. Furthermore, some are almost entirely from animal products, such as mercury poisoning from fish and salmonella from undercooked chicken and eggs. Diversity is key to survival but we can have entirely balanced and diverse diets without animal products. For the subset of humans who can't realistically have a balanced diet without supplementing it with animal products due to availability or special health concerns, then that is a different story. For the great majority of us, veganism is a a legitimate healthy diet that inarguably avoids many health risks which are exclusive or far more common to omnivorous diets. **** {{Objection}} Why should we go through the trouble of restricting our own diets for reasons other than health? * {{Argument for}} Each cow produces between 70 and 120 kilograms of methane per year, a greenhouse gas 23 times more potent than carbon dioxide. There are almost 1 billion cows alive at any given time. That's equivalent to about 2 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide per year.<ref>For comparison, in 2011, our burning of fossil fuels released 33 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, according to Le Quéré, C., A. K. Jain, M. R. Raupach, J. Schwinger, S. Sitch, B. D. Stocker, N. Viovy, S. Zaehle, C. Huntingford, P. Friedlingstein, R. J. Andres, T. Boden, C. Jourdain, T. Conway, R. A. Houghton, J. I. House, G. Marland, G. P. Peters, G. Van Der Werf, A. Ahlström, R. M. Andrew, L. Bopp, J. G. Canadell, E. Kato, P. Ciais, S. C. Doney, C. Enright, N. Zeng, R. F. Keeling, K. Klein Goldewijk, S. Levis, P. Levy, M. Lomas, and B. Poulter. "The global carbon budget 1959–2011." Earth System Science Data Discussions 5, no. 2 (2012): 1107–1157.</ref> Getting rid of this methane emission would make a big difference in the fight against climate change. ** {{Objection}} There are other solutions for this problem other than going vegan, such as favoring animals which don't produce methane, like chickens. *** {{Objection}} A vegan diet would be one solution to this problem plus it would solve many other problems. === Arguments against === * {{Argument against}} Animal products are delicious. ** {{Objection}} We may get pleasure from a lot of activities but that doesn't justify them. *** {{Objection}} That an activity is pleasurable is still, all else equal, a point in its favour. **** {{Objection}} Indeed, but the pain inflicted on animals outweighs the pleasure humans derive from eating them. **** {{Objection}} Granted, but eating animal products causes unmeasurable amounts of harm, to humans, the environment and especially animals. Even if the industry were to become utopian (which is extremely unlikely) we'd still be killing animals in huge numbers and at a fraction of their natural life. ***** {{Objection}} And they'd still be delicious, too. *** {{Objection}} Under utilitarian ethics an act being pleasurable can sometimes be justification enough, at least if the harm done is sufficiently little, so the question of justification depends on which ethical framework is being used. **** {{Objection}} Certainly but ''if'' we use a utilitarian/consequentialist ethic, the strongest arguments are against increasing suffering. Similar arguments could be made with other meta-ethical theories but this is not an argument ''against'' veganism ''if'' we assume utilitarianism--it's only an argument against utilitarianism as such. ** {{Objection}} Vegan foods exist which are equally if not more delicious. Tastes are different for different persons but it is much easier to make vegan equivalents of meat and cheese than it is to turn meat into a substance that tastes like broccoli. Even if you insist on the taste or texture of meat and cheese, it's possible to duplicate those fairly convincingly with plant-based products. *** {{Objection}} These foods are more expensive and harder to find than meat, with a totally different nutrient profile. *** {{Objection}} The fact that some food is delicious is subjective, each one is biased while judging this. But we can assume that the majority of humanity find meat delicious, and a lot of them will find a big part of vegan food awful, and even if their tastes are biased, it doesn't make it less real for them. * {{Argument against}} With the exception of plants, all life forms feed on other life forms. Feeding on animals is therefore as ethical as feeding on any other life form. ** {{Objection}} Animals, unlike plants, are able to feel and suffer, and humans are not obligate carnivores like cats. Therefore feeding on animals is not as ethical as feeding on plants. *** {{Objection}} Plants are very much capable of feeling and suffering, and even scream in the ultrasonic frequency when cut.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Khait|first=I.|last2=Lewin-Epstein|first2=O.|last3=Sharon|first3=R.|last4=Saban|first4=K.|last5=Perelman|first5=R.|last6=Boonman|first6=A.|last7=Yovel|first7=Y.|last8=Hadany|first8=L.|date=2019-12-02|title=Plants emit informative airborne sounds under stress|url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/507590v4|journal=bioRxiv|language=en|pages=507590|doi=10.1101/507590}}</ref> Ethics are subjective, and claiming eating plants is more ethical than eating animals makes just as much sense as claiming eating fish is more ethical than eating red meat since fish don't feel pain, or that boiling lobsters alive doesn't hurt them. **** {{Objection}} "Ethics are subjective" begs the question. Also, to say it is more ethical to eat plants than animals is not to say plants don't feel pain at all. Finally, it could very well be true that eating fish is more ethical than eating red meat, as one could say a cow has a higher level of sentience (and a greater capability to feel pain) than a fish. *** {{Objection}} Animals can be raised in ways that allow them to live happy lives, and slaughtered with quick, painless, humane methods. Animals that live such lives have a whole lot more happiness in their lives than suffering, even if they do end up as meat. Maybe this is not commonly done at factory farms, but many family farmers are good to their animals. **** {{Objection}} But this doesn't justify exploiting them. Tacit in your argument is the notion that less exploitation is better so surely no exploitation is best. ***** {{Objection}} We have no duty not to exploit them, nor necessarily to pursue that which is best. Better is good enough. *** {{Objection}} Plants feel and suffer too,{{Citation needed}} they've been proven to respond to being harmed and even scream ultrasonically.<ref name=":0" /> **** {{Objection}} Even if they did, we'd be causing much more suffering by growing the plants, feeding them to the animals and then killing the animals to eat them, than by eating the plants directly. ***** {{Objection}} Animals can eat more than just plants. ****** {{Objection}} Fish? Insects? Fungi? Bacteria? In the end, they all eat plants. Plants are at the base of the food chain, so eating them directly is the less-harmful diet. * {{Argument against}} Humans have canine teeth, so we're supposed to eat meat. ** {{Objection}} Most herbivores and omnivores have canines. Canines are not a trait exclusive to carnivores. *** {{Objection}} More omnivores and carnivores have canines, respectively, than herbivores. Also, canines being "exclusive" to carnivores was never claimed to begin with. Indeed, humans are omnivores, and the claim was that humans have canines. * {{Argument against}} Most domesticated animal species would go extinct if we stopped raising them, as they are unable to survive in the wild. ** {{Objection}} The extinction of species that are not fit to survive in the wild is natural, and even if we did have an ethical obligation to protect species from extinction, a vegan world could easily maintain populations of domesticated animals for this reason alone, as we would other species that are extinct in the wild. ** {{Objection}} Wild aurochs are extinct. Domestication saved cattle from extinction. * {{Argument against}} Animals grow all year round. Edible crops might not. In some regions, keeping and eating animals is a better use of the land than trying to cultivate it. For example the Arctic regions around the world, from Alaska to Greenland to northern Canada to Siberia to northern Norway. The land there is not suited to agriculture, but there are plenty of fish in the sea, and larger animals such as seals which feed on the fish and are also an essential part of the diet of people who live there. If you are a member of the Inuit people, the traditional {{W|Inuit cuisine}} is probably the best diet to eat if you want to survive in the frigid north. ** {{Objection}} Since those living in and near the Arctic Circle are less than 1/100th of a percent of the population, their meat consumption is mostly irrelevant to the larger point about the impact of exploiting animals on a global scale. *** {{Objection}} So being a minority means their actions and lifestyle do not matter? ** {{Objection}} These are probably good reasons why no one should live in the extreme north anyway—this is simply not a natural habitat for humans, so we aren't justified for trying to exploit it as much as possible for our benefit. *** {{Objection}} That is irrelevant to the discussion. ** {{Objection}} If a mass transition to a vegan diet leaves land unsuitable for crops unused, then nature would reclaim it and thus help recover wilderness, which in times like these is a good thing. * {{Argument against}} Many of the problems with meat and dairy farming as practiced currently could be solved without necessarily abolishing it entirely, such as by drastically reducing the amount of meat in people's omnivorous diets, and by abolishing factory farming in particular, so it's not necessary for humanity to go vegan. ** {{Objection}} That would likely make the costs of animal products as food skyrocket so the market solution would be a drastic reduction in their intake. ** {{Objection}} If reducing consumption of animal products is a good thing, then reducing it even more is probably an even better thing. We won't have to worry about the problems of excess in these industries if we don't have these industries. Once a critical mass of humanity stops seeing other animals as something fun for us to exploit for profit and pleasure, then we can desincentivise anyone else from what are clearly cruel and wasteful excesses through social pressure, laws, market forces, changes in morality, etc. It isn't likely that humans will stop exploiting animals entirely, but it's also not likely that murder, rape or slavery will be eradicated entirely—we should still stand up against those heinous practices. In some sense, modern-day slavery may well be preferable to the slavery of centuries past but it's still fundamentally wrong. A gentler form of exploitation is nice in some sense but allowing it to continue just because it's better is actually worse in the long run because it brutalizes us. * {{Argument against}} Veganism is a privilege, a first-world phenomenon. ** {{Objection}} The fact that something is a privilege doesn't imply that we shouldn't strive for it. * {{Argument against}} Most people can't afford a healthy vegan diet. Telling these people that their way of life is morally inferior because you can afford a healthy diet that avoids making any animals suffer but they don't is moral elitism. ** {{Objection}} The cheapest food in the market is vegan: fruits, vegetables, grains, legumes, tubers, etc. *** {{Objection}} Cheapest in first world countries, you mean, due to the exploitation of third world countries. **** {{Objection}} And most other places too, since you will always have to grow grain to feed livestock. Many farmers in western China for instance are vegans or ovo-vegetarians because they can't afford meat, and dairy simply isn't a part of Chinese cuisine. * {{Argument against}} For many groups, eating meat is culturally significant. Many would not willingly give up meat completely, and forcing them to do so would infringe on their liberties. ** {{Objection}} There are many cultural, economic, political, and religious traditions that we change or give up entirely because a better alternative is available. Slavery and the prejudicial attitudes which allow it are almost universal in human history but we can recognize that it is exploitative and wrong. *** {{Objection}} Slavery is an issue of human rights. Less sentient beings cannot truly appreciate having equal rights to humans. **** {{Objection}} Nor can baby humans but they still have rights and interests that they may not be able to appreciate. Rights are rights even if someone isn't cognizant of them. ***** {{Objection}} One characteristic of almost all baby humans is that they grow up into adult humans, unlike non-sapient species. Furthermore we do restrict the rights of humans under a certain age, like their right to give sexual consent or their right to drink alcohol. ** {{Objection}} No one is arguing that everyone should be ''coerced'' into being vegan. *** {{Objection}} How else do you expect every human to go vegan? This is clearly a debate and there are inevitably people who will not forgo meat and animal products by choice. **** {{Objection}} I also expect everyone else to not murder or not assault me: I don't anticipate that everyone has to be coerced into having a conscience. But just like how animal cruelty is illegal, it's entirely possible to reframe other warrantless exploitation of animals as cruel and illegalize it. * {{Argument against}} [[Are humans omnivores or herbivores?|Humans are natural omnivores]]. Eating an herbivore diet when you are a member of an omnivore species is unnatural, and going against our natural diet is likely to be unhealthy unless you put a whole lot of energy and research into your nutrition. ** {{Objection}} Even if humans were natural omnivores, it doesn't imply that we ''ought'' to eat meat, since we can survive and thrive on a plant-based diet (many vegans do). ** {{Objection}} Humans are naturally herbivores, just like our closest relatives the gorillas, bonobos and chimpanzees. Evidence for this can be drawn from the length of our intestines (similar to that of other herbivores), lack of strong canines (or strong teeth in general), ability to chew in a sidewise motion, lack of claws or other natural weapons, and evolutionary past as tree-dwelling, fruit-eating and plant-munching monkeys. *** {{Objection}} Bonobos and chimpanzees are omnivores, and gorillas eat insects too. In fact every animal will eat meat if given the chance. Lack of strong canines is not a sign of herbivory because hippos, which are mainly herbivorous, have large canines. We also do not kill animals using our teeth or other natural weapons, at least not most of the time, so this is not an argument for herbivory. The ability to chew sideways is not an exclusively herbivorous trait. Our evolutionary past does not define who we are today. The very first animal was a carnivore, that does not make us carnivores today (though the Inuit people are evidence we can survive as such.) *** {{Objection}} Omnivore simply means there is the capability to digest and benefit animal cells, which there are. **** {{Objection}} Even if we ''can'' that doesn't mean we ''should''. Humans can choose our diets and broadly speaking, we can. Due to economics, circumstance, and medical issues, this can be difficult but humans are not bound to instinctual diets like other animals. *** {{Objection}} Vampire finches are carnivorous and related to house finches. **** {{Objection}} Vampire finches are not carnivorous—they occasionally drink blood and eat eggs. ***** {{Objection}} Which makes them omnivores. * {{Argument against}} Non-human animals don't deserve the same rights. ** {{Objection}} Rights are conventions, not natural laws. The only reason why humans "deserve" rights is because we say so. Similarly, we can give rights to non-human animals if we decide to. ** {{Objection}} Non-human animals have rights whether or not humans recognize them, just like how other humans can ignore the rights of some humans but that doesn't make them cease to exist. ** {{Objection}} Even if animals didn't have ''rights'', they still have ''interests'' and those can be relevant to our decision-making. We don't have to require non-human animals to have rights in order to take into account their suffering and how we brutalize ourselves by exploiting non-human animals. * {{Argument against}} Factory farming could be ended without necessarily converting everyone to veganism (although we would have to eat less meat). The relevant comparison is between life in the wild and the most humane methods of farming meat that we could plausibly institute. ** {{Objection}} Any scheme to end factory farming will certainly result in animal products being much less economical or realistic an option for many of us. So while eating meat and other animal products from non-factory farms is of course possible even now and while the cessation of factory farms wouldn't ''demand'' veganism, it would certainly be a wise choice from the perspective of your pocketbook. If a lower intake of meat is cheaper, an even lower one of no meat is liable to be cheaper still. *** {{Objection}} Until a few decades ago, factory farms didn't even exist, yet most people ate still ate meat. There are still plenty of farmers who do not work on factory farms, and if we eliminated the factory farm competition, they would be able to earn a better living, and this would increase the standard of living in many poor countries across the world, if more people bought produce from family farms where the farmers know the animals individually and treat them better. People might not eat as much meat without factory farms, but they would probably still eat some, at least on special occasions. **** {{Objection}} True, there are many contexts for meat-eating and the exploitation of non-human animals ''but'' the environmental reason for being vegan is because of factor farms. The problem is real and much worse than it was a few decades ago, so since this industry is a massive polluter, that is a good motivation for not supporting them. Most of us would argue that less meat eating and less animal exploitation is certainly better but if that is better than surely none of it is what is best. * {{Argument against}} Vegan diets are unhealthy, they can't provide all necessary nutrients. ** {{Objection}} This is plainly untrue as there are healthy vegans. If you are arguing that ''in practice'' there are vegans who eat unhealthy (i.g. "junk food vegans") then that is also true of every other diet. If you are arguing that ''in principle'' balanced vegan diets are unhealthy, that is not the case since anything potentially lacking in a vegan diet can be made up for with supplements. *** {{Objection}} If your diet relies on supplements to give you the necessary nutrients to survive, then perhaps you are not meant for that diet. ** {{Objection}} As stated by the American Dietetic Association, a vegetarian or vegan diet is nutritionally adequate and healthful for an individual in all stages of life. All of the nutrients obtained from an omnivorous diet can also be obtained from a vegan diet. * {{Argument against}} Dietary restrictions don't benefit humans. * {{Argument against}} The reorganization of legal property regimes and land use concepts in policy is preferable to veganism. Ethno-agriculture, ethnoforestry, ethnobotany, etc. have shown us that the indigenous peoples of the Americas had a far more sophisticated civilization than we understood at the time, and that we failed to see it because of how alien it was to colonial land use concepts. If the right to exclusivity and exclusion over land were removed from the "bundle of sticks" of property rights, and Native sovereignty (a concept not descended from the Eclectic or Westphalian notion), then urban design and civic infrastructure in general could be changed to enhance rather than antagonize biodiversity, and additionally permit fauna to return to their natural state of continental roaming. Permaculture techniques provide a rough approximation of comparable practices to those of indigenous people, but indigenous people themselves should also be permitted to take over the Bureau of Land Management, and to handle land use policies in the municipalities and lands that immediately surround the lands where they live. Houses themselves should be conceptually reimagined as being part of a positive contribution to nature. There are complaints about overpopulation, but this only makes sense of the ecological output of each individual is a negative rather than a positive quantity. Were massive ecological and land use reforms made, vegan arguments would begin to lack relevance. Such a legal reinvention would exclude the possibility of industrial farms of present scale, and yet produce more food, though probably resulting in less meat consumption overall, which is healthier. Once fauna were permitted to roam the continent, their populations would be more stable and robust, and so it would be less of a concern to permit people merely to slay the fauna that came near them if they felt they wanted more meat than localized and ecologically sustainable meat producers could offer them. Under this proposal it becomes clear that Veganism is a notion fairly specific to Colonial thought paradigms. It has no suggestions for land use, property concepts, agricultural reform, etc. but is merely the suggestion that animal agriculture as practiced now is immoral. It is, this is readily perceptible. The Vegan is typically comfortable with every Colonial land use practice except industrial animal agriculture. Many indigenous tribes slay animals as a component of their ancient and sacred traditions, and if they were permitted to expand their traditional knowledge into land use policy, they would dramatically improve their environments. This possibility by itself, appears to discredit the notion that the slaying of an animal in and of itself, decontextualized from colonial systems, is a moral wrong. It would be the most myopic variety of Colonial thinking to apply a universal moral claim towards the judgment of indigenous people. There is also the problem that it is especially difficult to replicate the macronutrient profile of meat from plant sources, and under the Colonial system the vast majority of people have neither the funds, time, emotional resources, gastronomic sophistication, or education, to make such an ascetic transition. Where a Colonial style moral universal is applied to antagonize the moral culpability of individuals in poverty, the argument suffers from a fatal deontological flaw.{{Long}} == We should just reduce meat consumption == * {{Argument for}} Humans currently produce food for 10 billion people, but about a third of the crop is fed to animals, which leaves about a billion people without enough food. Going vegan would go a long way in helping end world hunger. ** {{Objection}} Animals can also eat things we can not, such as grass or poison ivy, so producing more meat would mean more food, not less. ** {{Objection}} Or we can just produce more food from sources that don't require arable land, like fishing. *** {{Objection}} Eating fish would use much less land but that is also irrelevant to freeing up land for other purposes which are more efficient, helpful, or economical. So yes, we could convert to pescetarian diets and then use ''land'' for other purposes but this is just part of the green argument against eating meat. ** {{Objection}} Many food sources animals eat are inedible to humans. For instance cows eat grass and while humans can technically eat grass, we cannot digest the cellulose whereas cows can, so if we eat cellulose-rich plants, the vast majority of the energy in the food is wasted as we cannot digest cellulose. Cows convert the cellulose into chemicals that humans are capable of digesting. Eating animals is a way to indirectly get nutrition from food sources that are not directly digestible by humans. *** {{Objection}} But we can still get far more efficient and effective nutrition from other sources so we could convert a small percentage of that grassland into farmland. == See also == * [[Is morality objective?]] * [[Should animal testing be legal?]] * [[Are humans omnivores or herbivores?]] == Notes and references == {{Reflist}} [[Category:Animals]] [[Category:Ethics]] [[Category:Veganism]] 4jyhfxxqbja40mocptkwie4ze7eyjim 0 217442 2415635 2394972 2022-08-16T22:32:49Z Sophivorus 85690 Fix nesting and other issues wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikidebate}} {{Biology}} Most humans are behavioral omnivores, but are we naturally so? Are we fit for eating meat and cheese as much as fruits and vegetables? Or are humans natural herbivores? == Humans are omnivores == '''Omnivores''' are animals anatomically and physiologically adapted to eating both plant and animal matter. * {{Argument for}} [[W:Human|Humans]] gain significant nutrition and energy from meat. ** {{Objection}} Animal products contain components which cause many prevalent chronic diseases, amongst which cholesterol, which causes the inflammation of the arteries and can lead to atherosclerosis,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ludewig|first=Burkhard|last2=Zinkernagel|first2=Rolf M|last3=Hengartner|first3=Hans|date=2002-05-01|title=Arterial Inflammation and Atherosclerosis|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1050173801001669|journal=Trends in Cardiovascular Medicine|language=en|volume=12|issue=4|pages=154–159|doi=10.1016/S1050-1738(01)00166-9|issn=1050-1738}}</ref> cardiovascular disease and strokes; saturated fat; animal protein; heme iron in red meat, which the human body lacks the capacity to regulate and is associated with a higher risk of colorectal cancer AND anatomical carnivores/omnivores do not develop such issues, this is an argument about anatomy, behavior only tells us what we already know, and I think we are all accutely aware that meat eating is a common practice, but so is traveling via airplane; the fact that so many of us do this however, doesn't mean we have specific physiological adaptations towards this behavior.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-01-01|title=Mechanism of colorectal carcinogenesis triggered by heme iron from red meat|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304419X19301817|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Reviews on Cancer|language=en|volume=1873|issue=1|pages=188334|doi=10.1016/j.bbcan.2019.188334|issn=0304-419X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wcrf.org/dietandcancer/exposures/meat-fish-dairy|title=Meat, fish & dairy|date=2018-04-24|website=World Cancer Research Fund|language=en|access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref> * {{Argument for}} Humans have a [[W:Trophic level|trophic level]] of 2.21 (same as anchovy and pigs).<ref name=":1" />Anchovy subsist primarily on zooplankton.<ref name=":2" />Pigs are omnivores. Animals with such a trophic level can subsist on a widely varied diet. ** {{Objection}} Level 2 of the trophic level index includes herbivores, level 3 or higher includes carnivores. A trophic level of 2.21 doesn't imply that humans are omnivores. * {{Argument for}} Our closest evolutionary relatives, [[W:Chimpanzee|chimpanzees]] and bonobos, are omnivores.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Watts|first=David P.|last2=Potts|first2=Kevin B.|last3=Lwanga|first3=Jeremiah S.|last4=Mitani|first4=John C.|date=2012|title=Diet of chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda, 1. diet composition and diversity|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajp.21016|journal=American Journal of Primatology|language=en|volume=74|issue=2|pages=114–129|doi=10.1002/ajp.21016|issn=1098-2345}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2008-10-14|title=Primate hunting by bonobos at LuiKotale, Salonga National Park|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982208011172|journal=Current Biology|language=en|volume=18|issue=19|pages=R906–R907|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2008.08.040|issn=0960-9822}}</ref> As their biology most closely resembles ours, it's more likely that humans are omnivores too. ** {{Objection}} Only a tiny portion of their diet comes from meat, they don't appear to have specific physiological adaptations to the eating of meat, and insectivory is often thought of as being distinct from run of the mill carnivory even tho insects are still in the kingdom of animalia ** {{Objection}} They still engage in the act of eating meat so going by their behavior they are still omnivorous and not herbivorous, *** {{Objection}} Carnivores have also been reported eating plants.<ref>{{Citation|title=Lion Eats GRASS|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fGqhfbSpJ2Q|language=en|accessdate=2021-03-16}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=Big Cats Eat Watermelons!?|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8edVU2eo3AY|language=en|accessdate=2021-03-16}}</ref> They are carnivores nonetheless. The taxonomic classification of omnivore/herbivore/carnivore, is something that biologists have a tendency to make based exclusively on behavior without placing that much weight on anatomy, especially in cases where reports of certain behaviors have their severity or frequency exagerated because they believe them to be out of the norm. * {{Argument for}} Humans wean earlier than herbivores, a pattern that matches that of carnivores.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Psouni|first=Elia|last2=Janke|first2=Axel|last3=Garwicz|first3=Martin|date=2012-04-18|title=Impact of Carnivory on Human Development and Evolution Revealed by a New Unifying Model of Weaning in Mammals|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3329511/|journal=PLoS ONE|volume=7|issue=4|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0032452|issn=1932-6203|pmc=PMCPMC3329511|pmid=22536316}}</ref> Chimpanzees (our closest evolutionary cousin) wean their young on average at around 5 years old and [[W:Orangutan|orangutans]] (the [[W:Ape|apes]] closest to our body weight) wean on average at 7.7 years old, which almost no human society does. Meanwhile, the average human weaning age is 2 to 4 years old,<ref>Dettwyler K. A time to Wean: The Hominid Blueprint for the natural age of Weaning in Modern Human Populations. In: Stewart-MacAdam P, Dettwyler KA, editors. Breastfeeding: Biocultural Perspectives. New York: Aldine deGruyter; 1995.</ref> which is considerably shorter than in chimpanzees and orangutans, even accounting for cultural differences and individual preferences. ** {{Objection}} Many herbivores wean earlier than humans, such as cattle and sheep. * {{Argument for}} Humans are able to digest meat and absorb its nutrients, which we would be unable to do if we were herbivores. ** {{Objection}} the capacity that humans have to eat meat does not imply that meat is healthy. It only means it is a reliant source of energy. Many other foods, however, are also energising, but unhealthy. Many other herbivores have been seen eating meat, which makes them opportunistic feeders<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/opportunistic-organism|title=Opportunistic Organism {{!}} Encyclopedia.com|website=www.encyclopedia.com|access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref> and not necessarily omnivores. *** {{Objection}} This is not the point of the debate. Anyone can argue that anything has a risk. The point that we are able to use meat's nutrients stands. **** {{Objection}} This ignore's the portion of the prior argument which mentions animals with the taxonomic classification of herbivory occasionally eating meat yet retaining their classification, and that upon mentioning these animals occasional predatory behaviors, there was no mention of them experiencing indigestion as a result. Meat is in general, easier to digest than plants on account of being biochemically simpler, and carnivore digestive tracts are often described as being simpler and in some cases described as being more primitive. If specialized adaptations are unecessary to derive nutrition from meat, then being able to derive nutrition from it does not preclude one from being herbivorous. * {{Argument for}} Humans, like many predators, have forward-facing eyes rather than eyes on the side of our head as prey would. This would imply that we were designed to hunt and eat other species. ** {{Objection}} Many predators don't have forward-facing eyes, and many herbivores have forward-facing eyes. ** {{Objection}} Humans descend from tree-dwelling animals, that needed precise forward-looking binocular vision to avoid falling when leaping and moving around. * {{Argument for}} The vast majority of humans practice an omnivorous diet and have been doing so for millions of years, and many live a long, healthy life. ** {{Objection}} This does not describe the physiology of humans but only their will. This logic would mean that if humans all decide to eat exclusively meat this makes them carnivores, and if they all decide to eat exclusively vegetables they are now herbivores. *** {{Objection}} For the most part, "omnivore", "carnivore" and "herbivore" have historically been defined by behavioral measures. Numerous species that have previously been defined as herbivores, including hippopotamus,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dorward|first=Leejiah Jonathan|date=2015|title=New record of cannibalism in the common hippo, Hippopotamus amphibius (Linnaeus, 1758)|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/aje.12197|journal=African Journal of Ecology|language=en|volume=53|issue=3|pages=385–387|doi=10.1111/aje.12197|issn=1365-2028}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dudley|first=Joseph P.|last2=Hang'Ombe|first2=Bernard Mudenda|last3=Leendertz|first3=Fabian H.|last4=Dorward|first4=Leejiah J.|last5=Castro|first5=Julio de|last6=Subalusky|first6=Amanda L.|last7=Clauss|first7=Marcus|date=2016|title=Carnivory in the common hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius: implications for the ecology and epidemiology of anthrax in African landscapes|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/mam.12056|journal=Mammal Review|language=en|volume=46|issue=3|pages=191–203|doi=10.1111/mam.12056|issn=1365-2907}}</ref> white tailed deer,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://io9.gizmodo.com/field-cameras-catch-deer-eating-birds-wait-why-do-deer-1689440870|title=Field Cameras Catch Deer Eating Birds—Wait, Why Do Deer Eat Birds?|website=io9|language=en-us|access-date=2021-03-16}}</ref> giraffe warthog and waterbuck,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Langman|first=V. A.|date=1978|title=Giraffe Pica Behavior and Pathology as Indicators of Nutritional Stress|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3800701|journal=The Journal of Wildlife Management|volume=42|issue=1|pages=141–147|doi=10.2307/3800701|issn=0022-541X}}</ref> sheep,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Furness|first=R. W.|date=1988|title=Predation on ground-nesting seabirds by island populations of red deer Cervus elaphus and sheep Ovis|url=https://zslpublications.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1469-7998.1988.tb02451.x|journal=Journal of Zoology|language=en|volume=216|issue=3|pages=565–573|doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1988.tb02451.x|issn=1469-7998}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Furness|first=R. W.|date=1988-11|title=The predation of Tern chicks by sheep|url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00063658809476989|journal=Bird Study|language=en|volume=35|issue=3|pages=199–202|doi=10.1080/00063658809476989|issn=0006-3657}}</ref> cattle,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=PIETZ|first=P.|last2=GRANFORS|first2=D.|date=2000|title=White-tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus) Predation on Grassland Songbird Nestlings|url=https://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2010/12/20/carnivory-in-cows-and-deer|journal=The American Midland Naturalist|volume=144|issue=2|pages=419|doi=10.1674/0003-0031(2000)144[0419:WTDOVP]2.0.CO;2|issn=0003-0031}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nack|first=Jamie L.|last2=Ribic|first2=Christine A.|date=2005/03|title=APPARENT PREDATION BY CATTLE AT GRASSLAND BIRD NESTS|url=https://bioone.org/journals/the-wilson-journal-of-ornithology/volume-117/issue-1/04-056/APPARENT-PREDATION-BY-CATTLE-AT-GRASSLAND-BIRD-NESTS/10.1676/04-056.full|journal=The Wilson Journal of Ornithology|volume=117|issue=1|pages=56–62|doi=10.1676/04-056|issn=1559-4491}}</ref> rabbits,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Clauss|first=Marcus|last2=Lischke|first2=Andreas|last3=Botha|first3=Heike|last4=Hatt|first4=Jean-Michel|date=2016-02-01|title=Carcass consumption by domestic rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus)|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-015-0980-y|journal=European Journal of Wildlife Research|language=en|volume=62|issue=1|pages=143–145|doi=10.1007/s10344-015-0980-y|issn=1439-0574}}</ref> duikers,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scienceblogs.com/tetrapodzoology/2008/08/08/duiker-rhymes-with-biker|title=Duiker, rhymes with biker {{!}} ScienceBlogs|website=scienceblogs.com|access-date=2021-03-16}}</ref> bonobos,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2008-10-14|title=Primate hunting by bonobos at LuiKotale, Salonga National Park|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982208011172|journal=Current Biology|language=en|volume=18|issue=19|pages=R906–R907|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2008.08.040|issn=0960-9822}}</ref> chipmunks,<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Craig|first=David P.|date=1998|title=Chipmunks Use Leverage to Eat Oversized Eggs: Support for the Use of Quail Eggs in Artificial Nest Studies|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4089210|journal=The Auk|volume=115|issue=2|pages=486–489|doi=10.2307/4089210|issn=0004-8038}}</ref> squirrels,<ref name=":3" />and others, have been shown through behavioral observation, or through fecal and stomach content analysis (both the result of behavior) to deliberately consume meat and carrion, even predating on bird eggs, nestlings, insects, frogs, turtles, lizards and other small animals. These findings cause scientists to rethink the categorization from herbivore to omnivore, or at the very least "Partially omnivorous". If other animal species are defined by their behavioral diet, than so must humans. **** {{Objection}} That would defeat the purpose of this series of these arguments and objections, as it would beg the question: can we really be defined as herbivores/omnivores/omnivores? People have eating what they want for a long time and a plant-based diets / regular omnivorous diets / inuits have demonstrated that it is possible to survive a lifetime under all diets. ** {{Objection}} If humans were meant to eat meat, why would nature dictate that we have to cook or cure to make it safe for consumption? *** {{Objection}} Humans can, and do, consume raw meat. However, cooking has an evolutionary advantage in that it increases food efficiency. It makes the nutrients inside the food more accessible, which allowed the ancestor species of H. sapiens that discovered cooking to spend less time foraging, chewing, and digesting. Thus, humans developed a smaller, more efficient digestive tract, which combined with the more nutritionally accessible food and consequent energy surplus, enabled larger brain growth. While humans can still digest raw meat, our digestive tracts evolved in response to the discovery of cooking and are now adapted to digesting cooked food. **** {{Objection}} Only anatomical herbivores develop atherosclerosis when exposed to high levels of saturated fat and cholesterol, animals with sufficient physiological adaptations to eating meat do not share this trait. We can cook things vegetables and eat them without negative effects on our health, the fact that there are well documented negatives from the consumption of meat which pesist even after cooking it mean its just not what's best for our anatomy, which it just so happens, at least in this regard takes after hebivory. * {{Argument for}} Omnivorous behavior in humans is a cultural universal (with few exceptions like Jains, Amish and Hindus). There is considerable evidence that such cultural universals can be attributed to our genetics, and in turn to our physiology.{{Citation needed}} ** {{Objection}} It's more the reverse that environment shape genetics: "biology" or "nature" (first opposed to supernatural not cultural/social) as a social construct, epigenetics, nurture or purely cultural/social overdeterminations, etc.{{Clarify}} *** {{Objection}} Sounds like a bunch of word salad, if one wants to determine whether humans have certain genetic traits its better to just look at their genes rather than attending a dog eating festival in Asia and basking in how similar it is to the state fairs in North America where everyone eats hot dogs instead of the real thing. Forgive any lack of professionalism here if it seaped out, but this argument is silly, as far as I know, the human genome has already been sequenced, speculations based on culture are no longer necessary and would only serve as a distraction from more important points of discussion. * {{Argument for}} Humans need micronutrients like vitamin k2, taurine, creatine, DHA, carnitine and carnosine within our diet which you can't get from plant based foods. The bioavailability of nutrients in meats is also much easier for the human body to take in than the bioavailability of plant based foods == Humans are herbivores == '''Herbivores''' are animals anatomically and physiologically adapted to eating plant material as the main component of their diet. === Arguments for === * {{Argument for}} Humans have a [[W:Trophic level|trophic level]] of 2.21 (same as anchovy) and that is an average (some humans have a higher trophic level, like [[W:Inuit|inuits]], which means that the majority of humans are indeed plant-based) and like many other studies similarly shows, we were even more plant-based before the industrial revolution.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Bonhommeau|first=S.|last2=Dubroca|first2=L.|last3=Le Pape|first3=O.|last4=Barde|first4=J.|last5=Kaplan|first5=D. M.|last6=Chassot|first6=E.|last7=Nieblas|first7=A.-E.|date=2013-12-02|title=Eating up the world's food web and the human trophic level|url=https://www.pnas.org/content/110/51/20617|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=110|issue=51|pages=20617–20620|doi=10.1073/pnas.1305827110|issn=0027-8424|cita=Here, we find a global HTL of 2.21, i.e., the trophic level of anchoveta. This value has increased with time, consistent with the global trend toward diets higher in meat.}}</ref> ** {{Objection}} Anchovy subsist primarily on zooplankton.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Bacha|first=M.|last2=Amara|first2=R.|date=2009-11-10|title=Spatial, temporal and ontogenetic variation in diet of anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus) on the Algerian coast (SW Mediterranean)|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S027277140900393X|journal=Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science|language=en|volume=85|issue=2|pages=257–264|doi=10.1016/j.ecss.2009.08.009|issn=0272-7714}}</ref> Pigs are omnivores. This suggests that humans are omnivores rather than herbivores. * {{Argument for}} Some of our closest evolutionary cousins (chimpanzees, bonobos, [[W:Gorilla|gorillas]]) are herbivores. ** {{Objection}} Chimps and bonobos frequently eat termites, ants and other insects, which are still meat. ** {{Objection}} Chimps have been documented hunting and eating small mammals.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Watts|first=David P.|last2=Mitani|first2=John C.|date=2002-02-01|title=Hunting Behavior of Chimpanzees at Ngogo, Kibale National Park, Uganda|url=https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1013270606320|journal=International Journal of Primatology|language=en|volume=23|issue=1|pages=1–28|doi=10.1023/A:1013270606320|issn=1573-8604}}</ref> *** {{Objection}} This doesn't make them omnivores, but opportunistic feeders.<ref name=":0" /> * {{Argument for}} Humans lack claws, sharp teeth or other natural weapons. ** {{Objection}} The invention of tools for hunting and killing prey meant there was no longer a need for costly evolutions such as claws and sharp teeth that didn't fit a purpose. No longer requiring claws because easier to craft tools fit the purpose also contributes to increased manual dexterity, which was a key component in human evolution. ** {{Objection}} Our natural weapon is our brain, which can and is used to make other weapons and strategies. *** {{Objection}} Our brain which shows compassion and empathy towards other animals, also great sorrow when they die is an argument for humans being herbivores. Our brain has provided us with the knowledge about nutrition to maintain a long and healthy life without eating meat or dairy. So we therefore do not have the natural weapons anatomically to be carnivorous or omnivorous, our "natural weapon" the brain has worked against the omnivorous argument. **** {{Objection}} Compassion and empathy are subjective and have not been shown to stop humans from "wanting" to eat meat. In fact, by 2022 the meat industry is projected to have grown by double what it was in 2016.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.statista.com/topics/4880/global-meat-industry/|title=Topic: Global Meat Industry|website=Statista|language=en|access-date=2021-03-16}}</ref> * {{Argument for}} An average human adult has a 22 feet long intestinal tract, small and long combined. The chest size of an adult is about 26 inches. The ratio is therefore 10.15. Herbivores are known to have an intestinal tract of 10 to 12 times their chest length. ** {{Objection}} Human gut length is much shorter than in other species because of the evolution of cooking. As cooking made food more nutritionally accessible, there was no longer need for evolutionary expensive excess gut tissue. === Arguments against === * {{Argument against}} Humans can't derive energy from cellulose due to a reduced cecum and colon. All other herbivores and plant-based omnivores (e.g. great apes, pigs) can do this {{Citation needed}}. ** {{Objection}} Dietary fibers (which include insoluble fibers like "cellulose") count as 2kcal in average and these undigested carbs seems more like a necessity for us and other herbivores in regards to many aspects of health (typical western diet is even deficient in fibers). Herbivores do not create any enzyme that breaks down cellulose. Instead, they eat food that contains these enzymes. *** {{Objection}} There are different subcategories of herbivores, folivores derive most of their energy from foliage, whereas frugivores derive most of their energy from fruits, frugivores often are monogastic rather than ruminant animals, and they also have a very limited ability to digest celluose, instead their microbiome ferments it and produces metabolites which aid in digestion or offer other benefits to the organism. Humans basically have traits of frugivores but are unique in our ability to digest starches more efficiently, a typical starch-eating animal not only eats it raw but has much less salivary amylase than a human; humans secrete 3 times more salivary amylase than the other great apes, which allows from up to 40% of the breaking down of starch into glucose to happen in the mouth and the rest to be handled by the pancreas. This is a specific adaptation to the consumption of a plant based energy source * {{Argument against}} Humans require vitamin B₁₂ in their diet, unlike herbivores which can make their own in their colon with the help of bacteria. ** {{Objection}} Humans also create vitamin B₁₂ in their colon with the help of bacteria. However, no animal can assimilate their own B₁₂, they must get it from outside of their body. Most animals lick bacteria-rich soils. Humans can cultivate their own vegetables without any chemicals and make sure they grow in rich soil. If they don't wash the vegetables with chlorinated water, B₁₂ will be found on it. *** {{Objection}} Humans cannot get the recommended amounts of vitamin B₁₂ without meat in their diets. Herbivorous animals have both different gut flora, which allow for the production of vitamin B₁₂ and have fore gut fermentation, meaning they can absorb it. Human gut fermentation takes place in the colon, at which point the absorption level is insignificant. All non-herbivorous animals almost exclusively get their vitamin B₁₂ intake from eating other organisms.{{Citation needed}} **** {{Objection}} Neither can cattle in the age of chlorinated watter and those are often touted as being the strictest herbivores of all, they are often given B12 supplements and that's the primary reason why skeletal muscle tissue found in supermarkets contains ample levels of B12. And of course non-herbivorous animals almost exlusively get their vitamin B12 from the consumption of other animals, carnivorous animals often consume the contents of the digestive tracts of such animals, sometimes even going so far as to consume the contents of the colon which is the most concentated source of bacteria which produce B12, omnivores often have similar dietary patterns when chowing down on carcases. Even if an omnivore were to consume more vegetation than animal flesh, fecal matter from the contents of another animals colon is a much more concentrated source than leaves with dirt. * {{Argument against}} If humans were not omnivores why are we attracted to the physical properties of meat? ** {{Objection}} We don't necessarily feel the need to chase down animals and feed on their flesh, do we? *** {{Objection}} That's exactly what our hunter-gatherer ancestors did for millennia. **** {{Objection}} appeal to history is not a reason and they didn't necessarily do that because they were salivating at the mouth thinking of biting into raw deer hide at least, that's not what one would think if one projects one's taste preference for cooked meat onto ancient peoples; one can only speculate, since there is limited data but its likely that was done largely due to the scarcity of calories from ANY source, plant OR animal which demanded that they not be too picky about where their next meal came from. A baby doesn't salivate and think of killing a small animal like a rabbit or turtle when presented with one but will eat or try to eat something like an apple or a bannana most lkely. On the other hand, the desire to hunt is embedded is so deeply embeded in a kitten that they will chase mice or toys humans have fashioned to look like them even in their infancy and without being instructed to do so. *** {{Objection}} Being omnivores or carnivores does not necessarily mean being hunters. Humans could have been scavengers. == See also == * [[Should we go vegan?]] == Notes and references == {{Reflist}} == External links == * [https://veganbiologist.com/2016/01/04/humans-are-not-herbivores/ Humans are not herbivores] - Vegan biologist argues humans are omnivores * [http://meatyourfuture.com/2015/09/herbivores-carnivores/ Are humans omnivores, carnivores or herbivores?] - Video discussing the issue * [https://i2.wp.com/www.ahimsadharmablog.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/human-biology-indicates-our-optimal-food-diet-a-comparison-of-digestive-systems-for-frugivores-omnivores-carnivores-herbivores-hires.jpg Image comparing the mouth and teeth of various species of animals] [[Category:Food]] r305cie37cxd074xrzkhshso9gbkznb 0 218581 2415609 2414713 2022-08-16T17:34:47Z Sophivorus 85690 Move technical section on how to draw conclusions to [[Debate algorithm]] wikitext text/x-wiki This page contains some general guidelines about [[wikidebate]]s. ==Neutral point of view== Wikidebates are organized compilations of arguments surrounding an issue. Therefore, try to add and improve arguments on '''both''' sides of the issue. Being neutral or unbiased implies considering both sides and being open to change your mind if the arguments or evidence require it. You should be willing, almost eager, to change your mind, in order to judge opposite arguments more objectively. Who knows, you may even learn something. Clarifying arguments on the opposite side also makes the weak points easier to spot. The objective of a debate should be to establish truth when the issue at hand is a matter of fact, or facilitate compromise when there are conflicting interests, and not merely to practice rhetoric or promote a given issue (in other words, we should aim for [[Wikipedia:Dialectic|dialectic]] rather than [[Wikipedia:Eristic|eristic]]). Do not be afraid to debate with yourself! If you can think of an argument, an objection to it, and an objection to the objection, go ahead and add them all. Other readers may have the same concerns and will appreciate it. ==Arguments belong to all== Unlike other debate systems, wikidebates are not aggregates of posts by different users, but a collaborative effort to compile and organize all arguments on an issue. Therefore: * '''Don't sign your arguments''' ― Signing arguments discourages others from improving them. The original author can always be traced back from the history of the debate. * '''Avoid pronouns''' ― Avoid words like, 'I', 'you', 'me', 'we', etc. No arguments are 'yours' or 'his'. There are no sides here, we're all working together, collaborating. * '''Don't quote classic arguments ''verbatim''''' ― Instead rewrite them in your own words (improving [[Wikidebate/Guidelines#Brevity, clarity and order|brevity, clarity and order]], for example) and give credit to the original source or author using a reference or in the edit summary. When an argument is quoted directly, any improvements become distortions. But the point of a wiki is to be able to improve on the work of others. If there is a better way to present an argument, then respect for the original shouldn't be an obstacle. We're not trying to reach historical accuracy here. ==Brevity, clarity and order== Wikidebates can easily become long and chaotic, making them less likely to be read and improved upon. Therefore, we should strive to keep them as brief, clear and organized as possible. * '''Use footnotes''' ― If an argument relies on many premises, and each premise needs proof, don't include the proof inline. Instead, use footnotes to link to the works that prove your premise. * '''Merge equivalent arguments''' ― If two arguments are essentially the same, merge them together into one, keeping the best of each. * '''Split distinct arguments''' ― If one argument is essentially two, split them apart. Keeping them separate will enrich the debate, allow others to object to each argument independently and prevent unnecessary confusion. * '''Keep it flat''' ― When a branch grows, it's often possible to reformulate an argument so that some objection doesn't apply anymore ([[Special:Diff/2090338|example 1]], [[Special:Diff/1643845|example 2]]). If someone posts an objection pointing out a flaw in an argument, try to fix the flaw and remove the objection, rather than answering the objection or posting another argument without the flaw. For instance, if someone objects to an argument exploiting an ambiguity, don't object saying that what the argument "really" means is something different from what it says. Instead, rewrite or clarify the argument and remove the objection as no longer relevant. If, say, in the [[abortion debate]], someone says "Abortion sometimes occurs naturally, and we shouldn't punish people for natural occurrences", then don't object saying "We meant induced abortion". Instead, clarify it in the debate description and remove the argument as being no longer relevant. This improves the overall quality of the debate while shortening its length and complexity. *'''Define the key terms''' ― Sometimes people completely agree regarding the facts of the matter, but use different words to describe it, so they disagree nominally and delve into fruitless debate. For example, people may agree as to what computers can and can't do, but some may consider that being able to do certain things amounts to "intelligence", while the others do not. Thus, they will disagree as to whether computers are intelligent or not, but only because they don't agree in the use of the word "intelligence", not about what computers can do. So the debate is no longer about computers, but about words. If you recognize such a disagreement about words, try to define them in the description of the debate or relevant section, and then update or delete any misguided arguments. ==How to argue effectively== The best way to argue is with {{W|Soundness|sound}} arguments. An argument is sound when the {{W|premise}}s: *Are all true *Imply the conclusion *Don't assume what must be proved If the best way to argue is with sound arguments, then the best way to object is with sound arguments showing that the target argument isn't sound. In other words, to object effectively, show that the premises of the target argument: *Are not all true *Don't imply the conclusion *Assume what must be proved Referring to the evidence is the best way to avoid objections requesting evidence. Refer to the evidence using footnotes to keep arguments brief, clear and concise. ==See also== *[[Debate algorithm]] *[[Recognizing fallacies]] *[[Socratic methods]] *[[Practicing dialogue]] ==External links== *[http://www.ucs.mun.ca/~alatus/phil1200/CT3CriticizingArguments.html Criticizing Arguments] rtqpczduyywr3zypshn5mxn1te5wpt3 2415612 2415609 2022-08-16T17:42:21Z Sophivorus 85690 Restructure section as a list wikitext text/x-wiki This page contains some general guidelines about [[wikidebate]]s. ==Neutral point of view== Wikidebates are organized compilations of arguments surrounding an issue. Therefore, try to add and improve arguments on '''both''' sides of the issue. Being neutral or unbiased implies considering both sides and being open to change your mind if the arguments or evidence require it. You should be willing, almost eager, to change your mind, in order to judge opposite arguments more objectively. Who knows, you may even learn something. Clarifying arguments on the opposite side also makes the weak points easier to spot. The objective of a debate should be to establish truth when the issue at hand is a matter of fact, or facilitate compromise when there are conflicting interests, and not merely to practice rhetoric or promote a given issue (in other words, we should aim for [[Wikipedia:Dialectic|dialectic]] rather than [[Wikipedia:Eristic|eristic]]). Do not be afraid to debate with yourself! If you can think of an argument, an objection to it, and an objection to the objection, go ahead and add them all. Other readers may have the same concerns and will appreciate it. ==Arguments belong to all== Unlike other debate systems, wikidebates are not aggregates of posts by different users, but a collaborative effort to compile and organize all arguments on a given issue. Therefore: * '''Don't sign your arguments''' ― Signing arguments discourages others from improving them. The original author can always be traced back from the history of the debate. * '''Avoid pronouns''' ― Avoid words like, 'I', 'you', 'me', 'we', etc. No arguments are 'yours' or 'his'. There are no sides here, we're all working together, collaborating. * '''Don't quote classic arguments ''verbatim''''' ― Instead rewrite them in your own words (improving [[Wikidebate/Guidelines#Brevity, clarity and order|brevity, clarity and order]], for example) and give credit to the original source or author using a reference or in the edit summary. When an argument is quoted directly, any improvements become distortions. But the point of a wiki is to be able to improve on the work of others. If there is a better way to present an argument, then respect for the original shouldn't be an obstacle. We're not trying to reach historical accuracy here. ==Brevity, clarity and order== Wikidebates can easily become long and chaotic, making them less likely to be read and improved upon. Therefore, we should strive to keep them as brief, clear and organized as possible. * '''Use footnotes''' ― If an argument relies on many premises, and each premise needs proof, don't include the proof inline. Instead, use footnotes to link to the works that prove your premise. * '''Merge equivalent arguments''' ― If two arguments are essentially the same, merge them together into one, keeping the best of each. * '''Split distinct arguments''' ― If one argument is essentially two, split them apart. Keeping them separate will enrich the debate, allow others to object to each argument independently and prevent unnecessary confusion. * '''Keep it flat''' ― When a branch grows, it's often possible to reformulate an argument so that some objection doesn't apply anymore ([[Special:Diff/2090338|example 1]], [[Special:Diff/1643845|example 2]]). If someone posts an objection pointing out a flaw in an argument, try to fix the flaw and remove the objection, rather than answering the objection or posting another argument without the flaw. For instance, if someone objects to an argument exploiting an ambiguity, don't object saying that what the argument "really" means is something different from what it says. Instead, rewrite or clarify the argument and remove the objection as no longer relevant. If, say, in the [[abortion debate]], someone says "Abortion sometimes occurs naturally, and we shouldn't punish people for natural occurrences", then don't object saying "We meant induced abortion". Instead, clarify it in the debate description and remove the argument as being no longer relevant. This improves the overall quality of the debate while shortening its length and complexity. *'''Define the key terms''' ― Sometimes people completely agree regarding the facts of the matter, but use different words to describe it, so they disagree nominally and delve into fruitless debate. For example, people may agree as to what computers can and can't do, but some may consider that being able to do certain things amounts to "intelligence", while the others do not. Thus, they will disagree as to whether computers are intelligent or not, but only because they don't agree in the use of the word "intelligence", not about what computers can do. So the debate is no longer about computers, but about words. If you recognize such a disagreement about words, try to define them in the description of the debate or relevant section, and then update or delete any misguided arguments. ==How to argue effectively== * '''Produce sound arguments''' ― The best way to argue is with {{W|Soundness|sound}} arguments. An argument is sound when the {{W|premise}}s (a) are all true, (b) imply the conclusion, and (c) don't assume what must be proved. * '''Question the soundness of other arguments''' ― Consequently, the best way to make an objection is to produce sound arguments showing that a given argument isn't sound, that is, that not all its premises are true, it doesn't imply the conclusion, or it assumes what must be proved. * '''Refer to the evidence''' ― Referring to the evidence is the best way to avoid objections requesting evidence. Refer to the evidence using footnotes to keep arguments [[Wikidebate/Guidelines#Brevity, clarity and order|brief, clear and organized]]. ==See also== *[[Debate algorithm]] *[[Recognizing fallacies]] *[[Socratic methods]] *[[Practicing dialogue]] ==External links== *[http://www.ucs.mun.ca/~alatus/phil1200/CT3CriticizingArguments.html Criticizing Arguments] mlm15khcjgcpghkbghaovr2xjmfdi1v 2415613 2415612 2022-08-16T17:44:47Z Sophivorus 85690 /* How to argue effectively */ wikitext text/x-wiki This page contains some general guidelines about [[wikidebate]]s. == Neutral point of view == Wikidebates are organized compilations of arguments surrounding an issue. Therefore, try to add and improve arguments on '''both''' sides of the issue. Being neutral or unbiased implies considering both sides and being open to change your mind if the arguments or evidence require it. You should be willing, almost eager, to change your mind, in order to judge opposite arguments more objectively. Who knows, you may even learn something. Clarifying arguments on the opposite side also makes the weak points easier to spot. The objective of a debate should be to establish truth when the issue at hand is a matter of fact, or facilitate compromise when there are conflicting interests, and not merely to practice rhetoric or promote a given issue (in other words, we should aim for [[Wikipedia:Dialectic|dialectic]] rather than [[Wikipedia:Eristic|eristic]]). Do not be afraid to debate with yourself! If you can think of an argument, an objection to it, and an objection to the objection, go ahead and add them all. Other readers may have the same concerns and will appreciate it. == Arguments belong to all == Unlike other debate systems, wikidebates are not aggregates of posts by different users, but a collaborative effort to compile and organize all arguments on a given issue. Therefore: * '''Don't sign your arguments''' ― Signing arguments discourages others from improving them. The original author can always be traced back from the history of the debate. * '''Avoid pronouns''' ― Avoid words like, 'I', 'you', 'me', 'we', etc. No arguments are 'yours' or 'his'. There are no sides here, we're all working together, collaborating. * '''Don't quote classic arguments ''verbatim''''' ― Instead rewrite them in your own words (improving [[Wikidebate/Guidelines#Brevity, clarity and order|brevity, clarity and order]], for example) and give credit to the original source or author using a reference or in the edit summary. When an argument is quoted directly, any improvements become distortions. But the point of a wiki is to be able to improve on the work of others. If there is a better way to present an argument, then respect for the original shouldn't be an obstacle. We're not trying to reach historical accuracy here. == Brevity, clarity and order == Wikidebates can easily become long and chaotic, making them less likely to be read and improved upon. Therefore, we should strive to keep them as brief, clear and organized as possible. * '''Use footnotes''' ― If an argument relies on many premises, and each premise needs proof, don't include the proof inline. Instead, use footnotes to link to the works that prove your premise. * '''Merge equivalent arguments''' ― If two arguments are essentially the same, merge them together into one, keeping the best of each. * '''Split distinct arguments''' ― If one argument is essentially two, split them apart. Keeping them separate will enrich the debate, allow others to object to each argument independently and prevent unnecessary confusion. * '''Keep it flat''' ― When a branch grows, it's often possible to reformulate an argument so that some objection doesn't apply anymore ([[Special:Diff/2090338|example 1]], [[Special:Diff/1643845|example 2]]). If someone posts an objection pointing out a flaw in an argument, try to fix the flaw and remove the objection, rather than answering the objection or posting another argument without the flaw. For instance, if someone objects to an argument exploiting an ambiguity, don't object saying that what the argument "really" means is something different from what it says. Instead, rewrite or clarify the argument and remove the objection as no longer relevant. If, say, in the [[abortion debate]], someone says "Abortion sometimes occurs naturally, and we shouldn't punish people for natural occurrences", then don't object saying "We meant induced abortion". Instead, clarify it in the debate description and remove the argument as being no longer relevant. This improves the overall quality of the debate while shortening its length and complexity. * '''Define the key terms''' ― Sometimes people completely agree regarding the facts of the matter, but use different words to describe it, so they disagree nominally and delve into fruitless debate. For example, people may agree as to what computers can and can't do, but some may consider that being able to do certain things amounts to "intelligence", while the others do not. Thus, they will disagree as to whether computers are intelligent or not, but only because they don't agree in the use of the word "intelligence", not about what computers can do. So the debate is no longer about computers, but about words. If you recognize such a disagreement about words, try to define them in the description of the debate or relevant section, and then update or delete any misguided arguments. == How to argue effectively == * '''Produce sound arguments''' ― The best way to argue is with {{W|Soundness|sound}} arguments. An argument is sound when the {{W|premise}}s (a) are all true, (b) imply the conclusion, and (c) don't assume what must be proved. * '''Question the soundness of other arguments''' ― Consequently, the best way to make an objection is to produce sound arguments showing that a given argument isn't sound, meaning (a) not all its premises are true, (b) it doesn't imply the conclusion, or (c) it assumes what must be proved. * '''Refer to the evidence''' ― Referring to the evidence is the best way to avoid objections requesting evidence. Refer to the evidence using footnotes to keep arguments [[Wikidebate/Guidelines#Brevity, clarity and order|brief, clear and organized]]. == See also == * [[Debate algorithm]] * [[Recognizing fallacies]] * [[Socratic methods]] * [[Practicing dialogue]] == External links == * [http://www.ucs.mun.ca/~alatus/phil1200/CT3CriticizingArguments.html Criticizing Arguments] c62dehvd7h87iwo1jod26yjh3gdag7h 2415614 2415613 2022-08-16T17:45:02Z Sophivorus 85690 /* How to argue effectively */ wikitext text/x-wiki This page contains some general guidelines about [[wikidebate]]s. == Neutral point of view == Wikidebates are organized compilations of arguments surrounding an issue. Therefore, try to add and improve arguments on '''both''' sides of the issue. Being neutral or unbiased implies considering both sides and being open to change your mind if the arguments or evidence require it. You should be willing, almost eager, to change your mind, in order to judge opposite arguments more objectively. Who knows, you may even learn something. Clarifying arguments on the opposite side also makes the weak points easier to spot. The objective of a debate should be to establish truth when the issue at hand is a matter of fact, or facilitate compromise when there are conflicting interests, and not merely to practice rhetoric or promote a given issue (in other words, we should aim for [[Wikipedia:Dialectic|dialectic]] rather than [[Wikipedia:Eristic|eristic]]). Do not be afraid to debate with yourself! If you can think of an argument, an objection to it, and an objection to the objection, go ahead and add them all. Other readers may have the same concerns and will appreciate it. == Arguments belong to all == Unlike other debate systems, wikidebates are not aggregates of posts by different users, but a collaborative effort to compile and organize all arguments on a given issue. Therefore: * '''Don't sign your arguments''' ― Signing arguments discourages others from improving them. The original author can always be traced back from the history of the debate. * '''Avoid pronouns''' ― Avoid words like, 'I', 'you', 'me', 'we', etc. No arguments are 'yours' or 'his'. There are no sides here, we're all working together, collaborating. * '''Don't quote classic arguments ''verbatim''''' ― Instead rewrite them in your own words (improving [[Wikidebate/Guidelines#Brevity, clarity and order|brevity, clarity and order]], for example) and give credit to the original source or author using a reference or in the edit summary. When an argument is quoted directly, any improvements become distortions. But the point of a wiki is to be able to improve on the work of others. If there is a better way to present an argument, then respect for the original shouldn't be an obstacle. We're not trying to reach historical accuracy here. == Brevity, clarity and order == Wikidebates can easily become long and chaotic, making them less likely to be read and improved upon. Therefore, we should strive to keep them as brief, clear and organized as possible. * '''Use footnotes''' ― If an argument relies on many premises, and each premise needs proof, don't include the proof inline. Instead, use footnotes to link to the works that prove your premise. * '''Merge equivalent arguments''' ― If two arguments are essentially the same, merge them together into one, keeping the best of each. * '''Split distinct arguments''' ― If one argument is essentially two, split them apart. Keeping them separate will enrich the debate, allow others to object to each argument independently and prevent unnecessary confusion. * '''Keep it flat''' ― When a branch grows, it's often possible to reformulate an argument so that some objection doesn't apply anymore ([[Special:Diff/2090338|example 1]], [[Special:Diff/1643845|example 2]]). If someone posts an objection pointing out a flaw in an argument, try to fix the flaw and remove the objection, rather than answering the objection or posting another argument without the flaw. For instance, if someone objects to an argument exploiting an ambiguity, don't object saying that what the argument "really" means is something different from what it says. Instead, rewrite or clarify the argument and remove the objection as no longer relevant. If, say, in the [[abortion debate]], someone says "Abortion sometimes occurs naturally, and we shouldn't punish people for natural occurrences", then don't object saying "We meant induced abortion". Instead, clarify it in the debate description and remove the argument as being no longer relevant. This improves the overall quality of the debate while shortening its length and complexity. * '''Define the key terms''' ― Sometimes people completely agree regarding the facts of the matter, but use different words to describe it, so they disagree nominally and delve into fruitless debate. For example, people may agree as to what computers can and can't do, but some may consider that being able to do certain things amounts to "intelligence", while the others do not. Thus, they will disagree as to whether computers are intelligent or not, but only because they don't agree in the use of the word "intelligence", not about what computers can do. So the debate is no longer about computers, but about words. If you recognize such a disagreement about words, try to define them in the description of the debate or relevant section, and then update or delete any misguided arguments. == How to argue effectively == * '''Produce sound arguments''' ― The best way to argue is with {{W|Soundness|sound}} arguments. An argument is sound when the {{W|premise}}s (a) are all true, (b) imply the conclusion, and (c) don't assume what must be proved. * '''Question the soundness of other arguments''' ― Consequently, the best way to make an objection is to produce sound arguments showing that a given argument isn't sound, meaning (a) not all its premises are true, (b) it doesn't imply the conclusion, or (c) it assumes what must be proved. * '''Refer to the evidence''' ― Referring to the evidence is the best way to avoid objections requesting evidence. Refer to the evidence using footnotes to keep arguments [[#Brevity, clarity and order|brief, clear and organized]]. == See also == * [[Debate algorithm]] * [[Recognizing fallacies]] * [[Socratic methods]] * [[Practicing dialogue]] == External links == * [http://www.ucs.mun.ca/~alatus/phil1200/CT3CriticizingArguments.html Criticizing Arguments] l8uluz7cmya5g3k2q9ds4ag133mjem9 2415615 2415614 2022-08-16T17:49:48Z Sophivorus 85690 /* Brevity, clarity and order */ Add guideline on making every word count wikitext text/x-wiki This page contains some general guidelines about [[wikidebate]]s. == Neutral point of view == Wikidebates are organized compilations of arguments surrounding an issue. Therefore, try to add and improve arguments on '''both''' sides of the issue. Being neutral or unbiased implies considering both sides and being open to change your mind if the arguments or evidence require it. You should be willing, almost eager, to change your mind, in order to judge opposite arguments more objectively. Who knows, you may even learn something. Clarifying arguments on the opposite side also makes the weak points easier to spot. The objective of a debate should be to establish truth when the issue at hand is a matter of fact, or facilitate compromise when there are conflicting interests, and not merely to practice rhetoric or promote a given issue (in other words, we should aim for [[Wikipedia:Dialectic|dialectic]] rather than [[Wikipedia:Eristic|eristic]]). Do not be afraid to debate with yourself! If you can think of an argument, an objection to it, and an objection to the objection, go ahead and add them all. Other readers may have the same concerns and will appreciate it. == Arguments belong to all == Unlike other debate systems, wikidebates are not aggregates of posts by different users, but a collaborative effort to compile and organize all arguments on a given issue. Therefore: * '''Don't sign your arguments''' ― Signing arguments discourages others from improving them. The original author can always be traced back from the history of the debate. * '''Avoid pronouns''' ― Avoid words like, 'I', 'you', 'me', 'we', etc. No arguments are 'yours' or 'his'. There are no sides here, we're all working together, collaborating. * '''Don't quote classic arguments ''verbatim''''' ― Instead rewrite them in your own words (improving [[Wikidebate/Guidelines#Brevity, clarity and order|brevity, clarity and order]], for example) and give credit to the original source or author using a reference or in the edit summary. When an argument is quoted directly, any improvements become distortions. But the point of a wiki is to be able to improve on the work of others. If there is a better way to present an argument, then respect for the original shouldn't be an obstacle. We're not trying to reach historical accuracy here. == Brevity, clarity and order == Wikidebates can easily become long and chaotic, making them less likely to be read and improved upon. Therefore, we should strive to keep them as brief, clear and organized as possible. * '''Make every word count''' ― Ask yourself what's the essence of the argument and state it concisely. Don't digress and always look for ways to say the same in less words. * '''Use footnotes''' ― If an argument relies on many premises, and each premise needs proof, don't include the proof inline. Instead, use footnotes to link to the works that prove your premise. * '''Merge equivalent arguments''' ― If two arguments are essentially the same, merge them together into one, keeping the best of each. * '''Split distinct arguments''' ― If one argument is essentially two, split them apart. Keeping them separate will enrich the debate, allow others to object to each argument independently and prevent unnecessary confusion. * '''Keep it flat''' ― When a branch grows, it's often possible to reformulate an argument so that some objection doesn't apply anymore ([[Special:Diff/2090338|example]]). If someone posts an objection pointing out a flaw in an argument, try to fix the flaw and remove the objection, rather than answering the objection or posting another argument without the flaw. For instance, if someone objects to an argument exploiting an ambiguity, don't object saying that what the argument "really" means is something different from what it says. Instead, rewrite or clarify the argument and remove the objection as no longer relevant. If, say, in the [[abortion debate]], someone says "Abortion sometimes occurs naturally, and we shouldn't punish people for natural occurrences", then don't object saying "We meant induced abortion". Instead, clarify it in the debate description and remove the argument as being no longer relevant. This improves the overall quality of the debate while shortening its length and complexity. * '''Define the key terms''' ― Sometimes people completely agree regarding the facts of the matter, but use different words to describe it, so they disagree nominally and delve into fruitless debate. For example, people may agree as to what computers can and can't do, but some may consider that being able to do certain things amounts to "intelligence", while the others do not. Thus, they will disagree as to whether computers are intelligent or not, but only because they don't agree in the use of the word "intelligence", not about what computers can do. So the debate is no longer about computers, but about words. If you recognize such a disagreement about words, try to define them in the description of the debate or relevant section, and then update or delete any misguided arguments. == How to argue effectively == * '''Produce sound arguments''' ― The best way to argue is with {{W|Soundness|sound}} arguments. An argument is sound when the {{W|premise}}s (a) are all true, (b) imply the conclusion, and (c) don't assume what must be proved. * '''Question the soundness of other arguments''' ― Consequently, the best way to make an objection is to produce sound arguments showing that a given argument isn't sound, meaning (a) not all its premises are true, (b) it doesn't imply the conclusion, or (c) it assumes what must be proved. * '''Refer to the evidence''' ― Referring to the evidence is the best way to avoid objections requesting evidence. Refer to the evidence using footnotes to keep arguments [[#Brevity, clarity and order|brief, clear and organized]]. == See also == * [[Debate algorithm]] * [[Recognizing fallacies]] * [[Socratic methods]] * [[Practicing dialogue]] == External links == * [http://www.ucs.mun.ca/~alatus/phil1200/CT3CriticizingArguments.html Criticizing Arguments] lxva6npoex4gq9k04w1scava3iqvb3w 2415616 2415615 2022-08-16T17:52:29Z Sophivorus 85690 wikitext text/x-wiki This page contains some general guidelines about [[wikidebate]]s. == Neutral point of view == Wikidebates are organized compilations of arguments surrounding an issue. Therefore, try to add and improve arguments on '''both''' sides of the issue. Being neutral or unbiased implies considering both sides and being open to change your mind if the arguments or evidence require it. You should be willing, almost eager, to change your mind, in order to judge opposite arguments more objectively. Who knows, you may even learn something. Clarifying arguments on the opposite side also makes the weak points easier to spot. The objective of a debate should be to establish truth when the issue at hand is a matter of fact, or facilitate compromise when there are conflicting interests, and not merely to practice rhetoric or promote a given issue (in other words, we should aim for [[Wikipedia:Dialectic|dialectic]] rather than [[Wikipedia:Eristic|eristic]]). Do not be afraid to debate with yourself! If you can think of an argument, an objection to it, and an objection to the objection, go ahead and add them all. Other readers may have the same concerns and will appreciate it. == Arguments belong to all == Unlike other debate systems, wikidebates are not aggregates of posts by different users, but a collaborative effort to compile and organize all arguments on a given issue. Therefore: * '''Don't sign your arguments''' ― Signing arguments discourages others from improving them. The original author can always be traced back from the history of the debate. * '''Avoid pronouns''' ― Avoid words like, 'I', 'you', 'me', 'we', etc. No arguments are 'yours' or 'his'. There are no sides here, we're all working together, collaborating. * '''Don't quote classic arguments ''verbatim''''' ― Instead rewrite them in your own words (improving [[Wikidebate/Guidelines#Brevity, clarity and order|brevity, clarity and order]], for example) and give credit to the original source or author using a reference or in the edit summary. When an argument is quoted directly, any improvements become distortions. But the point of a wiki is to be able to improve on the work of others. If there is a better way to present an argument, then respect for the original shouldn't be an obstacle. We're not trying to reach historical accuracy here. == Brevity, clarity and order == Wikidebates can easily become long and chaotic, making them less likely to be read and improved upon. Therefore, we should strive to keep them as brief, clear and organized as possible. * '''Make every word count''' ― Ask yourself what's the essence of the argument and state it concisely. Don't digress and always look for ways to say the same in less words. * '''Use footnotes''' ― If an argument relies on many premises, and each premise needs proof, don't include the proof inline. Instead, use footnotes to link to the works that prove your premise. * '''Merge equivalent arguments''' ― If two arguments are essentially the same, merge them together into one, keeping the best of each. * '''Split distinct arguments''' ― If one argument is essentially two, split them apart. Keeping them separate will enrich the debate, allow others to object to each argument independently and prevent unnecessary confusion. * '''Keep it flat''' ― When a branch grows, it's often possible to reformulate an argument so that some objection doesn't apply anymore ([[Special:Diff/2090338|example]]). If someone posts an objection pointing out a flaw in an argument, try to fix the flaw and remove the objection, rather than answering the objection or posting another argument without the flaw. For instance, if someone objects to an argument exploiting an ambiguity, don't object saying that what the argument "really" means is something different from what it says. Instead, rewrite or clarify the argument and remove the objection as no longer relevant. If, say, in the [[abortion debate]], someone says "Abortion sometimes occurs naturally, and we shouldn't punish people for natural occurrences", then don't object saying "We meant induced abortion". Instead, clarify it in the debate description and remove the argument as being no longer relevant. This improves the overall quality of the debate while shortening its length and complexity. * '''Define the key terms''' ― Sometimes people completely agree regarding the facts of the matter, but use different words to describe it, so they disagree nominally and delve into fruitless debate. For example, people may agree as to what computers can and can't do, but some may consider that being able to do certain things amounts to "intelligence", while the others do not. Thus, they will disagree as to whether computers are intelligent or not, but only because they don't agree in the use of the word "intelligence", not about what computers can do. So the debate is no longer about computers, but about words. If you recognize such a disagreement about words, try to define them in the description of the debate or relevant section, and then update or delete any misguided arguments. == How to argue effectively == * '''Produce sound arguments''' ― The best way to argue is with {{W|Soundness|sound}} arguments. An argument is sound when the {{W|premise}}s (a) are all true, (b) imply the conclusion, and (c) don't assume what must be proved. * '''Question the soundness of other arguments''' ― Consequently, the best way to object is to produce sound arguments showing that a given argument isn't sound, meaning (a) not all its premises are true, (b) it doesn't imply the conclusion, or (c) it assumes what must be proved. * '''Refer to the evidence''' ― Referring to the evidence is the best way to avoid objections requesting evidence. Refer to the evidence using footnotes to keep arguments [[#Brevity, clarity and order|brief, clear and organized]]. == See also == * [[Debate algorithm]] * [[Recognizing fallacies]] * [[Socratic methods]] * [[Practicing dialogue]] == External links == * [http://www.ucs.mun.ca/~alatus/phil1200/CT3CriticizingArguments.html Criticizing Arguments] nsbavvpm5pvqa8gne1olh2k701a0tdu 0 232469 2415693 2414248 2022-08-17T04:01:32Z Young1lim 21186 /* ARM Assembly Programming (II) */ wikitext text/x-wiki == '''Background''' == '''Combinational and Sequential Circuits''' * [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] * [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]] '''FSM''' * [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]] * [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]] '''Tiny CPU Example''' * [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]] * [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]] * [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]] * [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]] </br> == '''Microprocessor Architecture''' == * ARM Architecture : - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]]) : - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]]) * ARM Organization * ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture * ARM Processor Cores </br> == '''Instruction Set Architecture''' == * ARM Instruction Set : - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]]) : - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]]) : - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]]) : - Assembler Format :: - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]]) : - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]]) * Thumb Instruction Set </br> == '''Assembly Programming''' == === ARM Assembly Programming (I) === * 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]]) * 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]]) * 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]]) * 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]]) * 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]]) * 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) * 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) * 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) * 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]]) * 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) * 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) * 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) :: :: === ARM Assembly Programming (II) === :: * 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) * 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) * 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) * 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) * 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) * 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) * 7. Vectored Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VectorInt.20220815.pdf |pdf]]) </br> * ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]]) :: === ARM Assembly Programming (III) === * 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division) * 2. Floating point arithmetic * 3. Matrix multiply === ARM Linking === * arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) </br> === ARM Microcontroller Programming === * 1. Input / Output * 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing * 3. Analog I/O Interfacing * 4. Communication </br> == '''Memory Architecture''' == </br> === '''Memory Hierarchy''' === </br> === '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === </br> === '''Architectural Support''' === * High Level Languages * System Development * Operating Systems </br> == '''Peripheral Architecture''' == </br> === '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === </br> === '''Timers ''' === * Timer / Counter ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.Timer.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) * Real Time Clock * Watchdog Timer </br> === '''Serial Bus''' === * '''UART''' : Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.UART.20220813.pdf |pdf]]) * '''I2C''' : Inter-Integrated Circuit * '''SPI''' : Serial Peripheral Interface * '''USB''' : Universal Serial Bus Device Controller </br> === '''I/Os ''' === * General Purpose Input/Output ports (GPIO) * Pulse Width Modulator * Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) * Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC) </br> <!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --> </br> == '''Synchrnoization'''== </br> === H/W and S/W Synchronization === * busy wait synchronization * handshake interface </br> === Interrupt Synchronization === * interrupt synchronization * reentrant programming * buffered IO * periodic interrupt * periodic polling </br> ==''' Interfacing '''== </br> === Time Interfacing === * input capture * output compare </br> === Serial Interfacing === * Programming UART * Programming SPI * Programming I2C * Programming USB </br> === Analog Interfacing === * OP Amp * Filters * ADC * DAC </br> == '''Old materials''' == === '''Instruction Set Architecture''' === * ARM Instruction Set :: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]]) * Thumb Instruction Set * ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]]) * ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] 194esdj4zc6sv16ue0w668t6ibf4px2 2415696 2415693 2022-08-17T04:05:36Z Young1lim 21186 /* ARM Assembly Programming (II) */ wikitext text/x-wiki == '''Background''' == '''Combinational and Sequential Circuits''' * [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] * [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]] '''FSM''' * [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]] * [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]] '''Tiny CPU Example''' * [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]] * [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]] * [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]] * [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]] </br> == '''Microprocessor Architecture''' == * ARM Architecture : - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]]) : - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]]) * ARM Organization * ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture * ARM Processor Cores </br> == '''Instruction Set Architecture''' == * ARM Instruction Set : - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]]) : - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]]) : - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]]) : - Assembler Format :: - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]]) : - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]]) * Thumb Instruction Set </br> == '''Assembly Programming''' == === ARM Assembly Programming (I) === * 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]]) * 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]]) * 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]]) * 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]]) * 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]]) * 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) * 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) * 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) * 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]]) * 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) * 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) * 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) :: :: === ARM Assembly Programming (II) === :: * 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) * 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) * 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) * 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) * 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) * 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) * 7. Vectored Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VectorInt.20220816.pdf |pdf]]) </br> * ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]]) :: === ARM Assembly Programming (III) === * 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division) * 2. Floating point arithmetic * 3. Matrix multiply === ARM Linking === * arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) </br> === ARM Microcontroller Programming === * 1. Input / Output * 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing * 3. Analog I/O Interfacing * 4. Communication </br> == '''Memory Architecture''' == </br> === '''Memory Hierarchy''' === </br> === '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === </br> === '''Architectural Support''' === * High Level Languages * System Development * Operating Systems </br> == '''Peripheral Architecture''' == </br> === '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === </br> === '''Timers ''' === * Timer / Counter ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.Timer.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) * Real Time Clock * Watchdog Timer </br> === '''Serial Bus''' === * '''UART''' : Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.UART.20220813.pdf |pdf]]) * '''I2C''' : Inter-Integrated Circuit * '''SPI''' : Serial Peripheral Interface * '''USB''' : Universal Serial Bus Device Controller </br> === '''I/Os ''' === * General Purpose Input/Output ports (GPIO) * Pulse Width Modulator * Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) * Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC) </br> <!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --> </br> == '''Synchrnoization'''== </br> === H/W and S/W Synchronization === * busy wait synchronization * handshake interface </br> === Interrupt Synchronization === * interrupt synchronization * reentrant programming * buffered IO * periodic interrupt * periodic polling </br> ==''' Interfacing '''== </br> === Time Interfacing === * input capture * output compare </br> === Serial Interfacing === * Programming UART * Programming SPI * Programming I2C * Programming USB </br> === Analog Interfacing === * OP Amp * Filters * ADC * DAC </br> == '''Old materials''' == === '''Instruction Set Architecture''' === * ARM Instruction Set :: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]]) * Thumb Instruction Set * ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]]) * ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] 2lraj6mwn8sqgz003ukuo6sf43f7jbz 2415711 2415696 2022-08-17T05:16:51Z Young1lim 21186 /* Serial Bus */ wikitext text/x-wiki == '''Background''' == '''Combinational and Sequential Circuits''' * [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] * [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]] '''FSM''' * [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]] * [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]] '''Tiny CPU Example''' * [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]] * [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]] * [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]] * [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]] </br> == '''Microprocessor Architecture''' == * ARM Architecture : - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]]) : - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]]) * ARM Organization * ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture * ARM Processor Cores </br> == '''Instruction Set Architecture''' == * ARM Instruction Set : - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]]) : - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]]) : - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]]) : - Assembler Format :: - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]]) : - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]]) * Thumb Instruction Set </br> == '''Assembly Programming''' == === ARM Assembly Programming (I) === * 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]]) * 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]]) * 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]]) * 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]]) * 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]]) * 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) * 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) * 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) * 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]]) * 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) * 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) * 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) :: :: === ARM Assembly Programming (II) === :: * 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) * 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) * 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) * 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) * 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) * 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) * 7. Vectored Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VectorInt.20220816.pdf |pdf]]) </br> * ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]]) :: === ARM Assembly Programming (III) === * 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division) * 2. Floating point arithmetic * 3. Matrix multiply === ARM Linking === * arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) </br> === ARM Microcontroller Programming === * 1. Input / Output * 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing * 3. Analog I/O Interfacing * 4. Communication </br> == '''Memory Architecture''' == </br> === '''Memory Hierarchy''' === </br> === '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === </br> === '''Architectural Support''' === * High Level Languages * System Development * Operating Systems </br> == '''Peripheral Architecture''' == </br> === '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === </br> === '''Timers ''' === * Timer / Counter ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.Timer.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) * Real Time Clock * Watchdog Timer </br> === '''Serial Bus''' === * '''UART''' : Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.UART.20220815.pdf |pdf]]) * '''I2C''' : Inter-Integrated Circuit * '''SPI''' : Serial Peripheral Interface * '''USB''' : Universal Serial Bus Device Controller </br> === '''I/Os ''' === * General Purpose Input/Output ports (GPIO) * Pulse Width Modulator * Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) * Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC) </br> <!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --> </br> == '''Synchrnoization'''== </br> === H/W and S/W Synchronization === * busy wait synchronization * handshake interface </br> === Interrupt Synchronization === * interrupt synchronization * reentrant programming * buffered IO * periodic interrupt * periodic polling </br> ==''' Interfacing '''== </br> === Time Interfacing === * input capture * output compare </br> === Serial Interfacing === * Programming UART * Programming SPI * Programming I2C * Programming USB </br> === Analog Interfacing === * OP Amp * Filters * ADC * DAC </br> == '''Old materials''' == === '''Instruction Set Architecture''' === * ARM Instruction Set :: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]]) * Thumb Instruction Set * ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]]) * ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] 56fi1u9nrgxekypji45jx5uomovms2f 2415714 2415711 2022-08-17T05:18:04Z Young1lim 21186 /* Serial Bus */ wikitext text/x-wiki == '''Background''' == '''Combinational and Sequential Circuits''' * [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] * [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]] '''FSM''' * [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]] * [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]] '''Tiny CPU Example''' * [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]] * [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]] * [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]] * [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]] </br> == '''Microprocessor Architecture''' == * ARM Architecture : - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]]) : - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]]) * ARM Organization * ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture * ARM Processor Cores </br> == '''Instruction Set Architecture''' == * ARM Instruction Set : - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]]) : - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]]) : - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]]) : - Assembler Format :: - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]]) : - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]]) * Thumb Instruction Set </br> == '''Assembly Programming''' == === ARM Assembly Programming (I) === * 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]]) * 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]]) * 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]]) * 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]]) * 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]]) * 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) * 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) * 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) * 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]]) * 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) * 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) * 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) :: :: === ARM Assembly Programming (II) === :: * 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) * 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) * 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) * 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) * 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) * 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) * 7. Vectored Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VectorInt.20220816.pdf |pdf]]) </br> * ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]]) :: === ARM Assembly Programming (III) === * 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division) * 2. Floating point arithmetic * 3. Matrix multiply === ARM Linking === * arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) </br> === ARM Microcontroller Programming === * 1. Input / Output * 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing * 3. Analog I/O Interfacing * 4. Communication </br> == '''Memory Architecture''' == </br> === '''Memory Hierarchy''' === </br> === '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === </br> === '''Architectural Support''' === * High Level Languages * System Development * Operating Systems </br> == '''Peripheral Architecture''' == </br> === '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === </br> === '''Timers ''' === * Timer / Counter ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.Timer.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) * Real Time Clock * Watchdog Timer </br> === '''Serial Bus''' === * '''UART''' : Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.UART.20220816.pdf |pdf]]) * '''I2C''' : Inter-Integrated Circuit * '''SPI''' : Serial Peripheral Interface * '''USB''' : Universal Serial Bus Device Controller </br> === '''I/Os ''' === * General Purpose Input/Output ports (GPIO) * Pulse Width Modulator * Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) * Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC) </br> <!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --> </br> == '''Synchrnoization'''== </br> === H/W and S/W Synchronization === * busy wait synchronization * handshake interface </br> === Interrupt Synchronization === * interrupt synchronization * reentrant programming * buffered IO * periodic interrupt * periodic polling </br> ==''' Interfacing '''== </br> === Time Interfacing === * input capture * output compare </br> === Serial Interfacing === * Programming UART * Programming SPI * Programming I2C * Programming USB </br> === Analog Interfacing === * OP Amp * Filters * ADC * DAC </br> == '''Old materials''' == === '''Instruction Set Architecture''' === * ARM Instruction Set :: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]]) :: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]]) * Thumb Instruction Set * ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]]) * ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]]) </br> </br> go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ] k0xze9j77ym6dsg9si9tkf5vcumvl36 0 233403 2415629 2410475 2022-08-16T20:27:17Z Bobamnertiopsis 24451 /* Adverse effects */ date wikitext text/x-wiki {{Article info|journal=WikiJournal of Medicine|last1=Cusimano|first1=Joseph|last2=|first2=|last3=|first3=|last4=|first4=<!-- up to 9 authors can be added in this above format -->|et_al=true|affiliations=The Ohio State University|correspondence=cusimano.6@buckeyemail.osu.edu|keywords=rabeprazole, proton-pump inhibitor, acid-related disorders|license={{CC BY SA work}}|submitted=20 Feb, 2018|w1=Rabeprazole|rev_permalink=https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=WikiJournal_Preprints/Rabeprazole&oldid=1822391|abstract= Rabeprazole is a [[Wikipedia:proton pump inhibitor|proton pump inhibitor]] that suppresses [[Wikipedia:gastric acid|gastric acid]] production in the stomach. Available under different brand name products as well as in a variety of combination products, rabeprazole has several medical uses concerning the management of problems of pathological gastric acid. Rabeprazole's adverse effects tend to be mild but can be serious, including deficiencies in essential nutrients, rare incidences of liver damage, and immune-mediated reactions. As a class effect, rabeprazole can increase the risk for [[Wikipedia:osteoporosis|osteoporosis]], serious infections (including ''[[Wikipedia:Clostridium difficile|Clostridium difficile]]'' infections), and kidney damage. Rabeprazole can theoretically contribute to numerous [[Wikipedia:drug interactions|drug interactions]], mediated both through its metabolic properties and its direct effect on acid in the [[Wikipedia:stomach|stomach]], though its potential for clinically meaningful drug interactions is low. Like other medications in the proton pump inhibitor class, rabeprazole's mechanism of action involves the irreversible inhibition of proton pumps in the stomach, which are responsible for gastric acid production. Rabeprazole has a number of chemical [[Wikipedia:metabolites|metabolites]], though it is primarily degraded by non-enzymatic metabolism and excreted in the urine. Genetic differences in a person's drug-metabolizing [[Wikipedia:enzymes|enzymes]] may theoretically affect individual responses to rabeprazole therapy, though the clinical significance of this interaction is unlikely in comparison to other proton pump inhibitors. The purpose of this review is to provide an up-to-date monograph on rabeprazole. }} {{fig|1 |Aciphex-20b.jpg |Brand-name rabeprazole tablets. |align=right |attribution=public domain }} ==Medical uses== {{fig|2 |Aciphex-sample-bottle.jpg |Bottle of rabeprazole 20 mg tablets. |align=right |attribution=public domain }} Rabeprazole, like other [[Wikipedia:proton pump inhibitors|proton pump inhibitors]] (PPIs) such as [[Wikipedia:omeprazole|omeprazole]] and [[Wikipedia:lansoprazole|lansoprazole]], is used for the purpose of gastric acid suppression.<ref name="Dadabhai review">{{cite journal|last1=Dadabhai|first1=Alia|last2=Friedenberg|first2=Frank K|title=Rabeprazole: a pharmacologic and clinical review for acid-related disorders|journal=Expert Opinion on Drug Safety|date=17 January 2009|volume=8|issue=1|pages=119–126|doi=10.1517/14740330802622892}}</ref> This effect is beneficial for the treatment and prevention of conditions in which gastric acid directly worsens symptoms, such as duodenal and gastric ulcers.<ref name="Dadabhai review" /> In the setting of [[Wikipedia:gastroesophageal reflux disease|gastroesophageal reflux disease]] (GERD), whose pathophysiology is characterized by prolonged exposure to gastric acid in the esophagus (often due to changes in stomach and/or esophagus anatomy, such as those induced by abdominal obesity),<ref name="Change et al obesity gerd">{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=Paul|last2=Friedenberg|first2=Frank|title=Obesity and GERD|journal=Gastroenterology Clinics of North America|date=March 2014|volume=43|issue=1|pages=161–173|doi=10.1016/j.gtc.2013.11.009}}</ref> acid suppression can provide symptomatic relief.<ref name="Dadabhai review" /> Acid suppression is also useful when gastric production of acid is increased, including rare conditions with excess gastric acid secretion (hypersecretory conditions) like [[Wikipedia:Zollinger-Ellison syndrome|Zollinger-Ellison syndrome]] (ZES), [[Wikipedia:multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1|multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1]] (MEN-1), and systemic [[Wikipedia:mastocytosis|mastocytosis]].<ref name="Dadabhai review" /> In an [[Wikipedia:open-label|open-label]], industry-sponsored, [[Wikipedia:Non-controlled studies|non-controlled]] study of high-dose rabeprazole for the treatment of ZES and idiopathic gastric acid hypersecretion (IGAH), including patients with MEN-1 and GERD, rabeprazole induced and maintained suppression of basal acid output over a 24 month period.<ref name="Morocutti et al">{{cite journal|last1=Morocutti|first1=A|last2=Merrouche|first2=M|last3=Bjaaland|first3=T|last4=Humphries|first4=T|last5=Mignon|first5=M|title=An open-label study of rabeprazole in patients with Zollinger-Ellison syndrome or idiopathic gastric acid hypersecretion|journal=Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics|date=15 November 2006|volume=24|issue=10|pages=1439-1444|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2036.2006.03137.x|pmid=17081164|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17081164|accessdate=9 April 2018}}</ref> Only one patient withdrew from the study due to an elevation in [[Wikipedia:creatine phosphokinase|creatine phosphokinase]] judged to be possibly due to rabeprazole, while rabeprazole was otherwise well-tolerated in this population.<ref name="Morocutti et al"/> There are no clinical trials to date that have studied the precise use of rabeprazole, or any PPI, for the treatment of acid-related complaints due to systemic mastocytosis, but acid suppressing medications such as PPIs and [[Wikipedia:H2 receptor antagonists|H2 receptor antagonists]] are routinely used to counter the histamine-mediated acid secretion found in this disorder.<ref name="Pettigrew SM Review">{{cite journal|last1=Pettigrew|first1=H. David|last2=Teuber|first2=Suzanne S.|last3=Kong|first3=James S.|last4=Gershwin|first4=M. Eric|title=Contemporary Challenges in Mastocytosis|journal=Clinical Reviews in Allergy & Immunology|date=29 July 2009|volume=38|issue=2-3|pages=125–134|doi=10.1007/s12016-009-8164-8|accessdate=10 April 2018}}</ref> Rabeprazole has utility alongside antibiotic therapy for the treatment of the pathogen ''[[Wikipedia:Helicobacter pylori|Helicobacter pylori]]'' (''H. pylori''), which otherwise thrives in acidic environments.<ref name="Dadabhai review" /> In the original studies that gave rise to its approval for the eradication of ''H. pylori'', rabeprazole was studied in combination with amoxicillin and clarithromycin. This triple therapy was studied at the specific doses of rabeprazole 20mg twice daily, amoxicillin 1000mg twice daily, and clarithromycin 500mg twice daily for 7 days, which is a higher dose of rabeprazole than what is used for the treatment of simple GERD (20mg once daily). The higher dose is thought to provide more consistent elevation of pH in the stomach, leading to better eradication of ''H. pylori'', congruent with the dosing strategies of other PPIs for this indication.<ref name="StatReview 1" /> Notably, ''H. pylori'' eradication with antibiotics and rabeprazole was also shown to prevent development of second [[w:Stomach cancer|gastric cancer]] in a [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized trial]] in high-risk [[w:South Korea|South Korean]] patients with early stomach cancer treated by [[w:Esophagogastroduodenoscopy|endoscopy]].<ref name="pmid29562147">{{cite journal |vauthors=Choi IJ, Kook MC, Kim YI, Cho SJ, Lee JY, Kim CG, Park B, Nam BH |title=Helicobacter pylori Therapy for the Prevention of Metachronous Gastric Cancer |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=378 |issue=12 |pages=1085–1095 |date=March 2018 |pmid=29562147 |doi=10.1056/NEJMoa1708423 |url=}}</ref> Thus, rabeprazole is [[Wikipedia:FDA|FDA]] approved for: * treatment of symptomatic GERD in adolescents and adults, * healing duodenal ulcers in adults, * eradication of ''Helicobacter pylori'', and * pathologic hypersecretory conditions.<ref name="Drugs.com Monograph">{{cite web|title=Rabeprazole – FDA prescribing information, side effects and uses|url=https://www.drugs.com/pro/rabeprazole.html|website=drugs.com|publisher=Drugs.com|accessdate=5 October 2017}}</ref> ===Available forms=== The only available formulation of rabeprazole is in 20&nbsp;mg, delayed-release tablets (see '''Figures 1''' and '''2''').<ref name="Drugs.com Monograph" /> Rabeprazole-based products, like other proton pump inhibitor products, have to be formulated in delayed-release tablets to protect the active medication from being degraded by the acid of the stomach before being absorbed.<ref name="Marelli Review 2012" /> ===Specific populations=== ====Pediatrics==== Rabeprazole's only pediatric indication is for the treatment of symptomatic GERD in adolescents (12 years-old and up).<ref name="Drugs.com Monograph" /> ====Pregnancy==== The FDA originally labeled rabeprazole as a [[Wikipedia:pregnancy category|pregnancy category]] B drug (meaning that [[Wikipedia:in vivo|in vivo]] research failed to demonstrate a fetal hazard, though human studies are lacking),<ref name="PregCats">{{cite web|title=FDA Pregnancy Categories - CHEMM|url=https://chemm.nlm.nih.gov/pregnancycategories.htm|website=chemm.nlm.nih.gov|publisher=U.S. Department of Health & Human Services|accessdate=22 March 2018|language=en}}</ref> but it was reclassified as a pregnancy category C drug (meaning that in vivo research ''has'' shown a fetal hazard, though the benefit of use may outweigh the risk) in 2014.<ref name="Rabeprazole 1999 PI First">{{cite web|title=ACIPHEX DELAYED-RELEASE TABLETS March 5, 1999|url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/1999/20973lbl.pdf|publisher=Eisai, Inc.|archivedate=1999|accessdate=22 March 2018}}</ref><ref name="Korvick FDA Letter">{{cite web|last1=Korvick|first1=Joyce|title=Supplement Approval|url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/appletter/2014/204736orig1s004,020973orig1s034ltr.pdf|website=accessdata.fda.gov|publisher=FDA|accessdate=22 March 2018}}</ref> This was after the publishing of an in vivo study that detected changes in bone morphology in rats treated with [[Wikipedia:esomeprazole|esomeprazole]].<ref name="Rabeprazole PI Jan2018 Update">{{cite web|title=ACIPHEX DELAYED-RELEASE TABLETS January 2018|url=https://us.eisai.com/-/media/Files/Aciphex/aciphexpi.pdf|publisher=Eisai, Inc.|accessdate=22 March 2018}}</ref> In these rats, the following observations were noted:<ref name="Rabeprazole PI Jan2018 Update" /><ref name="Esomep PI 2013">{{cite web|title=ESOMEPRAZOLE STRONTIUM|url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2013/202342s000lbl.pdf|website=accessdata.fda.gov|publisher=Amneal Pharmaceuticals|accessdate=22 March 2018|pages=12-13}}</ref> *shortened femurs, decreased width and thickness of cortical bone, decreased thickness of the tibial growth plate, and minimal to mild bone marrow hypocellularity occurred at doses equal to or greater than 3.4 times the daily maximum recommended human dose (MRHD); *decreased survival, decreased birth weight, and an increase in neurobehavioral delays occurred at doses equal to or greater than 16.8 times the daily MRHD; *physeal dysplasia of the femur occurred at doses equal to or greater than 33.6 times the daily MRHD. In vivo studies on rabbits with rabeprazole doses of up to 50mg/kg/day (about 13 times the normal human drug exposure of rabeprazole at 20mg) failed to show evidence of fetal harm.<ref name="Rabeprazole PI Jan2018 Update" /> ====Lactation==== It is expected that rabeprazole will be secreted into human [[Wikipedia:breast milk|breast milk]], though the clinical impact of this is still unknown. Avoiding rabeprazole during [[Wikipedia:breastfeeding|breastfeeding]] confers the lowest possible risk.<ref name="Dadabhai review" /> ====Geriatrics==== Advanced age does not appear to clinically impact rabeprazole's metabolism.<ref name="Langtry Review">{{cite journal|last1=Langtry|first1=HD|last2=Markham|first2=A|title=Rabeprazole: a review of its use in acid-related gastrointestinal disorders.|journal=Drugs|date=October 1999|volume=58|issue=4|pages=725–42|pmid=10551440|doi=10.2165/00003495-199958040-00014}}</ref> However, elevations in the maximum plasma concentration and the total drug exposure ([[Wikipedia:Area under the curve (pharmacokinetics)|area under the curve]], AUC) have occurred.<ref name="Dadabhai review" /> ====Japanese ancestry==== In a study on rabeprazole's [[Wikipedia:pharmacokinetics|pharmacokinetics]], the AUC was elevated by approximately 50–60% in healthy [[Wikipedia:Japanese people|Japanese]] men compared to healthy men in the United States.<ref name="Rabeprazole Drug Approval" /> See the pharmacogenetics section below for a pharmacogenetic explanation of these findings. ====Renal or hepatic impairment==== In people that have renal or hepatic impairment, these problems do not appear to affect rabeprazole's metabolism in a clinically meaningful way. This includes individuals on [[Wikipedia:dialysis|dialysis]]. Severe liver insufficiency, such as during [[Wikipedia:cirrhosis|cirrhosis]], does affect rabeprazole's elimination half-life, but not to a degree of dangerous accumulation.<ref name="Langtry Review" /> In a review of patients taking rabeprazole while having [[Wikipedia:end-stage kidney disease|end-stage kidney disease]] and mild-to-moderate severity, chronic compensated cirrhosis of the liver, the alteration in rabeprazole's metabolism was not clinically meaningful.<ref name="Marelli Review 2012" /> ==Contraindications== Rabeprazole should not be used in the following populations and situations:<ref name="Drugs.com Monograph" /> *people with a known hypersensitivity (allergy) to rabeprazole, substituted [[Wikipedia:benzimidazoles|benzimidazoles]] (which are chemically similar to rabeprazole, like [[Wikipedia:omeprazole|omeprazole]]), or any other component of the capsule formulation (e.g. certain dyes) *concurrent use of [[Wikipedia:rilpivirine|rilpivirine]], a medication used to treat [[Wikipedia:HIV|HIV]] infection ===Hypersensitivity=== ====Syndrome==== An allergy to a PPI like rabeprazole may take the form of [[Wikipedia:type I hypersensitivity|type I hypersensitivity]] or [[Wikipedia:delayed hypersensitivity|delayed hypersensitivity]] reactions. A selective (pattern C — see below for a discussion of cross-reactivity patterns) type I hypersensitivity reaction to rabeprazole resulting in [[Wikipedia:anaphylaxis|anaphylaxis]] has been reported, as well as several whole group hypersentivities.<ref name="Lombardo and Bonadonna">{{cite journal|last1=Lombardo|first1=Carla|last2=Bonadonna|first2=Patrizia|title=Hypersensitivity Reactions to Proton Pump Inhibitors|journal=Current Treatment Options in Allergy|date=21 March 2015|volume=2|issue=2|pages=110–123|doi=10.1007/s40521-015-0046-0|accessdate=20 February 2018}}</ref> ====Cross-reactivity==== Hypersensitivity to PPIs can take the form of whole group hypersensitivity, pattern A, B, or C. Whole group hypersentivity occurs when a person is cross-reactive to all PPIs; that is, all PPIs will induce the allergy. In pattern A, a person may be allergic to omeprazole, esomeprazole, and pantoprazole, but not to lansoprazole and rabeprazole. This is thought to be due to the structural similarities between omeprazole, esomeprazole, and pantoprazole, contrasted with lansoprazole and rabeprazole. Pattern B is the opposite, reflecting people that are allergic to lansoprazole and rabeprazole, but not to omeprazole, esomeprazole, and pantoprazole. Pattern C, in the context of rabeprazole, would reflect a person that is allergic to only rabeprazole, but not to other PPIs (omeprazole, esomeprazole, pantoprazole, and lansoprazole).<ref name="Lombardo and Bonadonna" /> ===Contraindication with rilpivirine=== Rilpivirine, a [[Wikipedia:non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor|non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor]] (NNRTI) used in the treatment of HIV, is contraindicated with all PPIs because of their acid-suppressing effect. PPIs suppress acid, thereby raising the pH of (alkalizing) the stomach's contents. Rilpivirine is best absorbed under acidic conditions. Therefore, rabeprazole would be expected to decrease the absorption of rilpivirine, decrease the concentration of rilpivirine in the blood, and possibly lead to therapeutic failure and induce resistance of the HIV virus to rilpivirine and/or cross-resistance with other NNRTIs.<ref name="Edurant PI">{{cite web|title=EDURANT®|url=http://www.edurant.com/shared/prescribing-information-edurant.pdf|publisher=Janssen Products|accessdate=20 February 2018}}</ref> ==Adverse effects== In general rabeprazole is fairly well tolerated, even with up to 5 years of continuous use (the duration of follow-up in a [[Wikipedia:Pharmacovigilance|pharmacovigilance]] clinical trial<ref name="Rindi et al">{{cite journal|last1=Rindi|first1=G|last2=Fiocca|first2=R|last3=Morocutti|first3=A|last4=Jacobs|first4=A|last5=Miller|first5=N|last6=Thjodleifsson|first6=B|last7=European Rabeprazole Study|first7=Group.|title=Effects of 5 years of treatment with rabeprazole or omeprazole on the gastric mucosa|doi=10.1097/00042737-200505000-00013|journal=European Journal of Gastroenterology & Hepatology|date=May 2005|volume=17|issue=5|pages=559-66|pmid=15827447|accessdate=10 April 2018}}</ref>).<ref name="Marelli Review 2012" /> The [[Wikipedia:side effect|side effect]] profile is similar to that of [[Wikipedia:omeprazole|omeprazole]] and other commonly used PPIs.<ref name="Langtry Review" /> The most common side effects include [[Wikipedia:headache|headache]], [[Wikipedia:nausea|nausea]], and [[Wikipedia:diarrhea|diarrhea]].<ref name="Marelli Review 2012" /> Rare side effects include rashes, flu-like symptoms, and infections (including by the gastrointestinal pathogen ''[[Wikipedia:Clostridium difficile (bacteria)|Clostridium difficile]]''<ref name="Aciphex Package Insert" />).<ref name="Langtry Review" /> Rare instances of rabeprazole-induced [[Wikipedia:liver|liver]] injury (also known as hepatotoxicity) have been reported. Characteristic proton-pump inhibitor hepatotoxicity occurs within the first 4 weeks of starting the medication.<ref name="Livertox Rabeprazole" /> [[Wikipedia:gastrin|Gastrin]] is an endogenous human hormone that stimulates gastric acid secretion and regulating the growth of certain cells in the stomach.<ref name="Laine et al Review">{{cite journal|last1=Laine|first1=L|last2=Ahnen|first2=D|last3=McClain|first3=C|last4=Solcia|first4=E|last5=Walsh|first5=JH|title=Review article: potential gastrointestinal effects of long-term acid suppression with proton pump inhibitors|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2036.2000.00768.x|journal=Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics|date=June 2000|volume=14|issue=6|pages=651-68|pmid=10848649|accessdate=24 March 2018}}</ref> [[Wikipedia:Enterochromafin-like cells|Enterochromafin-like (ECL) cells]], responsible for stimulating gastric acid secretion by the release of [[Wikipedia:histamine|histamine]] in the stomach, respond to prolonged gastrin exposure by growing and proliferating.<ref name="Laine et al Review" /> Rabeprazole is associated with elevated serum gastrin levels (hypergastrinemia), which occurs through inhibiting the negative feedback of stomach acid on gastrin secretion by [[Wikipedia:G cells|G cells]] in the [[Wikipedia:antrum|antrum]] of the stomach.<ref name="Laine et al Review" /> The elevation in serum gastrin levels are thought to be dependent upon the degree of rabeprazole's [[Wikipedia:CYP2C19|CYP2C19]] metabolism. Rabeprazole is not as significantly metabolized by CYP2C19 compared to other medications in the same class, like omeprazole.<ref name="Marelli Review 2012" /> Hypergastrinemia has been posited as a potential source of rabeprazole-induced neuropsychiatric symptoms (e.g. dizziness, numbness, and tremor), though more research is needed to clarify the effect and mechanism.<ref name="Polimeni Case Report">{{cite journal|last1=Polimeni|first1=G|last2=Cutroneo|first2=P|last3=Gallo|first3=A|last4=Gallo|first4=S|last5=Spina|first5=E|last6=Caputi|first6=AP|title=Rabeprazole and psychiatric symptoms.|journal=The Annals of pharmacotherapy|date=July 2007|volume=41|issue=7|pages=1315-7|doi=10.1345/aph.1K134|pmid=17609230|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17609230|accessdate=11 April 2018}}</ref> Prolonged elevated serum gastrin has been shown to cause rat ECL cells to form [[Wikipedia:carcinoid tumors|carcinoid tumors]].<ref name="Laine et al Review" /> According to a 2013 meta-analysis of observational studies, the use of acid-suppressing drugs (including PPIs like rabeprazole, but also [[Wikipedia:histamine receptor 2 antagonists|histamine receptor 2 antagonists]]) may be associated with the development of gastric cancer.<ref name="Ahn et al">{{cite journal|last1=Ahn|first1=Jeong Soo|last2=Eom|first2=Chun-Sick|last3=Jeon|first3=Christie Y|last4=Park|first4=Sang Min|title=Acid suppressive drugs and gastric cancer: A meta-analysis of observational studies|journal=World Journal of Gastroenterology|date=28 April 2013|volume=19|issue=16|pages=2560–2568|doi=10.3748/wjg.v19.i16.2560|issn=1007-9327|pmc=3646149|pmid=23674860}}</ref> The studies included in the meta-analysis did not differentiate between rabeprazole and other PPIs,<ref name="Rodriguez et al">{{cite journal|last1=Rodriguez|first1=L A G.|last2=Lagergren|first2=J|last3=Lindblad|first3=M|title=Gastric acid suppression and risk of oesophageal and gastric adenocarcinoma: a nested case control study in the UK|journal=Gut|date=1 November 2006|volume=55|issue=11|pages=1538–1544|doi=10.1136/gut.2005.086579|accessdate=24 March 2018}}</ref><ref name="Tamim et al">{{cite journal|last1=Tamim|first1=H|last2=Duranceau|first2=A|last3=Chen|first3=LQ|last4=Lelorier|first4=J|title=Association between use of acid-suppressive drugs and risk of gastric cancer: A nested case-control study|doi=10.2165/00002018-200831080-00004|journal=Drug Safety|date=2008|volume=31|issue=8|pages=675-84|pmid=8636786|accessdate=24 March 2018}}</ref><ref name="Duan et al">{{cite journal|last1=Duan|first1=L.|last2=Wu|first2=A. H.|last3=Sullivan-Halley|first3=J.|last4=Bernstein|first4=L.|title=Antacid Drug Use and Risk of Esophageal and Gastric Adenocarcinomas in Los Angeles County|journal=Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention|date=3 February 2009|volume=18|issue=2|pages=526–533|doi=10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-08-0764|accessdate=24 March 2018}}</ref><ref name="Poulsen et al">{{cite journal|last1=Poulsen|first1=A H|last2=Christensen|first2=S|last3=McLaughlin|first3=J K|last4=Thomsen|first4=R W|last5=Sørensen|first5=H T|last6=Olsen|first6=J H|last7=Friis|first7=S|title=Proton pump inhibitors and risk of gastric cancer: a population-based cohort study|journal=British Journal of Cancer|date=7 April 2009|volume=100|issue=9|pages=1503–1507|doi=10.1038/sj.bjc.6605024|accessdate=24 March 2018}}</ref> so it is unclear if the potential risk may differ across the PPI class. Acid suppression via rabeprazole can decrease the absorption of [[Wikipedia:vitamin B12|vitamin B12]] and [[Wikipedia:magnesium|magnesium]], leading to deficiency.<ref name="Drugs.com Monograph" /> A case of rabeprazole-induced [[Wikipedia:iron deficiency anemia|iron deficiency anemia]] has been reported.<ref name="Hashimoto Case Report">{{cite journal|last1=Hashimoto|first1=Rintaro|last2=Matsuda|first2=Tomoki|last3=Chonan|first3=Akimichi|title=Iron-deficiency Anemia Caused by a Proton Pump Inhibitor|journal=Internal Medicine|date=2014|volume=53|issue=20|pages=2297–2299|doi=10.2169/internalmedicine.53.2743|accessdate=11 April 2018}}</ref> Theoretically, rabeprazole could induce an iron deficiency anemia by reducing the dietary absorption of iron, which requires acid for bioavailability.<ref name="Hashimoto Case Report" /> Very serious side effects have been reported in people taking rabeprazole, but there is no direct evidence that rabeprazole definitely caused these side effects.<ref name="Dadabhai review" /> These include [[Wikipedia:Stevens-Johnson syndrome|Stevens-Johnson syndrome]] (a serious disease characterized by skin rash and risk of organ failure), serious [[Wikipedia:hematology|blood cell]] abnormalities, coma, and death.<ref name="Dadabhai review" /> Other possible side effects, common to other PPIs medications in the same class, include bone fractures due to [[Wikipedia:osteoporosis|osteoporosis]], serious infections (including ''Clostridium difficile''), and kidney damage (nephrotoxicity).<ref name="Drugs.com Monograph" /> A rare, though less understood, side effect of the PPI class is the risk of [[Wikipedia:myopathy|myopathy]] and [[Wikipedia:rhabdomyolysis|rhabdomyolysis]], a syndrome of striated muscle destruction.<ref name="Bourlon et al Rhabdo">{{cite journal|last1=Bourlon|first1=S|last2=Veyrac|first2=G|last3=Armand|first3=C|last4=Lambert|first4=O|last5=Bourin|first5=M|last6=Jolliet|first6=P|title=[Rhabdomyolysis during treatment with rabeprazole (Pariel), a proton pump inhibitor combined with domperidone (Peridys)]|journal=Therapie|date=2002|volume=57|issue=6|pages=597-600|pmid=12666271|accessdate=12 April 2018|language=French}}</ref> ===Osteoporosis and fractures=== The mechanism of PPI-induced osteoporosis and fractures is unclear, but hypotheses include hypocalcemia and hypomagnesemia, hyperparathyroidism, and B12 deficiency (inducing neurological deficits and subsequent falls).<ref name="Andersen et al Review">{{cite journal|last1=Andersen|first1=Bjarne Nesgaard|last2=Johansen|first2=Per Birger|last3=Abrahamsen|first3=Bo|title=Proton pump inhibitors and osteoporosis|journal=Current Opinion in Rheumatology|date=July 2016|volume=28|issue=4|pages=420–425|doi=10.1097/BOR.0000000000000291|accessdate=10 April 2018}}</ref> In opposition to the calcium malabsorption hypothesis, rabeprazole prevented reductions in [[Wikipedia:bone mineral density|bone mineral density]] akin to the effect of [[Wikipedia:minodronic acid|minodronic acid]] in a study of [[Wikipedia:Gastrectomy|gastrectomized]] rats.<ref name="Yamasaki et al">{{cite journal|last1=Yamasaki|first1=Yuki|last2=Fujimura|first2=Takashi|last3=Oyama|first3=Katsunobu|last4=Higashi|first4=Yuki|last5=Hirose|first5=Atsushi|last6=Tsukada|first6=Tomoya|last7=Okamoto|first7=Koichi|last8=Kinoshita|first8=Jun|last9=Nakamura|first9=Keishi|last10=Miyashita|first10=Tomoharu|last11=Tajima|first11=Hidehiro|last12=Takamura|first12=Hiroyuki|last13=Ninomiya|first13=Itasu|last14=Fushida|first14=Sachio|last15=Ohta|first15=Tetsuo|title=Effects of rabeprazole on bone metabolic disorders in a gastrectomized rat model|journal=Biomedical Reports|date=July 2016|volume=5|issue=1|pages=118–124|doi=10.3892/br.2016.689|accessdate=10 April 2018}}</ref> Midodronic acid is a [[Wikipedia:bisphosphonate|bisphosphonate]] class drug used to prevent fractures in osteoporosis.<ref name="Tanishima Mido">{{cite journal|last1=Tanishima|first1=Shinji|last2=Morio|first2=Yasuo|title=A review of minodronic acid hydrate for the treatment of osteoporosis|journal=Clinical Interventions in Aging|date=February 2013|volume=8|pages=185|doi=10.2147/CIA.S23927|pmid=23440003|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23440003|accessdate=10 April 2018}}</ref> Unlike midodronic acid, rabeprazole did not affect serum calcium levels, although the attenuation of gastrectomy-induced bone mineral density reduction at the distal end of the femur suggested inhibition of bone resorption by [[Wikipedia:osteoclasts|osteoclasts]] (like a bisphosphonate).<ref name="Yamasaki et al" /> ===Infection risk=== PPIs have been associated with an increased risk for [[Wikipedia:pneumonia|pneumonia]] by [[Wikipedia:meta-analysis|meta-analyses]]<ref name="Giuliano Meta">{{cite journal|last1=Giuliano|first1=Christopher|last2=Wilhelm|first2=Sheila M|last3=Kale-Pradhan|first3=Pramodini B|title=Are proton pump inhibitors associated with the development of community-acquired pneumonia? A meta-analysis|journal=Expert Review of Clinical Pharmacology|date=10 January 2014|volume=5|issue=3|pages=337–344|doi=10.1586/ecp.12.20|accessdate=11 April 2018}}</ref><ref name="Johnstone Meta">{{cite journal|last1=Johnstone|first1=J.|last2=Nerenberg|first2=K.|last3=Loeb|first3=M.|title=Meta-analysis: proton pump inhibitor use and the risk of community-acquired pneumonia|journal=Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics|date=4 March 2010|volume=31|issue=11|pages=1165–1177|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2036.2010.04284.x|accessdate=11 April 2018}}</ref><ref name="Eom Meta">{{cite journal|last1=Eom|first1=C.-S.|last2=Jeon|first2=C. Y.|last3=Lim|first3=J.-W.|last4=Cho|first4=E.-G.|last5=Park|first5=S. M.|last6=Lee|first6=K.-S.|title=Use of acid-suppressive drugs and risk of pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Canadian Medical Association Journal|date=20 December 2010|volume=183|issue=3|pages=310–319|doi=10.1503/cmaj.092129|accessdate=11 April 2018}}</ref> of case-control and cohort studies.<ref name="Wilhelm">{{cite journal|last1=Wilhelm|first1=Sheila M|last2=Rjater|first2=Ryan G|last3=Kale-Pradhan|first3=Pramodini B|title=Perils and pitfalls of long-term effects of proton pump inhibitors|journal=Expert Review of Clinical Pharmacology|date=10 January 2014|volume=6|issue=4|pages=443–451|doi=10.1586/17512433.2013.811206|pmid=23927671|accessdate=11 April 2018}}</ref> One hypothesis for this association is that PPI-induced acid suppression fosters the growth of aerobic bacteria in the stomach, which can be transferred to the lungs by [[Wikipedia:Pulmonary aspiration|microaspiration]], promoting [[Wikipedia:Infection#Colonization|colonization]] and subsequent pneumonia.<ref name="Wilhelm" /> Other hypotheses include off-target proton pump inhibition in the lungs, altering the pH of pulmonary mucus in favor of bacterial growth, and direct inhibition of the activity of white blood cells such as [[wikipedia:neutrophils|neutrophils]] and [[Wikipedia:NK cells|natural killer cells]].<ref name="Eom Meta" /> In line with the stomach acid suppression hypothesis for bacterial overgrowth, PPIs have also been associated with ''Clostridium difficile'' infections.<ref name="Wilhelm" /> However, as these meta-analyses have pooled PPIs together, it is unknown whether the risk of infection differs significantly between rabeprazole and other members of the PPI class.<ref name="Wilhelm" /> Rabeprazole was identified as the causative agent in a case report collagenous colitis, inducing chronic, watery diarrhea.<ref name="Murasawa Case Report">{{cite journal|last1=Murasawa|first1=M.|last2=Sakurada|first2=T.|last3=Oishi|first3=D.|last4=Suzuki|first4=T.|last5=Tominaga|first5=N.|last6=Kawarazaki|first6=H.|last7=Shirai|first7=S.|last8=Shibagaki|first8=Y.|last9=Kimura|first9=K.|title=Collagenous Colitis Associated with Rabeprazole in a Peritoneal Dialysis Patient|journal=Peritoneal Dialysis International|date=8 October 2015|volume=35|issue=5|pages=588–590|doi=10.3747/pdi.2014.00184|accessdate=11 April 2018}}</ref> Other enteric, infectious organisms associated with PPI use include [[Wikipedia:Campylobacter|''Campylobacter'']] and [[Wikipedia:Salmonella|''Salmonella'']].<ref name="Hafiz et al Meta">{{cite journal|last1=Hafiz|first1=Radwan A.|last2=Wong|first2=Chia|last3=Paynter|first3=Stuart|last4=David|first4=Michael|last5=Peeters|first5=Geeske|title=The Risk of Community-Acquired Enteric Infection in Proton Pump Inhibitor Therapy: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis|journal=Annals of Pharmacotherapy|date=18 February 2018|pages=106002801876056|doi=10.1177/1060028018760569|accessdate=11 April 2018}}</ref> Both pathogens are sensitive to acid;<ref name="Satoh Book">{{cite book|last1=Satoh|first1=volume editors, Tsutomu Chiba, Peter Malfertheiner, Hiroshi|title=Proton pump inhibitors : a balanced view|date=2013|publisher=Karger|location=Basel [u.a.]|isbn=3318024163|page=94|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kX70AQAAQBAJ|accessdate=11 April 2018}}</ref> theoretically, as above, acid suppression by PPIs should increase their [[Wikipedia:pathogenicity|pathogenicity]]. It is unclear if the observed association is due to the PPI itself, as one cohort study found that the association could be explained by the demographic factors of patients prescribed PPIs (e.g. concurrent use of immunosuppressant medications, older age, and antibiotic use).<ref name="Brophy et al">{{cite journal|last1=Brophy|first1=Sinead|last2=Jones|first2=Kerina H|last3=Rahman|first3=Muhammad A|last4=Zhou|first4=Shang-Ming|last5=John|first5=Ann|last6=Atkinson|first6=Mark D|last7=Francis|first7=Nick|last8=Lyons|first8=Ronan A|last9=Dunstan|first9=Frank|title=Incidence of Campylobacter and Salmonella Infections Following First Prescription for PPI: A Cohort Study Using Routine Data|journal=The American Journal of Gastroenterology|date=16 April 2013|volume=108|issue=7|pages=1094–1100|doi=10.1038/ajg.2013.30|accessdate=11 April 2018}}</ref> In a clinical trial of 255 Japanese patients, the incidence of PPI-associated diarrhea did not differ between rabeprazole, omeprazole, or lansoprazole.<ref name="Shimura et al">{{cite journal|last1=Shimura|first1=Shino|last2=Hamamoto|first2=Naoharu|last3=Yoshino|first3=Nagisa|last4=Kushiyama|first4=Yoshinori|last5=Fujishiro|first5=Hirofumi|last6=Komazawa|first6=Yoshinori|last7=Furuta|first7=Kenji|last8=Ishihara|first8=Shunji|last9=Adachi|first9=Kyoichi|last10=Kinoshita|first10=Yoshikazu|title=Diarrhea Caused by Proton Pump Inhibitor Administration: Comparisons Among Lansoprazole, Rabeprazole, and Omeprazole|journal=Current Therapeutic Research|date=June 2012|volume=73|issue=3|pages=112–120|doi=10.1016/j.curtheres.2012.03.002|accessdate=11 April 2018}}</ref> ===Nephrotoxicity=== Forms of kidney damage associated with PPIs in one meta-analysis include [[Wikipedia:Acute interstitial nephritis|acute interstitial nephritis]] (AIN) (insufficient quality evidence), [[Wikipedia:acute kidney injury|acute kidney injury]] (AKI) (low grade evidence), [[Wikipedia:chronic kidney disease|chronic kidney disease]] (CKD) (low grade evidence), and [[Wikipedia:end-stage renal disease|end-stage renal disease]] (insufficient quality evidence).<ref name="Nochaiwong et al Meta">{{cite journal|last1=Nochaiwong|first1=Surapon|last2=Ruengorn|first2=Chidchanok|last3=Awiphan|first3=Ratanaporn|last4=Koyratkoson|first4=Kiatkriangkrai|last5=Chaisai|first5=Chayutthaphong|last6=Noppakun|first6=Kajohnsak|last7=Chongruksut|first7=Wilaiwan|last8=Thavorn|first8=Kednapa|title=The association between proton pump inhibitor use and the risk of adverse kidney outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis|journal=Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation|date=February 2018|volume=33|issue=2|pages=331–342|doi=10.1093/ndt/gfw470|pmid=28339835|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28339835|accessdate=11 April 2018}}</ref> The first reported case of rabeprazole-induced AIN occurred in a 62 year-old female in Australia, prescribed rabeprazole for complaints of dyspepsia due to suspected GERD.<ref name="Geevasinga AIN Case">{{cite journal|last1=Geevasinga|first1=Nimeshan|last2=Coleman|first2=Patrick L|last3=Roger|first3=Simon D|title=Rabeprazole-induced acute interstitial nephritis. Case Report|journal=Nephrology|date=February 2005|volume=10|issue=1|pages=7–9|doi=10.1111/j.1440-1797.2005.00365.x|pmid=15705174|accessdate=11 April 2018}}</ref> The mechanism for PPI-induced AIN has not been elucidated, though an immune-related hypothesis has been posited on the basis of extra-renal toxicity consistent with an immunologic, [[Wikipedia:hypersensitivity|hypersensitivity]] reaction.<ref name="Geevasinga AIN Case" /> It has also been posited that incomplete resolution of PPI-induced AIN could precede AKI and CKD.<ref name="Nochaiwong et al Meta" /> ===Muscle-related adverse events=== Cases of progressive muscle weakness, muscle pain, and rhabdomyolysis following administration of PPIs have been reported in the scientific literature.<ref name="Bourlon et al Rhabdo" /> However, the mechanism for these muscle-related adverse events has yet to be established.<ref name="Bourlon et al Rhabdo" /> In one case, rhabdomyolysis developed in a 50 year-old patient 2 weeks after starting both rabeprazole and [[Wikipedia:domperidone|domperidone]], a prokinetic and antiemetic agent,<ref name="Domperidone PI">{{cite web|title=MOTILIUM Package Insert|url=http://www.janssen.com/australia/sites/www_janssen_com_australia/files/prod_files/live/motilium_pi.pdf|publisher=Janssen|accessdate=12 April 2018}}</ref> which resolved after discontinuation of both drugs.<ref name="Bourlon et al Rhabdo" /> Per the French imputability method of causality assessment, it was determined that rabeprazole was a "plausible" cause of the rhabdomyolysis, noting that domperidone was started concurrently.<ref name="Bourlon et al Rhabdo" /> ==Overdose== No signs and symptoms have been reported in overdoses of rabeprazole up to 80&nbsp;mg, but case examples are limited.<ref name="NLM Toxnet Rabeprazole">{{cite web|title=Rabeprazole – National Library of Medicine HSDB Database|url=https://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search/a?dbs+hsdb:@term+@DOCNO+7321|website=toxnet.nlm.nih.gov|publisher=National Library of Medicine|accessdate=5 October 2017}}</ref> Notably, rabeprazole has been used in higher doses for the treatment of hypersecretory conditions like Zollinger-Ellison syndrome (up to 120&nbsp;mg daily).<ref name="NLM Toxnet Rabeprazole" /> Animal experiments with ultra-high doses of rabeprazole have demonstrated lethality through unknown mechanisms. The lethal overdose syndrome in animals is characterized by convulsion and coma.<ref name="Rabeprazole Drug Approval">{{cite web|title=Application Number 20-973/S-009|url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2002/020973Orig1s009.pdf|publisher=Center for Drug Evaluation and Research|accessdate=13 October 2017}}</ref> ==Interactions== ===Drug-drug interactions=== Rabeprazole does not interfere with the plasma concentration of drugs that are also metabolized by the same enzymes (i.e. CYP2C19) that it is metabolized by. Therefore, it is not expected to react with CYP2C19 substrates like [[Wikipedia:theophylline|theophylline]], [[Wikipedia:warfarin|warfarin]], [[Wikipedia:diazepam|diazepam]], and [[Wikipedia:phenytoin|phenytoin]].<ref name="Langtry Review" /> Clinically serious drug-drug interactions may involve the acid-suppression effects of rabeprazole. For example, rabeprazole should not be used concomitantly with [[Wikipedia:rilpivirine|rilpivirine]], an anti-[[Wikipedia:HIV|HIV]] therapy, which requires acid for absorption. Lowered plasma concentrations of rilpivirine could lead to progression of HIV infection. Other drugs that require acid for absorption include [[Wikipedia:antifungal drugs|antifungal drugs]] like ketoconazole and [[Wikipedia:itraconazole|itraconazole]], [[w:Digoxin|digoxin]], [[Wikipedia:iron|iron]], [[Wikipedia:mycophenolate|mycophenolate]], and [[Wikipedia:tyrosine kinase inhibitors|tyrosine kinase inhibitors]] like [[Wikipedia:erlotinib|erlotinib]], [[Wikipedia:dasatinib|dasatinib]], and [[Wikipedia:nilotinib|nilotinib]].<ref name="Drugs.com Monograph" /> There are no clinically relevant drug interactions between rabeprazole and antacids.<ref name="Marelli Review 2012" /><ref name="Rabeprazole Drug Approval" /> There is some evidence that [[Wikipedia:omeprazole|omeprazole]] and [[Wikipedia:esomeprazole|esomeprazole]], two medications in the same class as rabeprazole, can disturb the conversion of an [[Wikipedia:anticoagulant|anticoagulant]] medication called [[Wikipedia:clopidogrel|clopidogrel]] to its active metabolite. Still, whether the effect of omeprazole and esomeprazole on clopidogrel's metabolism actually leads to poor clinical outcomes is still a matter of intense debate among healthcare professionals.<ref name="Marelli Review 2012" /> However, because this is thought to be mediated by the effect of omeprazole and esomeprazole on CYP2C19, the enzyme that activates clopidogrel, this drug interaction is not expected to occur as strongly with rabeprazole. ===Food-drug interactions=== Food does not affect the amount of rabeprazole that enters the body,<ref name="Marelli Review 2012" /> but it does delay its onset of effect by about 1.7 hours.<ref name="Langtry Review" /> ==Pharmacology== ===Mechanism of action=== Once rabeprazole is taken by mouth, the enteric coating of the tablet allows the drug to pass through the stomach intact.<ref name="Rabeprazole Drug Approval" /> Like other PPIs, rabeprazole is absorbed into the blood stream at the site of the proximal small bowel.<ref name="Strand rev">{{cite journal|last1=Strand|first1=Daniel S.|last2=Kim|first2=Daejin|last3=Peura|first3=David A.|title=25 Years of Proton Pump Inhibitors: A Comprehensive Review|journal=Gut and Liver|date=15 January 2017|volume=11|issue=1|pages=27–37|doi=10.5009/gnl15502}}</ref> Rabeprazole's molecular mechanism of action involves crossing from the blood stream into the [[Wikipedia:parietal cells|parietal cells]] of the [[Wikipedia:stomach|stomach]], which are the cells that are responsible for secreting [[Wikipedia:hydrochloric acid|hydrochloric acid]] (HCl).<ref name="Dadabhai review" /> At this point, rabeprazole is inactive.<ref name="Dadabhai review" /> However, rabeprazole is then secreted into the [[Wikipedia:Parietal cell#Canaliculus|secretory canaliculus]] of the parietal cells, which is the space from which acid secretion occurs.<ref name="Dadabhai review" /> Here, acid secretion is mediated by the energy-dependent acid pumps, called [[Wikipedia:Hydrogen potassium ATPase|hydrogen potassium adenosine triphosphatase]] (H⁺/K⁺ ATPase) pumps.<ref name="Dadabhai review" /> These [[Wikipedia:enzymatic|enzymatic]] pumps have [[Wikipedia:cysteine|cysteine]] [[Wikipedia:amino acid|amino acid]] residues.<ref name="Dadabhai review" /> After being activated by gastric (stomach) acid to a reactive [[Wikipedia:sulfenamide|sulfenamide]] intermediate,<ref name="Olbe Pibrant p161" /> rabeprazole permanently binds the cysteine residues, forming [[Wikipedia:covalent bonds|covalent]], [[Wikipedia:disulfide bonds|disulfide bonds]].<ref name="Dadabhai review" /> This action fundamentally alters the configuration of the acid pump, thereby inhibiting its activity. Thus, acid can no longer be secreted into the gastric lumen (the empty space of the stomach), and the [[Wikipedia:pH|pH]] of the stomach increases (decrease in the concentration of hydrogen ions, [[Wikipedia:Hydron (chemistry)|H⁺]]).<ref name="Dadabhai review" /> Due to the permanent inhibition of the individual proton pump that each molecule of rabeprazole has bound to, acid secretion is effectively suppressed until new proton pumps are produced by the parietal cells.<ref name="Livertox Rabeprazole">{{cite web|title=Rabeprazole|url=https://livertox.nih.gov/Rabeprazole.htm|website=livertox.nih.gov|publisher=U.S. National Library of Medicine|accessdate=13 October 2017}}</ref> Rabeprazole, like other medications in the same class, cannot inhibit the H⁺/K⁺ ATPase pumps found in [[Wikipedia:lysosomes|lysosomes]], a cellular organelle that degrades biological molecules, because the pumps found in these organelles lack the cysteine residues involved in rabeprazole's mechanism of action.<ref name="Marelli Review 2012" /> A unique feature of rabeprazole's mechanism of action in inhibiting acid secretion involves its activation. The [[Wikipedia:pKa|pKa]] (the pH at which 50% of the drug becomes positively charged) of rabeprazole is around 5.0, meaning that it doesn't take a lot of acid to activate it. While this theoretically translates into a faster onset of action for rabeprazole's acid-inhibiting effect, the clinical implications of this fact have yet to be elucidated.<ref name="Dadabhai review" /> Theoretically, a high pKa should correlate with off-target activation of the PPI (possibly inducing side effects), though the clinical relevance of this has also yet to be elucidated.<ref name="Welage Rev" /> See '''Table 1''' for a pKa comparison across PPIs. {{cot|'''Table 1 {{!}}''' Proton pump inhibitor pKa<ref name="Welage Rev">{{cite journal|last1=Welage|first1=Lynda|title=Pharmacologic Properties of Proton Pump Inhibitors|journal=Pharmacotherapy|date=2003|volume=23|issue=10 Pt 2|pages=74S-80S|accessdate=10 April 2018|doi=10.1592/phco.23.13.74S.31929}}</ref> [click to expand]|bg=#F0F2F5|border=0px}} {| class="wikitable" |+ ! PPI !style="width: 250px;"|[[Wikipedia:Omeprazole|Omeprazole]] !style="width: 250px;"|[[Wikipedia:Esomeprazole|Esomeprazole]] !style="width: 250px;"|[[Wikipedia:Lansoprazole|Lansoprazole]] !style="width: 250px;"|[[Wikipedia:Dexlansoprazole|Dexlansoprazole]] !style="width: 250px;"|[[Wikipedia:Pantoprazole|Pantoprazole]] !style="width: 250px;"|[[Wikipedia:Rabeprazole|Rabeprazole]] |- ! pKa | 4.13 | 4.13 | 4.01 | 9.35<ref name="Li et al">{{cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Jianhui|last2=Wang|first2=Lianyan|last3=Ye|first3=Yue Qi|last4=Fu|first4=Xue|last5=Ren|first5=Qinghua|last6=Zhang|first6=Hailu|last7=Deng|first7=Zongwu|title=Improving the solubility of dexlansoprazole by cocrystallization with isonicotinamide|journal=European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences|date=March 2016|volume=85|pages=47–52|doi=10.1016/j.ejps.2016.01.029|accessdate=10 April 2018}}</ref> | 3.96 | 4.90 |} {{cob}} {{midsize|'''Table 1 <nowiki>|</nowiki>''' Comparative pKa values across PPIs. Note that the pKa of dexlansoprazole is a calculated value from a different source, which may have used differing methods than the other PPIs studied.}} ===Pharmacokinetics=== {{fig|3|Metabolism of rabeprazole.jpg|Phase I metabolism of rabeprazole,<ref name="Rabeprazole Drug Approval" /> drawn in ChemSketch. Rabeprazole can be initially metabolized to one of four metabolites. The thioether and desmethyl metabolites can be further metabolized to a common desmethyl thioether metabolite, and then a thioether carboxylate metabolite.|align=right|size=800px}} Rabeprazole's bioavailability is approximately 52%, meaning that on average 52% of orally administered dose is expected to enter systemic circulation (the bloodstream).<ref name="Dadabhai review" /> Once in the blood, rabeprazole is approximately 96.3%<ref name="Langtry Review" />-97%<ref name="Marelli Review 2012" /> bound to plasma proteins. The biological [[Wikipedia:half-life|half-life]] of rabeprazole in humans is approximately 1 hour.<ref name="Marelli Review 2012" /> It takes about 3.5 hours for rabeprazole to reach the maximum concentration in human plasma after a single orally administered dose. Oral absorption is independent of the dose administered.<ref name="Marelli Review 2012" /> Rabeprazole is extensively metabolized by the [[Wikipedia:liver|liver]].<ref name="Langtry Review" /> 90% of the drug is rendered into metabolites by the liver, which are then excreted by the [[Wikipedia:kidneys|kidneys]].<ref name="PubChem">{{cite web|title=rabeprazole|url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/rabeprazole#section=ATC-Code|website=pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov|publisher=NCBI|accessdate=9 October 2017}}</ref> 10% of the dose is excreted in the feces.<ref name="Marelli Review 2012" /> The drug metabolizing enzymes primarily responsible for rabeprazole's metabolism are [[Wikipedia:CYP2C19|CYP2C19]] and [[Wikipedia:CYP3A4|CYP3A4]].<ref name="Langtry Review" /> However, rabeprazole is mainly metabolized through non-enzymatic [[Wikipedia:Organic redox reaction|reduction]] to a thioether metabolite.<ref name="Marelli Review 2012" /> Some of rabeprazole's metabolites include the following: a [[Wikipedia:thioether|thioether]] [[Wikipedia:carboxylic acid|carboxylic acid]] metabolite, a thioether [[Wikipedia:glucuronide|glucuronide]] metabolite, and a [[Wikipedia:sulfone|sulfone]] metabolite.<ref name="Langtry Review" /> The most common metabolites excreted in the urine are the mercapturic acid conjugate and carboxylic acid.<ref name="Marelli Review 2012" /> A diagram of rabeprazole's [[Wikipedia:phase I metabolism|phase I metabolism]] is shown in '''Figure 3'''. ===Pharmacogenetics=== The effect of rabeprazole may [[Wikipedia:Pharmacogenomics#Predictive prescribing|vary based upon the genetics]] of the individual taking the medication. People may have differences in their capacity to metabolize rabeprazole to an inactive metabolite. This may be mediated through genetic differences in the gene that encodes for the metabolic enzyme [[Wikipedia:CYP2C19|CYP2C19]]. For example, people that are poor CYP2C19 metabolizers (i.e. their version of CYP2C19 is less effective than average) will have trouble metabolizing rabeprazole, allowing the active rabeprazole to stay in the body, where it can exert its effect, longer than intended. Conversely, extensive CYP2C19 metabolizers (i.e. the average metabolic capacity of CYP2C19) will extensively metabolize rabeprazole, as expected. The poor metabolizing CYP2C19 [[Wikipedia:phenotype|phenotype]] is found in roughly 3–5% of [[Wikipedia:Caucasian race|Caucasian]] people, and in 17–20% of people of [[Wikipedia:Asian people|Asian]] ancestry.<ref name="PharmGKB Label for Rab">{{cite web|title=Annotation of FDA Label for rabeprazole and CYP2C19|url=https://www.pharmgkb.org/label/PA166104848|website=pharmgkb.org|publisher=NIH/NIGMS|accessdate=9 October 2017}}</ref> In a study on men of [[Wikipedia:japanese people|Japanese ancestry]], this has translated to an average increase of total drug exposure by 50–60% compared to men in the United States.<ref name="Rabeprazole Drug Approval" /> However, rabeprazole's metabolism is primarily non-enzymatic (it is often inactivated chemically, without the participation of the body's natural drug metabolizing [[Wikipedia:enzymes|enzymes]]). Therefore, while a person's CYP2C19 phenotype will affect rabeprazole's metabolism, it is not expected to dramatically affect the efficacy of the medication.<ref name="Marelli Review 2012" /> ==Chemistry== {{fig|4|Rabeprazolespin.gif|3D representation of rabeprazole spinning along an axis.|align=right}} Rabeprazole, represented in 3D in '''Figure 4''', is classified as a substituted [[Wikipedia:benzimidazole|benzimidazole]], like [[Wikipedia:omeprazole|omeprazole]], [[Wikipedia:lansoprazole|lansoprazole]], and [[Wikipedia:pantoprazole|pantoprazole]].<ref name="Olbe Pibrant p161">{{cite book |last1=Pilbrant |first1=Åke G. |editor1-last=Olbe |editor1-first=L |title=Proton Pump Inhibitors |date=1999 |publisher=Birkhauser |location=Proto |page=161|doi=10.1007/978-3-0348-8795-3_10 |chapter=Pharmaceutical considerations }}</ref> Rabeprazole possess properties of both acids and bases, making it an [[Wikipedia:amphotere|amphotere]].<ref name="Olbe Pibrant p161" /> The [[Wikipedia:acid dissociation constant|acid dissociation constant]] (pK_a) of the [[Wikipedia:pyridine|pyridine]] [[Wikipedia:nitrogen|nitrogen]] is about equal to 4.<ref name="Olbe Pibrant p161" /> ===Synthesis=== The synthesis pathway in '''Figure 5''' begins with 2,3-dimethypyridine ''N''-oxide ('''1'''). Nitration of 2,3-dimethylpyridine ''N''-oxide affords the nitro derivative (the addition of [[Wikipedia:NO2|NO₂]]) ('''2''') The newly introduced nitro group is then displaced by the alkoxide from 3-methoxypropanol to yield the corresponding ether ('''3'''). Treatment with [[Wikipedia:acetic anhydride|acetic anhydride]] results in the [[Wikipedia:Polonovski reaction|Polonovski reaction]]. Saponification followed by treatment with [[Wikipedia:thionyl chloride|thionyl chloride]] then chlorinates the primary alcohol ('''5'''). Reaction with benzimidazole-2-thiol ('''6''') followed by oxidation of the resulting thioether to the [[Wikipedia:sulfoxide|sulfoxide]] yields the final product: rabeprazole ('''8''').<ref name="Synth1"/><ref name="Synth2"/> {{fig|5 |Rabeprazole synthesis.svg |Rabeprazole synthesis diagram.<ref name="Synth1">{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1002/jlcr.2580330908| title = Synthesis of 14C-labelled sodium pariprazole (E3810)| journal = Journal of Labelled Compounds and Radiopharmaceuticals| volume = 33| issue = 9| pages = 849–852| year = 1993| last1 = Tagami | first1 = K. | last2 = Chiku | first2 = S. | last3 = Sohda | first3 = S. }}</ref><ref name="Synth2">S. Souda et al., {{Cite patent|EP|268956}}; eidem, {{US patent|5045552}} (1988, 1991 both to [[Wikipedia:Eisai|Eisai]]).</ref> |align=center |size=1000px |attribution = Nuklear, [[creativecommons:by-sa/4.0/deed.en|CC-BY-SA 4.0]]}} ===Comparative chemistry=== The chemical structures in '''Table 2''' illustrate the comparative chemistry of rabeprazole among other members of the PPI class. The structures vary by the substitution of side chains on either the [[Wikipedia:benzimidazole|benzimidazole]] or [[Wikipedia:pyridine|pyridine]] ring structures. Omeprazole, for example, has a [[Wikipedia:methoxy|methoxy moiety]] (CH₃O-) on the benzimidazole ring at position 5, whereas pantoprazole has a difluoromethoxy (CHF₂O-) chain at position 5. Lansoprazole has a trifluoroethoxy (CF₃-CH₂-O-) chain on the pyridine ring at position 4, whereas rabeprazole has a methoxypropoxy (CH₃-O-(CH₂)₃-O-) chain at position 4.<ref name="Lombardo and Bonadonna" /> Esomeprazole and deslansoprazole represent [[Wikipedia:stereoisomers|stereoisomers]] of omeprazole and lansoprazole respectively.<ref name="Esomeprazole PubChem">{{cite web|title=Esomeprazole|url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/9568614|website=pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov|publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information|accessdate=20 February 2018|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Dexlansoprazole PubChem">{{cite web|title=Dexlansoprazole|url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/9578005|website=pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov|publisher=National Center for Biotechnology Information|accessdate=20 February 2018|language=en}}</ref> {| class="wikitable" |+ ! PPI !style="width: 250px;"|[[Wikipedia:Omeprazole|Omeprazole]] !style="width: 250px;"|[[Wikipedia:Esomeprazole|Esomeprazole]] !style="width: 250px;"|[[Wikipedia:Lansoprazole|Lansoprazole]] |- ! Chemical structure | style="text-align: center;"|[[File:Omeprazole.svg|200px]] | style="text-align: center;"|[[File:Esomeprazole.svg|200px]] | style="text-align: center;"|[[File:Lansoprazole.svg|200px]] |} {| class="wikitable" |+ ! PPI !style="width: 250px;"|[[Wikipedia:Dexlansoprazole|Dexlansoprazole]] !style="width: 250px;"|[[Wikipedia:Pantoprazole|Pantoprazole]] !style="width: 250px;"|[[Wikipedia:Rabeprazole|Rabeprazole]] |- ! Chemical structure | style="text-align: center;"|[[File:Dexlansoprazole.svg|200px]] | style="text-align: center;"|[[File:Pantoprazole.svg|220px]] | style="text-align: center;"|[[File:rabeprazole.png|210px]] |} {{midsize|'''Table 2 <nowiki>|</nowiki>''' Comparative chemical structures of commercially available PPIs.}} ===Physiochemical properties=== Rabeprazole is characterized as a white to yellowish-white solid in its pure form. It is soluble in a number of [[Wikipedia:solvents|solvents]]. Rabeprazole is very soluble in water and [[Wikipedia:methanol|methanol]], freely soluble in [[Wikipedia:ethanol|ethanol]], [[Wikipedia:chloroform|chloroform]], and [[Wikipedia:ethyl acetate|ethyl acetate]], and is insoluble in [[Wikipedia:ether|ether]] and [[Wikipedia:n-hexane|n-hexane]].<ref name="Rabeprazole Drug Approval" /> It is unstable under humid conditions.<ref name="Marelli Review 2012" /> ==History== Rabeprazole was first marketed in Europe in 1998.<ref name="Marelli Review 2012">{{cite journal|last1=Marelli|first1=Silvia|last2=Pace|first2=Fabio|title=Rabeprazole for the treatment of acid-related disorders|journal=Expert Review of Gastroenterology & Hepatology|date=10 January 2014|volume=6|issue=4|pages=423–435|doi=10.1586/egh.12.18}}</ref> In 1999, one year later, rabeprazole was approved for use in the [[United States]].<ref name="Aciphex Package Insert">{{cite web|title=ACIPHEX Package Insert|url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/label/2014/020973s035204736s005lbl.pdf|publisher=Eisai Inc.|accessdate=17 October 2017}}</ref> ===Development=== Developed by [[w:Eisai (company)|Eisai Medical Research]] under the research names E3810 and LY307640, the pre-investigational new drug application was submitted on October 28, 1998. The final investigational [[Wikipedia:new drug application|new drug application]] was submitted August 6, 1999. On August 19, 1999, rabeprazole was approved in the US for multiple gastrointestinal indications. The approval for the treatment of symptomatic [[Wikipedia:gastroesophageal reflux disease|gastroesophageal reflux disease]] was on February 12, 2002.<ref name="StatReview 1">{{cite web|title=Medical Review and Statistical Review: NDA #21-456|url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2002/21-456_Aciphex_Statr_P1.pdf|website=www.accessdata.fda.gov|publisher=Center for Drug Evaluation and Research|accessdate=3 December 2017}}</ref> ==Society and culture== ===Legal status=== Rabeprazole is approved in the [[Wikipedia:United States|United States]]<ref name="FDA approval label for generic">{{cite web|title=Drugs@FDA|url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/daf/index.cfm?event=overview.process&ApplNo=076822|website=accessdata.fda.gov|publisher=US FDA|accessdate=9 October 2017}}</ref> and the [[Wikipedia:United Kingdom|United Kingdom]]<ref name="UK label for generic">{{cite web|title=Rabeprazole SPC|url=http://www.mhra.gov.uk/home/groups/spcpil/documents/spcpil/con1480053700073.pdf|publisher=MHRA|date=15 January 2013 }}</ref> for [[Wikipedia:Prescription drug|prescription use only]]. Rabeprazole was approved in [[Wikipedia:India|India]] in December 2001.<ref name="Indian Approvals">{{cite web|title=LIST OF DRUGS APPROVED DURING 1999|url=http://www.cdsco.nic.in/writereaddata/list_of_drugs_approved_during_2001.htm|website=www.cdsco.nic.in|publisher=Ministry of Health and Family Welfare|accessdate=2 December 2017}}</ref> It was approved in [[Wikipedia:Japan|Japan]] in 1997, and in all [[Wikipedia:European Union|European Union]] member countries since.<ref name="Aciphex Press Release">{{cite web|title=ACIPHEX® (rabeprazole sodium) Approved For Treatment Of Symptomatic Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD) {{!}} Evaluate|url=http://www.evaluategroup.com/Universal/View.aspx?type=Story&id=21400|website=www.evaluategroup.com|publisher=Evaluate Ltd|accessdate=2 December 2017}}</ref> ===Brand names=== Rabeprazole has been sold in a number of brand names:<ref name=brands>{{cite web|title=Rabeprazole international brands|url=https://www.drugs.com/international/rabeprazole.html|publisher=Drugs.com|accessdate=25 September 2017}}</ref> {{cot|'''Table 3 {{!}}''' List of [[Wikipedia:trade name|trade name]]s for rabeprazole<ref name=brands /> [click to expand]|bg=#F0F2F5|border=0px}} {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%" ! scope="col" | Alphabet ! scope="col" | Brand Name |- |A||Acera, Acifix, Acilesol, AcipHex, Acistal, Akirab, Algibra, An Si Fei, Anslag, Antuc, Apt, Aurizol-R |- |- |B||Bacanero, Barole, Bauzole, Bepra, Bepraz, Berazol, Berizar, Beryx |- |C||Cyra |- |D||Dexicool, Dexpure, Dirab, Domol |- |E||Eurorapi |- |F||Finix, Fodren |- |G||Gastech, Gastrazole, Gastrodine, Gelbra |- |H||Happi, Helirab, Heptadin |- |I||Idizole |- |J||Jelgrad, Ji Nuo |- |K|| |- |L|| |- |M||Mergium, Monrab |- |N||Neutracaine, Newrabell, Noflux |- |O||Olrite, Ontime, Oppi-R |- |P||Paliell, Paramet, Paricel, Pariet, Pepcia, Pepraz, Ppbest, Praber, Prabex, Prabexol, Prabez, Promto, Puloros |- |Q|| |- |R||R-Bit, R-Cid, R-PPI, R-Safe, R.P.Zole, Rabby, Rabe, Rabe-G, Rabeact-20, Rabec, Rabeca, Rabecell, Rabecis, Rabecole, Rabecom, Rabecon, Rabee, Rabefine, Rabegen, Rabekind, Rabelex, Rabelinz, Rabelis, Rabeloc, Rabeman, Rabemed, Rabeol, Rabeone, Rabep, Rabepazole, Rabephex, Rabeprazol, Rabeprazole, Rabeprazolo, Rabeprazolum, Rabesec, Rabestad, Rabetac, Rabetome, Rabetra, Rabetune, Rabeum, Rabex, Rabez, Rabez-FR, Rabezol, Rabezole, Rabibit, Rabicent, Rabicid, Rabicip, Rabifar, Rabifast, Rabilect, Rabip, Rabipot, Rabirol, Rabitab, Rabium, Rabiza, Rabizol, Rablet, Rablet-B, Rabon, Raboz, Rabroz, Rabyprex, Ragi, Ralic, Ramprozole, Raneks, Rap, Rapeed, Rapespes, Rapo, Rapoxol, Rasonix, Razid, Razit, Razo, Razodent, Razogard, Rebacip, Redura, Reorab, Reward, Rifcid, Rodesa, Rolant, Roll, Rowet, Rpraz, Rui Bo te, Rulcer |- |S||Setright, Staycool, Stom, Stomeck |- |T|| |- |U||Ulceprazol, Ulcerostate |- |V||Value, Veloz |- |W||Wowrab |- |X||Xin Wei An |- |Y||Yu Tian Qing |- |Z||Zibepar, Zolpras, Zulbex |- |} {{cob}} {{cot|'''Table 4 {{!}}''' List of [[Wikipedia:trade name|trade name]]s for rabeprazole-containing combination products<ref name=brands /> [click to expand]|bg=#F0F2F5|border=0px}} {| class="wikitable" style="width:100%" ! scope="col" | Generic Combination ! scope="col" | Brand Name |- |rabeprazole, [[Wikipedia:amoxicillin|amoxicillin]], [[Wikipedia:clarithromycin|clarithromycin]] || Rabecure, Pylocure |- |rabeprazole, [[Wikipedia:amoxicillin|amoxicillin]], [[Wikipedia:metronidazole|metronidazole]] || Rabefine |- |rabeprazole, [[Wikipedia:diclofenac|diclofenac]] || Drab, Rabin-DFX, Rclonac, Safediclo, Samurai |- |rabeprazole, [[Wikipedia:domperidone|domperidone]] || Acera-D, Acistal-D, Adec-R, Algibra-D, Anslag-D, Antuc-DSR, Biorab-DSR, Catrab-DSR, Comvine, Cyclochek, Cyra-D, Dirab-D, Domol-R, Esoga-RD, Gasonil-D, Gastrazole-D, Happi-D, Helirab-D, Kurab-DSR, Lorab-DSR, Neutraflux, Nuloc-D, Olrite-DSR, Parisec-DSR, Pepchek, Pepcia-D, Peraz-D, Ppbest-D, Prazim-RD, Prorab-D, R-Bit-DM, R-Bit-DSR, R-Cid Plus, R-DSR, R-Safe DSR, Rabby-DSR, Rabecis-DSR, Rabecom-D, Rabecon-DSR, Rabee-D, Rabefine-DSR, Rabelex-D, Rabemac-DSR, Rabep-DSR, Rabephex-D, Rabetome-DM, Rabetome-DSR, Rabetune-D, Rabex-D, Rabez-D, Rabi-DSR, Rabibit-D, Rabicent-D, Rabicip-D, Rabifast-DSR, Rabilect-DSR, Rabipot-D, Rabiprime-DSR, Rablet-D, Rabon-D, Rabon-DSR, Rabroz-DSR, Rabter-SR, Raizol-DSR, Rap-D, Rapeed-D, Rapo-DSR, Raz-DSR, Rebilex-DSR, Redoxid, Redura-D, Redura-DSR, Reorab-D, Reorab-DSR, Reward-D, Reward-DSR, Rifcid-D, Rifcid-DSR, Rifkool-DSR, Robilink-D, Rolant-D, Roll-D, Rpraz-D, Rugbi-DM, Rulcer-DSR, Setright-DSR, Sharaz-D, Staycool-DXR, Stomeck-D SR, Ulgo-DSR, Xenorab-DSR, Zolorab-D, Zomitac-DSR, Zorab-D |- |rabeprazole, [[Wikipedia:itopride|itopride]] || Acera-IT, Antuc-IT, Cool Rab-IT, Happi-IT, Itopraz, Itorab, Jeprab-ITO, Pepraz-I, Rabee-ISR, Rabemac-ITR, Rabetome-ISR, Rabez-IT, Rabibit-ISR, Rablet-I, Rablet-IT, Rebilex-ISR, Reorab-IT, Rex-ISR, Rulcer-IT, Veloz-IT, and Zorite |- |rabeprazole, [[Wikipedia:lafutidine|lafutidine]] || Lafumac Plus |- |rabeprazole, [[Wikipedia:levosulpiride|levosulpiride]] || Happi-L, Lorab-L, Rabekind Plus, Rabicent-L, Rabifast-XL, Rabin-LXR, Rabinta-L, Rabitem-LS, Robiwel-L, Roll-LS, Wokride |- |rabeprazole, [[Wikipedia:ondansetron|ondansetron]] || Ond-R, Rulcer-ON |- |rabeprazole, [[Wikipedia:polaprezinc|polaprezinc]] || Happi-XT, Rabez-Z |- |rabeprazole, [[Wikipedia:sodium bicarbonate|sodium bicarbonate]] || Pepcia-FF, Raizol |} {{cob}} ==Research== An alternative formulation of rabeprazole, termed "rabeprazole-ER" (extended release) has been developed. The purpose of the formulation was to increase the half-life of rabeprazole, which normally is very short in humans. Rabeprazole-ER was a 50 mg capsule composed of five non-identical 10 mg tablets that were designed to release rabeprazole at differing intervals throughout the gastrointestinal system. However, because two high quality clinical trials<ref name="Laine et al 2 studies">{{cite journal|last1=Laine|first1=L.|last2=Katz|first2=P. O.|last3=Johnson|first3=D. A.|last4=Ibegbu|first4=I.|last5=Goldstein|first5=M. J.|last6=Chou|first6=C.|last7=Rossiter|first7=G.|last8=Lu|first8=Y.|title=Randomised clinical trial: a novel rabeprazole extended release 50 mg formulation vs. esomeprazole 40 mg in healing of moderate-to-severe erosive oesophagitis - the results of two double-blind studies|journal=Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics|date=January 2011|volume=33|issue=2|pages=203–212|doi=10.1111/j.1365-2036.2010.04516.x|accessdate=10 April 2018}}</ref> failed to demonstrate a benefit of rabeprazole-ER versus [[Wikipedia:esomeprazole|esomeprazole]] (another common PPI) for healing [[Wikipedia:esophagitis#Grading of severity|grade C or D]] [[Wikipedia:erosive esophagitis|erosive esophagitis]], the development of rabeprazole-ER ceased.<ref name="Strand rev" /> == Additional information == === Acknowledgements === Thank you to [[User:Tom (LT)|Tom (LT)]] for the December 2017 [[Wikipedia:GA|good article]] [[Wikipedia:Talk:Rabeprazole/GA1|review]] that led to significant article improvements. === Competing interests === The authors have no competing interests to declare. == References == {{reflist|35em}} pf6gkhwtb4zywkiweaijpp9aw46wiy3 14 234260 2415558 1834718 2022-08-16T12:08:00Z 2605:BA00:C117:F409:5511:BF5B:9AD0:558E wikitext text/x-wiki [[Category:Immunology]] [[Category:Lectures]] <div style="padding:1px; border: 1px solid black; color: inherit; background-color: lightblue; text-align: left;"> : '''Welcome to the Immunology course!''' <div style="clear: both; width: 100%; margin-left: auto; padding:1px; border: 1px solid black; margin-left: 0px;"><div class="NavHead" style="background:lightgreen;"><big>'''<u>Lessons</u>'''</big></div><div class="NavContent" style="font-size: 12pt"> # Lesson 1- Composition of the Immune system and Its Defenses # Lesson 2- Innate Immunity - First Defense Barrier # Lesson 3- Innate Immunity - Induced response # Lesson 4- Structure of the antibody and its diversity # Lesson 5- How T lymphocytes recognize antigens # Lesson 6- How B-Lymphocytes are developed # Lesson 7- How T-Lymphocytes are developed # Lesson 8- Immunity mediated by T-cells # Lesson 9- Immunity mediated by antibodies and others # Lesson 10- How does our body prevent infection? # Lesson 11- Immunological memory # Lesson 12- How innate and adaptive immunity collaborate # Lesson 13- Failure in body's defenses # Lesson 15- Immunity mediated by Ig-E and how allergies affect immunity # Lesson 16- Your body's immune reaction while transplanting tissues and organs # Lesson 17- Healthy tissue is damaged by adaptive immune system # Lesson 18- Effects of cancer and how it affects the immune system </div></div></div> 9innmc8weole5pvubddq5kue1ncg623 2415602 2415558 2022-08-16T15:40:12Z Dave Braunschweig 426084 Undo - Not category content, perhaps a template wikitext text/x-wiki [[Category:Immunology]] [[Category:Lectures]] qq5cjoxt23gdv8imqwma0fn9tptz5sw 0 234444 2415781 2398985 2022-08-17T08:29:04Z Marshallsumter 311529 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:BlueRock.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This Sin-Kamen (''Blue Rock'') near Lake Pleshcheyevo used to be a Meryan shrine Credit: Viktorianec.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Blue rock from Berkeley hills.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This is a blue rock, probably various copper minerals, from the Berkeley hills near San Francisco, California. Credit: [[w:User:Looie496|Looie496]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:243 ida crop.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an approximately natural color picture of the asteroid 243 Ida on August 28, 1993. Credit: NASA/JPL.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Sin-Kamen''' ({{lang|ru|Синь-Камень}}, in Russian literally – '''Blue Stone''', or '''Blue Rock''') is a type of pagan sacred stones, widespread in Russia, in areas historically inhabited by both Eastern Slavic (Russian), and Uralic tribes (Merya, Muroma<ref>[http://www.bogorodsk-noginsk.ru/atlas/sinie_kamni.html И.Д. Маланин. Материалы разведки Синих камней Подмосковья в 2003 году // Краеведение и регионоведение. Межвузовский сборник научных трудов. ч.1. Владимир, 2004.] (Russian)</ref>). While in the majority of cases, the stones belonging to the ''Blue Stones'' type, have a black, or dark gray color, this particular stone [in the image] does indeed look dark blue, when wet.<ref name="berdnikov">[http://pki.botik.ru/dl.php?b=articles&a=n-sinii1985berd.pdf Бердников,&nbsp;В. Синий камень Плещеева озера] // Наука и жизнь. – 1985. – № 1. – С.&nbsp;134–139. (Russian)</ref> "Several types of rock surface materials can be recognized at the two sites [Viking Lander 1 and Viking Lander 2]; dark, relatively 'blue' rock surfaces are probably minimally weathered igneous rock, whereas bright rock surfaces, with a green/(blue + red) ratio higher than that of any other surface material, are interpreted as a weathering product formed in situ on the rock."<ref name="Strickland">{{cite book |author=Edwin L. Strickland III |title=Martian soil stratigraphy and rock coatings observed in color-enhanced Viking Lander images, In: ''Lunar and Planetary Science Conference Proceedings'' |publisher=Pergamon Press, Inc. |location=New York |date=March 19, 1979 |volume=3 |issue= |pages=3055-77 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979LPSC...10.3055S |arxiv= |bibcode=1979LPSC...10.3055S |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-05-31 }}</ref> At second right is an approximately natural color image of the asteroid 243 Ida. "There are brighter areas, appearing bluish in the picture, around craters on the upper left end of Ida, around the small bright crater near the center of the asteroid, and near the upper right-hand edge (the limb). This is a combination of more reflected blue light and greater absorption of near infrared light, suggesting a difference in the abundance or composition of iron-bearing minerals in these areas."<ref name="Lavoie96">{{cite book |author=Sue Lavoie |title=PIA00069: Ida and Dactyl in Enhanced Color |publisher=NASA/JPL |location=Pasadena, California USA |date=January 29, 1996 |url=http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/?IDNumber=PIA00069 |accessdate=2013-06-01 }}</ref> "The [Sloan Digital Sky Survey] SDSS “blue” asteroids are related to the C-type (carbonaceous) asteroids, but not all of them are C-type. They are a mixture of C-, E-, M-, and P-types."<ref name="Yoshida">{{cite journal |author=F Yoshida, T Nakamura |title=Subaru main belt asteroid survey (SMBAS)—size and color distributions of small main-belt asteroids |journal=Planetary and Space Science |month=June |year=2007 |volume=55 |issue=9 |pages=1113-25 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032063306003357 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1016/j.pss.2006.11.016 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-06-01 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Rocks== {{main|Chemicals/Rocks}} [[Image:DirkvdM rocks.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Rock outcrop occurs along a mountain creek near Orosí, Costa Rica. Credit: [[c:User:DirkvdM|Dirk van der Made]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Rocks are a bound aggregate of minerals with usually a large geographic extent. Occasionally, a rock is composed of only one mineral. But a crystal of the mineral fluorite in your hand is a stone rather than a rock. A '''rock''' is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more [[Radiation astronomy/Minerals|minerals]] or [[Chemicals/Mineraloids|mineraloids]]. '''Def.''' any "natural material with a distinctive composition of minerals"<ref name=RockWikt>{{ cite web |title=rock |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=October 23, 2012 |url=http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/rock |accessdate=2012-10-23 }}</ref> is called a '''rock'''. {{clear}} ==Beta particles== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Beta particles}} [[Image:Allende meteorite.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A slice of the Allende meteorite shows circular chondrules. Credit: [https://www.flickr.com/photos/33389938@N00 Shiny Things].{{tlx|free media}}]] Excessive "²⁶Mg [has] been reported in meteoritic carbonaceous chondrites [...] which demonstrate an excess of ²⁶Mg of up to 40% combined with essentially solar concentrations of ²⁴Mg and ²⁵Mg. Many of the data are well correlated with the ²⁷Al content of the samples, and this is interpreted as evidence that the excess ²⁶Mg has arisen from the ''in situ'' decay (via positron emission and electron capture) of the ground state of ²⁶Al in these minerals."<ref name=Champagne>{{ cite journal |author=A. E. Champagne |author2=A. J. Howard |author3=P. D. Parker |title=Nucleosynthesis of ²⁶Al at low stellar temperatures |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |month=June 15, |year=1983 |volume=269 |issue=06 |pages=686-9 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1983ApJ...269..686C |arxiv= |bibcode=1983ApJ...269..686C |doi=10.1086/161077 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-01 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==X-rays== {{main|Radiation astronomy/X-rays|X-ray astronomy}} [[Image:Carancas Meteorite 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The image contains a 27.70 g fragment of the Carancas meteorite fall. The scale cube is 1 cm³. Credit: Meteorite Recon.{{tlx|free media}}]] On September 20, the X-Ray Laboratory at the Faculty of Geological Sciences, Mayor de San Andres University, [[w:La Paz, Bolivia|La Paz, Bolivia]], published a report of their analysis of a small sample of material recovered from the impact site. They detected iron, nickel, cobalt, and traces of iridium &mdash; elements characteristic of the elemental composition of meteorites. The quantitative proportions of silicon, aluminum, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus are incompatible with rocks that are normally found at the surface of the Earth.<ref name="Blanco">Mario Blanco Cazas, [http://fcpn.umsa.bo/fcpn/app?service=external/PublicationDownload&sp=227 "Informe Laboratorio de Rayos X &mdash; FRX-DRX"] (in Spanish), Universidad Mayor de San Andres, Facultad de Ciencias Geologicas, Instituto de Investigaciones Geologicas y del Medio Ambiente, La Paz, Bolivia, September 20, 2007. Retrieved October 10, 2007.</ref> In X-ray wavelengths, many scientists are investigating the scattering of X-rays by interstellar dust, and some have suggested that [[w:Astrophysical X-ray source|astronomical X-ray sources]] would possess diffuse haloes, due to the dust.<ref name="RKSmith">{{cite journal |author=Smith RK |author2=Edgar RJ |author3=Shafer RA |title=The X-ray halo of GX 13+1 |journal=Ap J |month=Dec |year=2002 |volume=581 |issue=1 |pages=562–69 |doi=10.1086/344151 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/581/1/562 |bibcode=2002ApJ...581..562S |arxiv = astro-ph/0204267 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Ultraviolets== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Ultraviolets|Ultraviolet astronomy}} [[Image:PallasHST2007.jpg|right|thumb|300px|This is a black-and-white image of 2 Pallas taken with the Hubble Telescope in 2007 with UV filter. Credit: Hubble Space Telescope/STScI.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Aristarchus hst.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Clementine image of Aristarchus and surroundings is mapped onto simulated [[w:topography|topography]]. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] "Spectrally blue (B-type) asteroids are rare, with the second discovered asteroid, Pallas, being the largest and most famous example."<ref name=Yang>{{ cite journal |author=Bin Yang |author2=David Jewitt |title=Identification of Magnetite in B-type Asteroids |journal=The Astronomical Journal |month=September |year=2010 |volume=140 |issue=3 |pages=692 |url=http://iopscience.iop.org/1538-3881/140/3/692 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1088/0004-6256/140/3/692 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-06-01 }}</ref> "[T]he negative optical spectral slope of some B-type asteroids is due to the presence of a broad absorption band centered near 1.0 μm. The 1 μm band can be matched in position and shape using magnetite (Fe₃O₄), which is an important indicator of past aqueous alteration in the parent body. ... Observations of B-type asteroid (335) Roberta in the 3 μm region reveal an absorption feature centered at 2.9 μm, which is consistent with the absorption due to phyllosilicates (another hydration product) observed in CI chondrites. ... at least some B-type asteroids are likely to have incorporated significant amounts of water ice and to have experienced intensive aqueous alteration."<ref name=Yang/> In 1911, Professor [[w:Robert Williams Wood|Robert W. Wood]] used ultraviolet [[w:photography|photography]] to take images of the crater area. He discovered the plateau had an anomalous appearance in the ultraviolet, and an area to the north appeared to give indications of a sulfur deposit.<ref name=Darling>{{ cite book | author = David O. Darling | url = http://www.ltpresearch.org/aristarchus1.htm | title = Aristarchus: Lunar Transient Phenomenon History | publisher = L.T.P. Research | accessdate = 2006-08-08 }}</ref> This colorful area is sometimes referred to as "Wood's Spot", an alternate name for the Aristarchus Plateau. Spectra taken of this crater during the [[w:Clementine mission|Clementine mission]] were used to perform mineral mapping.<ref name="clementine">{{ cite book | url = http://www.lpi.usra.edu/resources/clemen/cmaris.html | title = Aristarchus Region: Multispectral Mosaic of the Aristarchus Crater and Plateau | publisher = Lunar and Planetary Institute |accessdate = 2006-08-08 }}</ref> The data indicated that the central peak is a type of rock called [[w:anorthosite|anorthosite]], which is a slow-cooling form of igneous rock composed of [[w:plagioclase|plagioclase]] [[w:feldspar|feldspar]]. By contrast the outer wall is [[w:troctolite|troctolite]], a rock composed of equal parts plagioclase and [[w:olivine|olivine]]. The Aristarchus region was part of a [[w:Hubble Space Telescope|Hubble Space Telescope]] study in 2005 that was investigating the presence of oxygen-rich glassy soils in the form of the mineral [[w:ilmenite|ilmenite]]. Baseline measurements were made of the [[w:Apollo 15|Apollo 15]] and [[w:Apollo 17|Apollo 17]] landing sites, where the chemistry is known, and these were compared to Aristarchus. The Hubble Advanced Camera for Surveys was used to photograph the crater in visual and ultraviolet light. The crater was determined to have especially rich concentrations of ilmenite, a [[w:titanium oxide|titanium oxide]] mineral that could potentially be used in the future by a [[w:Colonization of the Moon|lunar settlement]] for extracting oxygen.<ref name=Kluger>{{ cite book | title=Is There Oxygen on the Moon? | publisher=Time Online |url=http://www.time.com/time/health/article/0,8599,1120755,00.html | accessdate=October 24, 2005 | date=2005-10-20 | author=Jeffrey Kluger }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Opticals== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Opticals|Optical astronomy}} [[Image:ETypeChondrite-AbeeEH4-RoyalOntarioMuseum-Jan18-09.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Section of the Abee meteorite, an enstatite chondrite, is on display at the Royal Ontario Museum, Credit: [[c:user:Captmondo|Captmondo]].{{tlx|free media}}]] The analysis of high-resolution, near-infrared and [ultraviolet] UV spectra obtained by the ''Galileo'' spacecraft and from the ground has revealed various non-ice materials: magnesium- and iron-bearing hydrated silicates,<ref name=Moore2004/> carbon dioxide,<ref name=Brown2003>{{cite journal |last=Brown |first=R. H. |author2=Baines, K. H. |author3=Bellucci, G. |title=Observations with the Visual and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIMS) during Cassini's Flyby of Jupiter |year=2003 |journal=Icarus |volume=164 |issue=2 |pages=461&ndash;470 |doi=10.1016/S0019-1035(03)00134-9 |bibcode=2003Icar..164..461B }}</ref> sulfur dioxide,<ref name=Noll1996>{{ cite book |last=Noll |first=K.S. |title=Detection of SO₂ on Callisto with the Hubble Space Telescope |year=1996 |publisher=Lunar and Planetary Science XXXI | url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc97/pdf/1852.PDF |page=1852 }}</ref> and possibly [[w:ammonia|ammonia]] and various organic compounds.<ref name=Moore2004/><ref name=Showman1999>{{cite journal |last=Showman |first=Adam P. |author2=Malhotra, Renu |title=The Galilean Satellites |year=1999 |journal=Science |volume=286 |pages=77&ndash;84 |doi=10.1126/science.286.5437.77 | url=http://www.lpl.arizona.edu/~showman/publications/showman-malhotra-1999.pdf |pmid=10506564 |issue=5437 }}</ref> Spectral data indicate that the moon's surface is extremely heterogeneous at the small scale. Small, bright patches of pure water ice are intermixed with patches of a rock–ice mixture and extended dark areas made of a non-ice material.<ref name=Moore2004>{{ cite book |author=Jeffrey M. Moore |author2=Clark R. Chapman |author3=Edward B. Bierhaus |entry=Callisto |title=Jupiter: The planet, Satellites and Magnetosphere |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |editor=Bagenal, F. |editor2=Dowling, T.E. |editor3=McKinnon, W.B. | url=http://lasp.colorado.edu/~espoclass/homework/5830_2008_homework/Ch17.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref><ref name="Greeley 2000">{{cite journal |last=Greeley |first=R. |author2=Klemaszewski, J. E. |author3=Wagner, L. |author4=''et al.'' |title=Galileo views of the geology of Callisto |journal=Planetary and Space Science |year=2000 |volume=48 |issue=9 |pages=829&ndash;853 | bibcode=2000P&SS...48..829G |doi=10.1016/S0032-0633(00)00050-7 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Violets== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Violets}} [[Image:PIA21256 - Color Variations on Mount Sharp, Mars (White Balanced), Figure 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The foreground of this scene from the Mast Camera (Mastcam) on NASA's Curiosity Mars rover shows purple-hued rocks near the rover's late-2016 location on lower Mount Sharp. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS.{{tlx|free media}}]] The purple tone of the foreground rocks has been seen in other rocks where Curiosity's Chemical and Mineralogy (CheMin) instrument has detected hematite. {{clear}} ==Blues== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues|Blue astronomy}} [[Image:Pyroclastic breccia - geograph.org.uk - 478073.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The bluey grey tuffaceous matrix is probably mostly finely comminuted sediment, the local country rock is largely limestones and mudstones. Credit: Jim Bain.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Jake Matijevic Rock.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This natural color image is from NASA's Curiosity rover before it aimed two different instruments to study the rock known as "Jake Matijevic". Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS.{{tlx|free media}}]] "Nine out of 10 well-characterized Apollo 17 breccia matrices fall into Group 2, and this includes both the blue-grey breccias which are the dominant rock type at this site"<ref name=Morgan>{{ cite journal |author=John W. Morgan |author2=H. Higuchi |author3=Edward Anders |title=Meteoritic material in a boulder from the Apollo 17 site - Implications for its origin |journal=The Moon |month=November-December |year=1975 |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=373-83 |url= |bibcode=1975Moon...14..373M |doi=10.1007/BF00569671 |pmid= |accessdate=2011-08-07 }}</ref>. "A 1953 telescopic photograph of a flash on the Moon is the only unequivocal record of the rare crash of an asteroid-sized body onto the lunar surface. ... A search of images from the Clementine mission reveals an ∼1.5-km high-albedo, blue, fresh-appearing crater with an associated ejecta blanket at the location of the flash."<ref name=Buratti>{{ cite journal |author=Bonnie J Buratti, Lane L Johnson |title=Identification of the lunar flash of 1953 with a fresh crater on the moon’s surface |journal=Icarus |month=January |year=2003 |volume=161 |issue=1 |pages=192-7 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0019103502000271 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1016/S0019-1035(02)00027-1 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-11-27 }}</ref> In terms of reflectance from the lunar surface, "the very dark 'blue' maria [are] such as found in Mare Tranquillitatis."<ref name=McCord>{{ cite journal |author=Thomas B. McCord |author2=John B. Adams |title=Progress in remote optical analysis of lunar surface composition |journal=The Moon |month=September |year=1973 |volume=7 |issue=3-4 |pages=453-74 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1973Moon....7..453M |doi=10.1007/BF00564646 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-11-27 }}</ref> "[T]he slope of the reflectance spectrum in the blue and ultraviolet ... is directly related to the percent TiO₂ in the [lunar] surface soil (Charette ''et al.'', 1974)."<ref name=Pieters>{{ cite journal |author=Carle Pieters |author2=Thomas B. McCord |title=Characterization of lunar mare basalt types. I - A remote sensing study using reflection spectroscopy of surface soils, In: ''Proceedings Lunar Science Conference, 7th'' |volume=3 |publisher=Pergamon Press, Inc. |location=New York |month=April |year=1976 |editor= |pages=2677-90 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1976LPSC....7.2677P |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-11-27 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Cyans== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Cyans|Cyan astronomy}} [[Image:Moon-chemical-comp.png|thumb|right|250px|High-titanium lunar basalt is shown near Apollo 11 landing site. Credit: Michael A. Covington.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:Mars electric blue sand dune2.jpg|center|thumb|400px|NASA discovers an electric blue sand dune on Mars. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] “[A]ll the blue basalt types (high in UV/VIS ratio [0.40/0.56 µm]) are also the darkest mare soils.”<ref name=Pieters1978>{{ cite book |author=Carle’ M. Pieters |title=Mare basalt types on the front side of the moon - A summary of spectral reflectance data, In: ''Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, 9th, Houston, Tex., March 13-17, 1978, Proceedings'' |publisher=Pergamon Press, Inc. |location=New York |date= |editor= |volume=3 |pages=2825-49 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1978LPSC....9.2825P |doi= |pmid= |isbn= }}</ref> Both Luna 24 and Apollo 12 soil samples are from mare soils that reflect primarily cyan that is likely due to the presence of TiO₂ in the soils.<ref name=Pieters/> "Previous work has suggested that a cyan color in the multispectral frame represents highland material, and that yellows and greens are freshly excavated basalts. However, we have recently found that a cyan color can also result from a freshly excavated high-Ti basalt."<ref name=Heather>{{ cite book |author=D. J. Heather |author2=S. K. Dunkin |author3=P. D. Spudis |author4=D. B. J. Bussey |title=A Multispectral Analysis of the Flamsteed Region of Oceanus Procellarum, In: ''Workshop on New Views of the Moon 2: Understanding the Moon Through the Integration of Diverse Datasets'' |publisher= |location= |date=January 1999 |editor= |pages= |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1999nvm..conf...24H |doi= |pmid= }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Greens== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens|Green astronomy}} [[Image:Earth's Moon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This colour mosaic was assembled from 18 images taken by Galileo's imaging system through a green filter. Credit: NASA/JPL/USGS.{{tlx|free media}}]] "During its mission, the Galileo spacecraft returned a number of images of Earth's only natural satellite. Galileo surveyed the moon on Dec. 7, 1992, on its way to explore the Jupiter system in 1995-1997."<ref name=Smith09>{{ cite book |author=Yvette Smith |title=Earth's Moon |publisher=NASA |location= |date=December 8, 2009 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_1538.html |accessdate=2012-07-22 }}</ref> "This color mosaic was assembled from 18 images taken by Galileo's imaging system through a green filter. On the upperleft is the dark, lava-filled Mare Imbrium, Mare Serenitatis (middle left), Mare Tranquillitatis (lower left), and Mare Crisium, the dark circular feature toward the bottom of the mosaic. Also visible in this view are the dark lava plains of the Marginis and Smythii Basins at the lower right. The Humboldtianum Basin, a 400-mile impact structure partly filled with dark volcanic deposits, is seen at the center of the image."<ref name=Smith09/> {{clear}} ==Oranges== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges|Orange astronomy}} [[Image:Apollo74220-samplingLocation.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Products of the ancient volcanic activity on the Moon include the submillimeter-sized orange glass beads which supplied the orange color to the soil exposed from a trench dug at the rim of Shorty Crater at the Apollo 17 site. Credit: Astronaut Harrison H. "Jack" Schmitt, Apollo 17, NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "Crystallized spheres of orange glass from Shorty Crater at the Apollo 17 site are ... the characteristic ingredient of the dark mantling deposit of the Taurus-Littrow region."<ref name=Adams>{{ cite journal |author=John B. Adams |author2=Carle Pieters |author3=Thomas B. McCord |title=Orange glass: Evidence for regional deposits of pyroclastic origin on the moon, In: ''Proceedings of the Fifth Lunar Science Conference'' |publisher=Pergamon Press, Inc. |location=New York |month=March 18-22 |year=1974 |editor= |volume=1 |issue= |pages=171-86 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1974LPSC....5..171A |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2012-11-02 }}</ref> "The reflectance properties of the orange glass are highly distinctive. There are two broad absorption bands, one near 1.15 µm and the other near 1.9 µm that arise from Fe²⁺ on octahedral and tetrahedral sites, respectively ... The weak absorption near 0.5 µm probably arises from Ti³⁺, and the absorption edge extending into the visible region is due largely to oxygen-titanium charge transfer".<ref name=Adams/> {{clear}} ==Earth== {{main|Rocks/Rocky objects/Earth}} [[Image:Ice cap.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an aerial image of the ice cap on Ellesmere Island, Canada. Credit: National Snow and Ice Data Center.]] [[Image:Ash and Steam Plume, Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey volcanic ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.]] [[Image:Barringer Crater aerial photo by USGS.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This is an aerial view of the Barringer Meteor Crater about 69 km east of Flagstaff, Arizona. Credit:D. Roddy, U.S. Geological Survey.]] The first image on the right is an aerial image of the ice cap on Ellesmere Island, Canada. Oblique images such as the one on the second lower right are taken by astronauts looking out from the ISS at an angle, rather than looking straight downward toward the [[Earth]] (a perspective called a nadir view), as is common with most remotely sensed data from satellites. An oblique view gives the scene a more three-dimension quality, and provides a look at the vertical structure of the volcanic plume. While much of the island is covered in green vegetation, grey deposits that include pyroclastic flows and volcanic mud-flows (lahars) are visible extending from the volcano toward the coastline. When compared to its extent in earlier views, the volcanic debris has filled in more of the eastern coastline. Urban areas are visible in the northern and western portions of the island; they are recognizable by linear street patterns and the presence of bright building rooftops. The silver-grey appearance of the Caribbean Sea surface is due to sun-glint, which is the mirror-like reflection of sunlight off the water surface back towards the hand-held camera on-board the ISS. The sun-glint highlights surface wave patterns around the island. The image on the left is an aerial view of the Barringer Meteor Crater. Fragments of an iron-nickel meteorite have been found in the crater confirming its origin as an impact crater. {{clear}} ==Moon== {{main|Liquids/Liquid objects/Moon}} [[Image:Moon-apollo17-schmitt boulder.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Planetary geologist and NASA astronaut Harrison "Jack" Schmitt collects lunar samples during the Apollo 17 mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Allan Hills 81005, lunar meteorite.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows the lunar meteorite ''Allan Hills 81005''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] In the image at right, planetary geologist and NASA astronaut Harrison "Jack" Schmitt collects lunar samples during the Apollo 17 mission. "Recent scans of magnetized lunar rocks that show no evidence of effects from cosmic impacts now provide strong evidence that the moon had a magnetic field".<ref name=Choi04122014>{{ cite book |author=Charles Q. Choi |title=Moon's Long-Ago Magnetic Field May Have Trumped Earth's |publisher=Space.com |location= |date=4 December 2014 |url=http://www.space.com/27927-moon-magnetic-field-mystery.html |accessdate=2014-12-09 }}</ref> "Earth's magnetic field is currently 50 microteslas in strength. The early moon may have had a magnetic field that was bigger, maybe up to more than 70 microteslas."<ref name=Weiss>{{ cite book |author=Benjamin Weiss |title=Moon's Long-Ago Magnetic Field May Have Trumped Earth's |publisher=Space.com |location= |date=4 December 2014 |url=http://www.space.com/27927-moon-magnetic-field-mystery.html |accessdate=2014-12-09 }}</ref> '''Allan Hills A81005''' or ALH A81005 (sometimes also named without the "A" in front of the number) was the first lunar meteorite found on Earth.<ref name="Marvin 1983">{{cite journal |last=Marvin |first=Ursula B. |title=The discovery and initial characterization of Allan Hills 81005: The first lunar meteorite |journal=Geophysical Research Letters |date=1 January 1983 |volume=10 |issue=9 |pages=775 |doi=10.1029/GL010i009p00775 |bibcode=1983GeoRL..10..775M }}</ref> It was found in 1982 in the Allan Hills at the end of the Transantarctic Mountains, during a meteorite gathering expedition (ANSMET).<ref name="MetDB ALH A81005">{{cite web |title=Allan Hills A81005 |url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meteor/metbull.php?code=1965 |publisher=Meteoritical Society |accessdate=11 January 2013 }}</ref> ALH A81005 was found on 17 January 1982 by John Schutt and Ian Whillans.<ref name="LMC ALH 81005">{{cite web |title=Lunar Meteorite Compendium ALH A81005 |url=http://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/antmet/lmc/F2%20ALHA81005.pdf |publisher=NASA |accessdate=11 January 2013 |author=Kevin Righter |author2=John Gruener }}</ref><ref name="LMC">{{cite web |title=The Lunar Meteorite Compendium |url=http://curator.jsc.nasa.gov/antmet/lmc/ |publisher=NASA |accessdate=11 January 2013 |author=Kevin Righter |author2=John Gruener }}</ref> It is named after the Allan Hills, a mountain chain in Antarctica where many meteorites are gathered by expeditions.<ref name="MetDB ALH A81005" /> The large number of meteorites collected in Antarctica and the lack of geographic terms that could be used for names have led to the adaption of the "Antarctic rules" for meteorite naming. Every meteorite found in Antarctica receives the names of the collection area (Allan Hills) and a number. The number consists of the year the expedition started "81" and a three digit number that is given out consecutively (005). The "A" in front of the number stands for meteorites collected by ANSMET expeditions and can be considered optional.<ref name="Antarctic Rules">{{cite web |title=Antarctic Rules |url=http://meteoriticalsociety.org/?page_id=60 |publisher=Meteoritical Society |accessdate=26 February 2013 }}</ref> The definition of the year is used because the year changes during the Austral summer season (December to March) and this avoids samples from one expedition having different years. This is the reason ALH A81005 has the year "81" in its name despite being found on 17 January 1982.<ref name="Antarctic Rules"/> ALH A81005 measures {{convert|3|xx|2.5|xx|3|cm|in}}. It has a dark fusion crust on the outside. The interior is made up of a black to dark grey groundmass (matrix) with larger grey and white angular crystals (clasts). This appearance is typical for breccias, including those originating on Earth. The size of the larger crystals ranges from sub-millimeter to {{convert|8|mm}} in diameter.<ref name="MetDB ALH A81005" /> Thin section analysis revealed that the crystals are mostly plagioclase, with some pyroxene and olivine. It was also discovered that the meteorite had similarities to terrestrial gabbro or basalt. Microprobe analysis showed that the plagioclase was very calcium-rich. The crystals are a solid solution of 97% anorthite and 3% albite. The pyroxenes have a variable composition lying between enstatite, ferrosilite and wollastonite. The olivine is a solid solution of 11 to 40% fayalite with the rest being forsterite]].<ref name="MetDB ALH A81005" /> ALH A81005 is classified as a "lunar anorthosite breccia" and belongto the group "lunar anorthosite" (abbreviated Lun-A).<ref name="MetDB ALH A81005" /> M³ found a rock dominated by Mg-[[w:spinel|spinel]] with no detectable [[w:pyroxene|pyroxene]] or [[w:olivine|olivine]] present (<5%) occurring along the western inner ring of Moscoviense Basin (as one of several discrete areas). The occurrence of this spinel does not easily fit with current lunar-crustal evolution models.<ref name=Pieters10>{{ cite book |last=Pieters|first=Carle |title=Identification of a new spinel-rich lunar rock type by the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) |url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2010/pdf/1854.pdf |publisher=LPI |accessdate=12 April 2011 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Rock forms== [[Image:MonumentValley 640px.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The (vertical)-De Chelly Sandstone is upon 'skirts' of the Organ Rock Formation. Credit: Jon Sullivan.]] [[Image:Canada geological map.JPG|left|thumb|250px|The Canadian Shield is a broad region of Precambrian rock (pictured in shades of red) that encircles Hudson Bay. Credit: [[c:User:Qyd|Qyd]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Rock forms are geomorphic land forms made of specific rock types. {{clear}} ==Arêtes== [[Image:Alp da pelvo sfondo viso.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an image of Punta dell'Alp from monte Pelvo. Credit: [[c:User:F Ceragioli|F Ceragioli]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "very thin ridge of rock"<ref name=AreteWikt>{{ cite web |title=arête |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=22 June 2014 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/arête |accessdate=2014-11-07 }}</ref> is called an '''arête'''. "An earlier [...] glacial episode, herein termed the Altonah Glaciation, is indicated by an extensive lateral moraine beyond the mouth of Yellowstone canyon as well as moraines in Lake Fork and Uinta River canyons. At higher elevations, alpine glacial landforms, including cirques, rock glaciers, arêtes, and hanging valleys are ubiquitous."<ref name=Laabs>{{ cite book |author=Benjamin J.C. Laabs |author2=Eric C. Carson |title=Glacial Geology of the Southern Uinta Mountains, In: ''Uinta Mountain geology'' |publisher=Utah Geological Association |location= |date=2005 |volume=33 |issue= |editor=Dehler, C.M. |editor2=Pederson, J.L. |editor3=Sprinkel, D.A. |editor4=Kowallis, B.J. |pages=235-53 |url=http://www.geology.wisc.edu/~davem/abstracts/05-20.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2014-11-08 }}</ref> "Arêtes and cols are most common in the south-central and southwestern Uinta Mountains, where accumulation areas of glaciers were largest and the development of ice caps that drained into multiple valleys was common. In the south-central Uintas, the most prominent arêtes have more than 450 m of relief and are more than 10 km in length. In the southeastern Uintas, rounded unglaciated divides locally termed “bollies” are more common than narrow arêtes. Examples of these features include broad divides that separate glacial valleys in the headwaters of Dry Fork and Ashley Creeks [...]."<ref name=Laabs/> {{clear}} ==Canyons== [[Image:Geomorphology.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a view of the Grand Canyon in Arizona, USA. Credit: Mike Buchheit.]] On the right is an example of a river canyon, specifically the Grand Canyon in Arizona, USA. '''Def.''' a "valley, especially a long, narrow, steep valley, cut in rock by a river"<ref name=CanyonWikt>{{ cite book |title=canyon |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=21 October 2014 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/canyon |accessdate=2014-12-18 }}</ref> is called a '''canyon''', or a '''river canyon'''. '''Def.''' a deep gorge is called a '''canyon'''. {{clear}} ==Cliffs== [[Image:Dinaric calcareous fir-forest.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This cliff is part of a karst landscape formed by water and plants on calcareous (probably) limestone. Credit: Pavle Cikovac.]] [[Image:An eroded boulder clay cliff - geograph.org.uk - 661846.jpg|thumb|left|250px|An eroded boulder clay cliff is shown. Credit: Eric Jones.]] [[Image:Red Cliff along US287 between Lander and Dubois in Wyoming.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A red cliff along US287 between Lander and Dubois in Wyoming, near Wind Canyon. Credit: [[c:User:Wingchi|Wing-Chi Poon]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Ireland cliffs of moher2.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Cliffs of Moher is in East, Ireland. Credit: Tobias Helfrich.]] The cliff in the image on the right is part of a karst landscape formed by water and plants on calcareous (probably) limestone. "This photo [on the left] shows clearly why these glacial deposits are called boulder clay, consisting as they are of clay and stones of various sizes up to and including large boulders. Till is another name for boulder clay."<ref name=Jones>{{ cite web |author=Eric Jones |title=An eroded boulder clay cliff |publisher=Geograph.org |location= |date=2008 |url=http://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/661846 |accessdate=2014-12-04 }}</ref> The image is of an eroded boulder-clay cliff near to Trefor, Gwynedd, Great Britain. '''Def.''' a "vertical (or nearly vertical) rock face"<ref name=CliffWikt>{{ cite web |title=cliff |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=9 October 2014 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cliff |accessdate=2014-12-18 }}</ref> is called a '''cliff'''. {{clear}} ==Glaciers== {{main|Rocks/Glaciers|Glaciers}} [[Image:Briksdalsbreen.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Briksdalsbreen is a part of the Jostedalsbreen glacier in Norway. Credit: [[w:User:Donarreiskoffer|Donarreiskoffer]].]] '''Def.''' "a mass of ice that originates on land, usually having an area larger than one tenth of a square kilometer"<ref name=Beitler>{{ cite web |author=Jane Beitler |title=Cryosphere Glossary |publisher=National Snow and Ice Data Center |location= |date=19 September 2014 |url=http://nsidc.org/cryosphere/glossary/I |accessdate=2014-09-17 }}</ref> is called a '''glacier'''. {{clear}} ==Mountains== [[Image:Winter sun on Norwegian mountain.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Low winter sun reflects off Skopphornet and Sunnmøre alps (Sykkylven) in Norway. Credit: "color line".]] '''Def.''' a "large mass of earth and rock, rising above the common level of the earth or adjacent land, usually given by geographers as above 1000 feet in height (or 304.8 metres), though such masses may still be described as hills in comparison with larger mountains"<ref name=MountainWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:92.7.198.35|92.7.198.35]] |title=mountain |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=9 January 2011 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mountain |accessdate=2014-12-14 }}</ref> is called a '''mountain'''. {{clear}} ==Pavements== [[Image:Limestone pavement above Malham Cove.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Limestone pavement is above Malham Cove in the Yorkshire Dales. Credit: [[w:User:Lupin|Lupin]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Lapiaz P1070880.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This shows limestone pavement in Haute Savoie, France. Credit: f.corageoud.]] [[Image:DesertPavementMojave2010.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Desert pavement is near Barstow, California. Credit: [[c:User:Wilson44691|Wilson44691]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Tessellated Pavement Sunrise Landscape.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The "Tesselated Pavement“ is the result of an orthogonal joint pattern in the rock. Credit: [[c:User:JJ Harrison|JJ Harrison]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Selwyn Rock 3.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Grooves and striations are on exhumed Permian glacial pavement. Credit: [[c:User:Bahudhara|Bahudhara]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a more or less horizontal, hard expanse of bare rock as a surface is called a '''pavement'''. On the right are two images of a limestone pavement which is part of a karst topography. On the left is a desert pavement in southeastern California. A pavement such as the one on the second left covered with pieces that are similarly shaped is referred to as a tessellated pavement. {{clear}} ==Volcanic bombs== [[Image:Puu Oo - boulder Royal Gardens 1983.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an accretionary lava ball. Credit: J. D. Griggs, USGS HVO.]] [[Image:VolcanicBombMojaveDesert.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This is a smooth textured, aphanitic, basaltic volcanic bomb found in the Mojave Desert National Preserve by Rob McConnell. Credit: [[c:User:Wilson44691|Wilson44691]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Vulkanbombe strohn 20080722.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a picture of a lavabomb at Strohn, Germany. Credit: [[c:User:Jhintzbe|Jhintzbe]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' "distinctively shaped [natural] projectiles ... which acquired their shape essentially before landing"<ref name=Walker>{{ cite journal |author=G. P. L. Walker |title=The breaking of magma |journal=Geological Magazine |month=April |year=1969 |volume=106 |issue=02 |pages=166-73 |url=http://journals.cambridge.org/production/action/cjoGetFulltext?fulltextid=4626560 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1017/S0016756800051979 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-10-13 }}</ref> are called '''bombs'''. '''Def.''' a bomb "ejected from a volcanic vent"<ref name=Walker/> is called a '''volcanic bomb'''. Volcanic bombs can be thrown many kilometres from an erupting vent, and often acquire aerodynamic shapes during their flight. The image at top right is an "[a]ccretionary lava ball [coming] to rest on the grass after rolling off the top of an ‘a‘a flow in Royal Gardens subdivision. Accretionary lava balls form as viscous lava is molded around a core of already solidified lava."<ref name=Griggs>{{ cite web |author=J. D. Griggs |title=''File:Puu Oo - boulder Royal Gardens 1983.jpg'' |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=April 27, 2012 |url=http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Puu_Oo_-_boulder_Royal_Gardens_1983.jpg |accessdate=2012-10-13 }}</ref> Volcanic bombs cool into solid fragments before they reach the ground. Because volcanic bombs cool after they leave the volcano, they do not have grains making them extrusive igneous rocks. Volcanic bombs can be thrown many kilometres from an erupting vent, and often acquire aerodynamic shapes during their flight. Volcanic bombs can be extremely large; the 1935 eruption of Mount Asama in Japan expelled bombs measuring 5–6 m in diameter up to 600 m from the vent. A large volcanic bomb is shown in the third image at right from Strohn, Germany. Volcanic bombs are known to occasionally explode from internal gas pressure as they cool, but explosions are rare. Bomb explosions are most often observed in 'bread-crust' type bombs. ''Ribbon or cylindrical bombs'' form from highly to moderately fluid magma, ejected as irregular strings and blobs. The strings break up into small segments which fall to the ground intact and look like ribbons. Hence, the name "ribbon bombs". These bombs are circular or flattened in cross section, are fluted along their length, and have tabular vesicles. ''Spherical bombs'' also form from high to moderately fluid magma. In the case of spherical bombs, surface tension plays a major role in pulling the ejecta into spheres. ''Spindle, fusiform, or almond/rotational bombs'' are formed by the same processes as spherical bombs, though the major difference being the partial nature of the spherical shape. Spinning during flight leaves these bombs looking elongated or almond shaped; the spinning theory behind these bombs' development has also given them the name 'fusiform bombs'. Spindle bombs are characterised by longitudinal fluting, one side slightly smoother and broader than the other. This smooth side represents the underside of the bomb as it fell through the air. ''Cow pie bombs'' are formed when highly fluid magma falls from moderate height; so the bombs do not solidify before impact (they are still liquid when they strike the ground). They consequently flatten or splash and form irregular roundish disks, which resemble cow-dung. ''Bread-crust bombs'' are formed if the outside of the lava bombs solidifies during their flights. They may develop cracked outer surfaces as the interiors continue to expand. ''Cored bombs'' are bombs that have rinds of lava enclosing a core of previously consolidated lava. The core consists of accessory fragments of an earlier eruption, accidental fragments of country rock or, in rare cases, bits of lava formed earlier during the same eruption. {{clear}} ==Rock structures== [[Image:Quebrada de Cafayate, Salta (Argentina).jpg|thumb|right|250px|The image shows rock strata in Cafayate, Argentina. Credit: travelwayoflife.]] [[Image:BarstowFormationAnticlineMarch2010.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image shows an anticline in the Barstow Formation (Miocene) at Calico Ghost Town near Barstow, California USA. Credit: [[c:User:Wilson44691|Wilson44691]].{{tlx|free media}}]] The image at the right shows rock strata in Cafayate, Argentina, the subject of [[stratigraphy]]. '''Structural geology''' is the study of the three-dimensional distribution of rock units with respect to their deformational histories. {{clear}} ==Marginal marines== [[Image:Triassic Utah.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This is a marginal marine sequence from southwestern Utah, USA. Credit: [[w:User:Wilson44691|Wilson44691]].{{tlx|free media}}]] The marginal marine sequence on the right has been dated to the Middle Triassic. {{clear}} ==Rock types== [[Image:Granodiorite Common.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This rock shows a common facies of the Piégut-Pluviers granodiorite, northwestern Massif Central, France. Credit: [[c:User:Rudolf Pohl|Rudolf Pohl]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:The stones of the Dutch - Lleida Pyrenees 04.JPG|thumb|left|250px|A metamorphic rock deformed during the Variscan orogeny, Vall de Cardós, Lérida, Spain. Credit: [[c:user:PePeEfe|PePeEfe]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Sedimentary Rock Layers Zabriskie Point Death Valley USA.jpg|thumb|center|250px|This image shows the sedimentary rock layers at Zabriskie Point in Death Valley, USA. Credit: Brigitte Werner (werner22brigitte).]] Usually rock types consist of sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous. {{clear}} ==Meteorites== {{main|Rocks/Meteorites|Meteorites}} [[Image:EETA79001 S80-37631.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Martian meteorite EETA79001 is a shergottite. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a meteorite that is known to have originated on the Moon is called a '''lunar meteorite'''. The meteorite called Allan Hills 81005 resembled some rocks brought back from the Moon by the [[w:Apollo program|Apollo program]].<ref name=Marvin>{{ cite journal | doi = 10.1029/GL010i009p00775 | author = U. B. Marvin | year = 1983 | title = The discovery and initial characterization of Allan Hills 81005: The first lunar meteorite | url = | journal = Geophys. Res. Lett. | volume = 10 | issue = | pages = 775–8 | bibcode=1983GeoRL..10..775M }}</ref> [[w:Yamato 791197|Yamato 791197]] is another lunar meteorite. About 134 lunar meteorites have been discovered so far (as of October, 2010), perhaps representing more than 50 separate meteorite falls (i.e., many of the stones are "paired" fragments of the same meteoroid). The total mass is more than 46&nbsp;kg. Meteorites have been found on the Moon.<ref name=McSween>{{ cite journal |last=McSween Jr. |first=Harry Y. |year=1976 |title=A new type of chondritic meteorite found in lunar soil |journal=Earth and Planetary Science Letters |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=193–9 |doi=10.1016/0012-821X(76)90211-9 |bibcode=1976E&PSL..31..193M }}</ref><ref name=Rubin>{{ cite journal |last=Rubin |first=Alan E. |year=1997 |title=The Hadley Rille enstatite chondrite and its agglutinate-like rim: Impact melting during accretion to the Moon |journal=Meteoritics & Planetary Science |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=135–41 |bibcode=1997M&PS...32..135R |doi=10.1111/j.1945-5100.1997.tb01248.x }}</ref> Many of the meteorites that are found on Earth turn out to be from the Moon. So far seifertite has only been found in [[w:Martian meteorite|Martian]]<ref name=Goresy>{{ cite journal |doi=10.1127/0935-1221/2008/0020-1812 |title=Seifertite, a dense orthorhombic polymorph of silica from the Martian meteorites Shergotty and Zagami |year=2008 |last1=Goresy|first1=Ahmed El|last2=Dera|first2=Przemyslaw|last3=Sharp|first3=Thomas G.|last4=Prewitt|first4=Charles T.|last5=Chen|first5=Ming|last6=Dubrovinsky|first6=Leonid|last7=Wopenka|first7=Brigitte|last8=Boctor|first8=Nabil Z.|last9=Hemley|first9=Russell J. |journal=European Journal of Mineralogy |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=523 |url=http://www.schweizerbart.de/resources/downloads/paper_previews/58172.pdf }}</ref><ref name=Dera>{{ cite journal |author=Dera P |author2=Prewitt C T |author3=Boctor N Z |author4=Hemley R J |journal=American Mineralogist |volume=87 |year=2002 |page=1018 |title=Characterization of a high-pressure phase of silica from the Martian meteorite Shergotty |url=http://rruff.geo.arizona.edu/AMS/authors/Boctor%20N%20Z }}</ref> and [[w:lunar meteorite|lunar meteorite]]s.<ref name=Aoudjehane>{{ cite journal |url=http://www.uair.arizona.edu/objectviewer?o=uadc%3A%2F%2Fazu_maps%2FVolume43%2FNumberSupplement%2Fea83b7e4-bcbb-44c2-af9e-a14b6d5ebdd4 |title=First evidence of high-pressure silica: stishovite and seifertite in lunar meteorite Northwest Africa 4734 |author=H. Chennaoui Aoudjehane |author2=A. Jambon |journal=Meteoritics & Planetary Science |volume=43 |issue=7, Supplement |page= A32 |year=2008 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Eucrites== [[Image:MillbillillieMeteorite.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A 175g individual is of the Millbillillie meteorite shower, a eucrite achondrite that fell in Australia in 1960. Credit: [[commons:User:Vesta|H. Raab]].]] '''Def.''' an "achondritic meteoritic rock consisting chiefly of pigeonite and anorthite"<ref name=EucriteWikt>{{ cite book |title=eucrite |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=20 June 2013 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/eucrite |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}</ref> is called a '''eucrite'''. {{clear}} ==Igneous rocks== [[Image:Granodiorite Common.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This rock shows a common facies of the Piégut-Pluviers granodiorite, northwestern Massif Central, France. Credit: [[c:User:Rudolf Pohl|Rudolf Pohl]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Rocas Igneas.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Samples of various igneous rocks from the Arequipa region of Peru are shown. Credit: [[commons:User:Rojinegro81|Rojinegro81]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' "one of the major groups of rock that makes up the crust of the Earth; formed by the cooling of molten rock, either below the surface (intrusive) or on the surface (extrusive)"<ref name=IgneousRockWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=igneous rock |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=13 April 2006 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/igneous_rock |accessdate=8 December 2018 }}</ref> is called an '''igneous rock'''. "An igneous rock is formed by the cooling and crystallization of molten rock."<ref name=Johnson>{{ cite web |author=J. Johnson |title=VHP Photo Glossary: Volcanic rocks |publisher=USGS |location=Menlo Park, California USA |date=29 December 2009 |url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/images/pglossary/VolRocks.php |accessdate=2015-03-15 }}</ref> Igneous "rocks [are divided] into two broad categories based on where the molten rock solidified."<ref name=Johnson/> The image on the left shows a collection of various igneous rocks: from top left to bottom right these are: granodiorite, andesite, syenite, gabbro, rhyolite, basalt, granite and an ignimbrite (a collective term for a special type of volcaniclastic sediment). {{clear}} ==Andesites== [[Image:And-Brokeoff med.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Close view is of andesite lava flow from Brokeoff Volcano, California. Credit: United States of America Geological Survey.]] '''Def.''' a "class of fine-grained intermediate [..] rock [...] containing mostly plagioclase feldspar"<ref name=AndesiteWikt>{{ cite book |title=andesite |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=26 April 2014 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/andesite |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}</ref> is called an '''andesite'''. "Andesite is a gray to black volcanic rock with between about 52 and 63 weight percent silica (SiO₂). Andesites contain crystals composed primarily of plagioclase feldspar and one or more of the minerals pyroxene (clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene) and lesser amounts of hornblende. At the lower end of the silica range, andesite lava may also contain olivine. Andesite magma commonly erupts from stratovolcanoes as thick lava flows, some reaching several km in length. Andesite magma can also generate strong explosive eruptions to form pyroclastic flows and surges and enormous eruption columns. Andesites erupt at temperatures between 900 and 1100° C."<ref name=USGSAndesite>{{ cite book |author=USGSAndesite |title=VHP Photo Glossary: Andesite |publisher=USGS |location=Menlo Park, California USA |date=17 July 2008 |url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/images/pglossary/andesite.php |accessdate=2015-03-11 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Anorthosites== [[Image:Anorthosit of Salem Tamil Nadu.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Anorthosite is a mafic intrusive igneous rock composed predominantly of plagioclase. Credit: [[c:user:Thamizhpparithi Maari|Thamizhpparithi Maari]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "phaneritic, [...] rock characterized by a predominance of plagioclase feldspar"<ref name=AnorthositeWikt>{{ cite book |title=anorthosite |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=16 June 2013 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/anorthosite |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}</ref> is called an '''anorthosite'''. Anorthosite on Earth can be divided into five types:<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |title=Anorthosites |last=D. |first=Ashwal, Lewis |date=1993 |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |isbn=9783642774409 |location=Berlin, Heidelberg |oclc=851768311 }}</ref> # Archean-age anorthosites # Proterozoic anorthosite (also known as massif or massif-type anorthosite) – the most abundant type of anorthosite on Earth<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Ashwal |first=L. D. |title=THE TEMPORALITY OF ANORTHOSITES |journal=The Canadian Mineralogist |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=711–728 |doi=10.3749/canmin.48.4.711 |year=2010 }}</ref> # Layers within Layered Intrusions (e.g., Bushveld Igneous Complex and Stillwater igneous complex intrusions) # Mid-ocean ridge and transform fault anorthosites # Anorthosite xenoliths in other rocks (often granites, kimberlites, or basalts). Plagioclase crystals are usually less dense than magma; so, as plagioclase crystallizes in a magma chamber, the plagioclase crystals float to the top, concentrating there.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |title=Petrology |last=Sen |first=Gautam |date=2014 |publisher=Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg |isbn=9783642387999 |pages=261–276 |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-38800-2_12 |chapter = Anorthosites and Komatiites }}</ref><ref name=":0" /><ref name=":5" /> Lunar anorthosites constitute the light-coloured areas of the Moon's surface and have been the subject of much research.<ref>[http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/April04/lunarAnorthosites.html PSRD: The Oldest Moon Rocks]</ref> Proterozoic anorthosites were emplaced during the Proterozoic Eon (ca. 2,500–542 Ma), though most were emplaced between 1,800 and 1,000 Ma.<ref name=":0" /> Large volumes of ultramafic rocks are not found in association with Proterozoic anorthosites.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Bowen |first=N.L. |date=1917 |title=The problem of the anorthosites |url= |journal=J. Geol. |volume=25 |pages=209 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Basalts== [[Image:BasaltUSGOV.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an example of a basalt. Credit: USGS.]] '''Def.''' a "hard mafic [...] rock of varied mineral content"<ref name=BasaltWikt>{{ cite web |title=basalt |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=21 January 2015 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/basalt |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}</ref> is called a '''basalt'''. "Basalt is a hard, black volcanic rock with less than about 52 weight percent silica (SiO₂). Because of basalt's low silica content, it has a low viscosity (resistance to flow). Therefore, basaltic lava can flow quickly and easily move > 20 km from a vent. The low viscosity typically allows volcanic gases to escape without generating enormous eruption columns. Basaltic lava fountains and fissure eruptions, however, still form explosive fountains hundreds of meters tall. Common minerals in basalt include olivine, pyroxene, and plagioclase. Basalt is erupted at temperatures between 1100 to 1250° C."<ref name=VolcanoHazardsProgram>{{ cite book |author=Volcano Hazards Program |title=VHP Photo Glossary: Basalt |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey |location= |date=30 March 2014 |url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/images/pglossary/basalt.php |accessdate=2015-02-19 }}</ref> "Basalt is the most common rock type in the Earth's crust (the outer 10 to 50 km). In fact, most of the ocean floor is made of basalt."<ref name=VolcanoHazardsProgram/> "Huge outpourings of lava called "flood basalts" are found on many continents. The Columbia River basalts, erupted 15 to 17 million years ago, cover most of southeastern Washington and regions of adjacent Oregon and Idaho."<ref name=VolcanoHazardsProgram/> "Basaltic magma is commonly produced by direct melting of the Earth's mantle, the region of the Earth below the outer crust. On continents, the mantle begins at depths of 30 to 50 km."<ref name=VolcanoHazardsProgram/> "Shield volcanoes, such as those that make up the Islands of Hawai`i, are composed almost entirely of basalt."<ref name=VolcanoHazardsProgram/> {{clear}} ==Carbonatites== [[Image:Carbonatite.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Carbonatite from Jacupiranga, Brazil, is a rock composed of calcite, magnetite and olivine. Credit: [[c:User:Zimbres|Eurico Zimbres]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Lava lengai.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Carbonatite lava is at Ol Doinyo Lengai volcano, Tanzania. Credit: Thomas Kraft, Kufstein.]] [[Image:Magnesiocarbonatite from British Columbia in Canada.jpg|right|thumb|250px|This magnesiocarbonatite is from Verity-Paradise Carbonatite Complex of British Columbia. Specimen is 75 mm wide. Credit: [http://www.flickr.com/people/jsjgeology/ James St. John].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Okaite, Oka Niobium Mine, Quebec.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Okaite is from the Oka Carbonatite Complex, Oka Niobium Mine, Oka, Quebec. Credit: [http://www.flickr.com/people/jsjgeology/ James St. John].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' any "intrusive igneous rock having a majority of carbonate minerals"<ref name=CarbonatiteWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=carbonatite |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=10 March 2007 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/carbonatite |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}</ref> is called a '''carbonatite'''. {{clear}} ==Dacites== [[Image:Dacite-HotRock large.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Close view is of dacite lava from the May 1915 eruption of Lassen Peak, California. Credit: USGS.]] '''Def.''' an "igneous, volcanic rock with a high iron content"<ref name=DaciteWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:user:Doug Hockin|Doug Hockin]] |title=dacite |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=8 August 2007 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dacite |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}</ref> is called a '''dacite'''. "Dacite lava is most often light gray, but can be dark gray to black. Dacite lava consists of about 63 to 68 percent silica (SiO<sub>2</sub>). Common minerals include plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene, and amphibole. Dacite generally erupts at temperatures between 800 and 1000°C. It is one of the most common rock types associated with enormous Plinian-style eruptions. When relatively gas-poor dacite erupts onto a volcano's surface, it typically forms thick rounded lava flow in the shape of a dome."<ref name=DaciteUSGS>{{ cite web |author=DaciteUSGS |title=VHP Photo Glossary: Dacite |publisher=USGS |location=Menlo Park, California USA |date=17 July 2008 |url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/images/pglossary/dacite.php |accessdate=2015-03-11 }}</ref> "Even though it contains less silica than rhyolite, dacite can be even more viscous (resistant to flow) and just as dangerous as rhyolites. These characteristics are a result of the high crystal content of many dacites, within a relatively high-silica melt matrix. Dacite was erupted from Mount St. Helens 1980-86, Mount Pinatubo in 1991, and Mount Unzen 1991-1996."<ref name=DaciteUSGS/> {{clear}} ==Gabbros== [[Image:GabbroRockCreek1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gabbro specimen is from Rock Creek Canyon, eastern Sierra Nevada, California. Credit: [[c:User:Wilson44691|Mark A. Wilson, Department of Geology, The College of Wooster]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a dark, coarse-grained plutonic rock of crystalline texture, consisting mainly of pyroxene, plagioclase feldspar, and often olivine is called a '''gabbro'''. '''Def.''' "a coarsely crystalline, igneous rock consisting of lamellar pyroxene and labradorite"<ref name=GabbroWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:Poccil|Poccil]] |title=gabbro |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=18 October 2004 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gabbro |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}</ref> is called a '''gabbro'''. As with diamictites, rock definitions should be without regard to origin. {{clear}} ==Granites== [[Image:Granite softgreen.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View is of polished granite. Credit: [[c:User:Dake|Dake]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Granito.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The color of a granite usually comes from the color of the feldspar. Credit: [[c:User:Luis Fernández García|Luis Fernández García]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Fjæregranitt3.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Granite such as this contains [[w:potassium feldspar|potassium feldspar]], [[w:plagioclase feldspar|plagioclase feldspar]], [[w:quartz|quartz]], [[w:biotite|biotite]] and/or [[w:amphibole|amphibole]]. Credit: [[c:User:Friman|Friman]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a very hard, granular, crystalline, rock consisting mainly of quartz, mica, and feldspar is called a '''granite'''. '''Def.''' a "group of igneous and plutonic rocks composed primarily of feldspar and quartz, usually [containing] one or more dark minerals, which may be mica, pyroxene, or amphibole"<ref name=GraniteWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:Pinkfud|Pinkfud]] |title=granite |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=4 November 2004 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/granite |accessdate=18 January 2022 }}</ref> is called a '''granite'''. {{clear}} ==Granodiorites== [[Image:Granodiorit.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Here's a photo of a granodiorite. Credit: [[:de:User:Zerohuman|Zerohuman]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "rock similar to granite, but containing more plagioclase than potassium feldspar"<ref name=GranodioriteWikt>{{ cite web |title=granodiorite |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=22 December 2014 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/granodiorite |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}</ref> is called a '''granodiorite'''. {{clear}} ==Hawaiites== [[Image:Reunion geologie hawaiite Mare a Vieille Place dsc09326.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Geological sample is on display at the House of the Volcano, Reunion Island. Credit: [[c:User:David Monniaux|David Monniaux]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' an "olivine basalt intermediate between alkali olivine and mugearite"<ref name=HawaiiteWikt>{{ cite book |title=hawaiite |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=29 May 2014 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/hawaiite |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}</ref> is called a '''hawaiite'''. {{clear}} ==Monzogranites== [[Image:Rochovce granite01.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Core sample is of Rochovce granite, coarse-grained biotite monzogranite (75.6 ± 1.1 Ma - Cretacous). Credit: [[c:User:Pelex|Pelex]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Rochovce granite, composing the coring on the right, is a coarse-grained biotite monzogranite. {{clear}} ==Peridotites== [[Image:PeridotiteUSGOV.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Peridotite specimen is displayed. Credit: USGS.]] '''Def.''' a "rock consisting of small crystals of olivine, pyroxene and hornblende"<ref name=PeridotiteWikt>{{ cite web |title=peridotite |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=16 December 2014 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/peridotite |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}</ref> is called a '''peridotite'''. {{clear}} ==Rhyolites== [[Image:Flow banding in igneous rock.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A rhyolite boulder near Carn Alw shows the characteristic pattern of swirling or parallel layers called flow banding caused by the molten magma meeting a hard surface before cooling and setting. Credit: ceridwen.]] [[Image:Flow banding in rhyolite.jpg|thumb|left|Flow banding is in rhyolite lava from Mono-Inyo Craters volcanic chain, California (black bands composed of obsidian). Credit: USGS.]] '''Def.''' a rock "of felsic composition, with aphanitic to porphyritic texture"<ref name=RhyoliteWikt>{{ cite web |title=rhyolite |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=17 December 2014 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/rhyolite |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}</ref> is called a '''rhyolite'''. "Rhyolite is a light-colored rock with silica (SiO<sub>2</sub>) content greater than about 68 weight percent. Sodium and potassium oxides both can reach about 5 weight percent. Common mineral types include quartz, feldspar and biotite and are often found in a glassy matrix. Rhyolite is erupted at temperatures of 700 to 850° C."<ref name=RhyoliteUSGS>{{ cite web |author=RhyoliteUSGS |title=VHP Photo Glossary: Rhyolite |publisher=USGS |location=Menlo Park, California USA |date=29 December 2009 |url=http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/images/pglossary/rhyolite.php |accessdate=2015-03-11 }}</ref> "Rhyolite can look very different, depending on how it erupts. Explosive eruptions of rhyolite create pumice, which is white and full of bubbles. Effusive eruptions of rhyolite often produce obsidian, which is bubble-free and black."<ref name=RhyoliteUSGS/> "Some of the United States' largest and most active calderas formed during eruption of rhyolitic magmas (for example, Yellowstone in Wyoming, Long Valley in California and Valles in New Mexico)."<ref name=RhyoliteUSGS/> "Rhyolite often erupts explosively because its high silica content results in extremely high viscosity (resistance to flow), which hinders degassing. When bubbles form, they can cause the magma to explode, fragmenting the rock into pumice and tiny particles of volcanic ash."<ref name=RhyoliteUSGS/> {{clear}} ==Syenites== [[Image:Syenite.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a piece of syenite. Credit: USGS.]] [[Image:Nepheline-syenite-2005.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Rock name is särnaite (leucocratic variety of nepheline syenite) and it is from Sweden. Credit: [[c:User:Siim|Siim Sepp]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' an "igneous rock composed of feldspar and hornblende"<ref name=SyeniteWikt>{{ cite web |title=syenite |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=17 December 2014 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/syenite |accessdate=2015-03-16 }}</ref> is called a '''syenite'''. On the left is a leucocratic variety of nepheline syenite from Sweden called '''särnaite'''. {{clear}} ==Tonalites== [[Image:Tonalite.png|thumb|right|250px|A piece of tonalite on red granite gneiss from Tjörn in Sweden. Credit: [[c:User:Ingwik|Ingwik]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' an "igneous, plutonic rock composed mainly of plagioclase"<ref name=TonaliteWikt>{{ cite web |title=tonalite |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=30 May 2014 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/tonalite |accessdate=2015-03-16 }}</ref> is called a '''tonalite'''. {{clear}} ==Metamorphic rocks== [[Image:Charnockite dykes Jibbeheia.JPG|thumb|300px|right|Late-stage charnockite dykes cut anorthosite, Rogaland, Norway]. Credit: [[c:user:Mikenorton|Mikenorton]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' "one of the major groups of rock that makes up the crust of the Earth; consists of pre-existing rock mass in which new minerals or textures are formed at higher temperatures and greater pressures than those present on the Earth's surface"<ref name=MetamorphicRockWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=metamorphic rock |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=13 April 2006 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/metamorphic_rock |accessdate=8 December 2018 }}</ref> is called a '''metamorphic rock'''. Charnockite is any orthopyroxene-bearing quartz-feldspar rock formed at high temperature and pressure, commonly found in granulite facies metamorphic regions, ''sensu stricto'' as an endmember of the charnockite series.<ref name=Maitre>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u2tVu6Sbc4kC&pg=PA20 |title=Igneous Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms: Recommendations of the International Union of Geological Sciences Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous Rocks |last1=Le Maitre R.W. |last2=Streckeisen A. |last3=Zanettin B. |last4=Le Bas M.J. |last5=Bonin B. |last6=Bateman P. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2005 |{{isbn|9781139439398}} |edition=2 |pages=20}}</ref> Rocks of the charnockite series may be named by adding orthopyroxene to the normal igneous nomenclature (e.g. orthopyroxene-granite), but specific names are in widespread use such as norite, mangerite, enderbite, jotunite, farsundite, opdalite and charnockite (in the strict sense); equivalents of gabbro, monzonite, tonalite, monzodiorite, monzogranite, granodiorite and granite.<ref name=Maitre/> {{clear}} ==Amphibolites== [[Image:Amphibolit.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Garnet bearing amphibolite is from Val di Fleres, Italy. Credit: [[c:user:Zerohuman|Bernabè Egon]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Amphibolite from under Cape Cod USA.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Amphibolite is from Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Credit: B.W. Hallett, V. F. Paskevich, L.J. Poppe, S.G. Brand, and D.S. Blackwood, USGS.]] '''Def.''' any "of a class of [...] rock composed mainly of amphibole with some quartz etc"<ref name=AmphiboliteWikt>{{ cite web |title=amphibolite |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=16 June 2013 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/amphibolite |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}</ref> is called an '''amphibolite'''. On the left is foliated amphibolite, sample 81MW0005, a borehole sample from under Cape Cod in Massachusetts in USA. It is made of the minerals plagioclase (35%), hornblende (20%), biotite (20%), epidote (15%), quartz (9%), and trace oxides and sphene. Plagioclase is mostly fine grained and subhedral and occurs in the matrix. Fine-grained hornblende occurs as anhedral pleochroic green-tan crystals. Biotite is partly, but not entirely aligned in the foliation, suggesting that deformation took place before a secondary growth of biotite. Epidote is anhedral, and sometimes rimmed by biotite. Quartz occurs in 2 mm-thick aggregates and shows subgrain development. {{clear}} ==Anthracites== [[Image:Ibbenbueren Anthracite.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Lump of anthracite was extracted from the Ibbenbüren underground coal mine, located in Ibbenbüren, Germany. Credit: [[c:User:Educerva|Educerva]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "form of carbonized ancient plants; the hardest and cleanest-burning of all the coals; hard coal"<ref name=AnthraciteWikt>{{ cite web |title=anthracite |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=30 January 2015 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/anthracite |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}</ref> is called '''anthracite'''. '''Def.''' a coal of a hard variety that contains relatively pure carbon is called an '''anthracite'''. Anthracite is the most metamorphosed type of coal (but still represents low-grade metamorphism), in which the carbon content is between 92% and 98%.<ref>{{cite web | title= MIN 454: Underground Mining Methods handout; from course at the University of Alaska Fairbanks | accessdate= 2009-05-05 |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090326053910/http://www.faculty.uaf.edu/ffrg/min454/Handout2_UMM.doc | archivedate= 26 March 2009 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title = Coal Mining Technology: Theory and Practice | author = R. Stefanenko | publisher = Society for Mining Metallurgy | date = 1983 | {{isbn|0-89520-404-5}} }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Blueschists== [[Image:Schistes bleus.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This blueschist example is from Ile de Groix, France. Credit: [[c:User:Arlette1|Arlette1]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "rock containing glaucophane"<ref name=BlueschistWikt>{{ cite web |title=blueschist |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=17 June 2013 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/blueschist |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}</ref> is called a '''blueschist'''. {|style="float: right; margin: 10px; border: 1px #CCCCCC solid; background:#F9F9F9" |{{metamorphic facies to click}} |- |<small>Diagram showing metamorphic facies in [[pressure]]-[[temperature]] space. The domain of the graph corresponds to circumstances within the Earth's crust and upper mantle.</small> |} A '''metamorphic facies''' is a set of metamorphic mineral assemblages that were formed under similar [[pressure]]s and [[temperature]]s.<ref name = EG>Essentials of Geology, 3rd Edition, Stephen Marshak</ref> The assemblage is typical of what is formed in conditions corresponding to an area on the two dimensional graph of temperature vs. pressure (See diagram at right).<ref name = EG/> Rocks which contain certain minerals can therefore be linked to certain [[w:tectonics|tectonic]] settings, times and places in geological history of the area.<ref name = EG/> The boundaries between facies (and corresponding areas on the temperature v. pressure graph), are wide, because they are gradational and approximate.<ref name = EG/> The area on the graph corresponding to rock formation at the lowest values of temperature and pressure, is the range of formation of [[sedimentary rock]]s, as opposed to metamorphic rocks, in a process called [[w:diagenesis|diagenesis]].<ref name = EG/> '''Blueschist''' is a [[w:metavolcanic rock|metavolcanic rock]] that forms by the [[w:metamorphism|metamorphism]] of [[w:basalt|basalt]] and rocks with similar composition at high pressures and low temperatures, approximately corresponding to a depth of 15 to 30 kilometers and 200 to ~500 degrees Celsius. The blue color of the rock comes from the presence of the mineral [[w:glaucophane|glaucophane]]. Blueschists are typically found within [[w:orogeny|orogenic belts]] as [[w:terrane|terrane]]s of lithology in faulted contact with [[w:greenschist|greenschist]] or rarely [[w:eclogite|eclogite]] facies rocks. ... '''Blueschist''', as a rock type, is defined by the presence of the minerals glaucophane + ( lawsonite or epidote ) +/- jadeite +/- albite or [[w:Chlorite group|chlorite]] +/- garnet +/- [[w:white mica|muscovite]] in a rock of roughly basaltic composition. Blueschist often has a lepidoblastic, nematoblastic or schistose [[w:Texture (crystalline)|rock microstructure]] defined primarily by chlorite, phengitic white mica, glaucophane, and other minerals with an elongate or platy shape. Grain size is rarely coarse, as mineral growth is retarded by the swiftness of the rock's metamorphic trajectory and perhaps more importantly, the low temperatures of metamorphism and in many cases the anhydrous state of the basalts. However, coarse varieties do occur. Blueschists may appear blue, black, gray, or blue-green in outcrop. {{clear}} ==Gneisses== [[Image:Gneiss.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This gneiss is the property of museum of geology at the University of Tartu. Credit: [[c:User:Siim|Siim Sepp]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "rock having bands or veins, but not schistose"<ref name=GneissWikt>{{ cite book |title=gneiss |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=17 December 2014 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gneiss |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}</ref> is called a '''gneiss'''. {{clear}} ==Granulites== [[Image:Mineraly.sk - granulit.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a granulite from Slovakia. Credit: [[c:User:Helix84|Helix84]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' "fine-grained [...] rock composed chiefly of feldspar, quartz, and garnets"<ref name=GranuliteWikt>{{ cite web |title=granulite |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=16 December 2014 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/granulite |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}</ref> is called a '''granulite'''. '''Granulites''' are a class of high-grade metamorphic rocks of the granulite facies that have experienced high-temperature and moderate-pressure metamorphism that are medium to coarse–grained and mainly composed of feldspars sometimes associated with quartz and anhydrous ferromagnesian minerals, with granoblastic texture and gneissose to massive structure.<ref name=Bowes>D.R. Bowes (1989), ''The Encyclopedia of Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology''; Van Nostrand Reinhold {{ISBN|0-442-20623-2}}</ref> {{clear}} ==Hornfels== [[Image:Hornfels.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a sample of banded hornfels from Borok quarry in Novosibirsk. Credit: [[:ru:User:Fed|Fed]].{{tlx|free media}}]] The hornfels shown on the right were formed from the heating of sandstones and siltstones by the Insskoy series of granite intrusions. {{clear}} ==Maw sit sit== [[Image:Kosmochlor jade, Jurassic, Burma 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Maw sit sit is a very rare, complex, polymineralic metamorphic rock. Credit: [[c:User:James St. John|James St. John]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Maw sit sit''', also known as '''jade-albite''', is a gemstone found exclusively in northern Burma, first identified in 1963 by the late Swiss gemologist, Edward Gubelin, and was named after the village close to where it was first found in the foothills of the Himalayas.<ref name=Mindat>[http://www.mindat.org/min-42915.html Maw sit sit on Mindat.org]</ref> Typically maw sit sit is green with distinctive dark-green to black veins, is technically a rock rather than a mineral, composed of several different minerals, including kosmochlor (also known as ureyite), varying amounts of chromium-enriched jadeite, and albite feldspar.<ref name=WS>{{cite book |last=Schumann |first=Walter |title=Gemstones of the World, Third Edition |date=2000 |publisher=Sterling |{{isbn|0806994614}} |pages=170 }}</ref> Maw sit sit can have a refractive index ranging from 1.52-1.68,<ref name=Gemdat>[http://www.gemdat.org/gem-42915.html Gemdat.org]</ref><ref name=TA>{{cite book |last=Thomas |first=Arthur |title=Gemstones: Properties, Identification and Use |date=2008 |publisher=New Holland Publishers |location=Cape Town, South Africa |{{isbn|978-1-84537-602-4}} |pages=143 }}</ref> and a hardness rating of 6 to 7 on the Mohs scale. {{clear}} ==Marbles== [[Image:MarbleUSGOV.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a block of white marble. Credit: USGS.]] [[Image:MississippianMarbleUT.JPG|thumb|left|Mississippian marble is in Big Cottonwood Canyon, Wasatch Mountains, Utah. Credit: [[c:User:Wilson44691:Mark A. Wilson]].{{tlx|free media}}]] On the right is a block of white marble. The left shows Mississippian marble in Big Cottonwood Canyon, Wasatch Mountains, Utah. {{clear}} ==Phyllites== [[Image:PhylliteUSGOV.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a sample of phyllite, a metamorphic rock. Credit: USGS.]] A sample of a phyllite is on the right. {{clear}} ==Quartzites== [[Image:Quartzite.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This quartzite shows banding. Credit: [[c:User:Siim|Siim Sepp]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' "a [...] rock consisting of interlocking grains of quartz"<ref name=QuartziteWikt>{{ cite web |title=quartzite |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=17 January 2015 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/quartzite |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}</ref> is called a '''quartzite'''. In a quartzite, fractures occur through the quartz grains. In a sedimentary rock composed of quartz grains, the rock fractures around the quartz grains. {{clear}} ==Schists== [[Image:Schist detail.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a detail of schist, a foliated metamorphic rock. Credit: [[c:User:Rigel,_M.C.|Michael C. Rygel]].{{tlx|free media}}]] At right is an image of schist. Schist is a medium-grained metamorphic rock that shows well-developed schistosity.<ref>Robertson, S. (1999). "BGS Rock Classification Scheme, Volume 2: Classification of metamorphic rocks" (PDF). British Geological Survey Research Report. RR 99-02: 5. Retrieved 27 February 2021.</ref> Schistosity is a thin layering of the rock produced by metamorphism (a ''foliation'') that permits the rock to easily be split into flakes or slabs less than {{convert|5 to 10|mm|1|sp=us}} thick.<ref name="schid-etal=2007">{{cite book |last1=Schmid |first1=R. |last2=Fettes |first2=D. |last3=Harte |first3=B. |last4=Davis |first4=E. |last5=Desmons |first5=J. |date=2007 |chapter=How to name a metamorphic rock. |title=Metamorphic Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms: Recommendations of the International Union of Geological Sciences Subcommission on the Systematics of Metamorphic Rocks |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |page=7 |url=https://stuff.mit.edu/afs/athena.mit.edu/course/12/12.115/www/12.114%20Papers/BGS/Metamorphic/DetailedMetamorphic/1%20How%20to%20name%20a%20metamorphic%20rock.pdf |accessdate=28 February 2021}}</ref><ref name="BGS">{{cite journal |last1=Robertson |first1=S. |title=BGS Rock Classification Scheme, Volume 2: Classification of metamorphic rocks |journal=British Geological Survey Research Report |date=1999 |volume=RR 99-02 |url=http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/id/eprint/3226/1/RR99002.pdf |accessdate=27 February 2021 |p=5}}</ref> The mineral grains in a schist are typically from {{convert|0.25 to 2|mm|2|sp=us}} in size<ref name="BGS"/> and so are easily seen with a 10× hand lens.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Blatt |first1=Harvey |last2=Tracy |first2=Robert J. |title=Petrology : igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. |date=1996 |publisher=W.H. Freeman |location=New York |isbn=0716724383 |edition=2nd |p=360}}</ref> Typically, over half the mineral grains in a schist show a preferred orientation. Schists make up one of the three divisions of metamorphic rock by texture, with the other two divisions being gneiss, which has poorly developed schistosity and thicker layering, and granofels, which has no discernible schistosity.<ref name="schid-etal=2007"/><ref name="BGS"/> {{clear}} ==Slates== [[Image:Beach In Cornwall UK.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The image shows finely layered slate perhaps with occasional dolomite layers exposed on a beach in Cornwall, UK. Credit: [[c:User:Si Griffiths|Si Griffiths]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Meguma3.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image shows folds in slate and quartzite of the Meguma Group near the Ovens, Nova Scotia, Canada. Credit: [[c:User:Rygel,_M.C.|Michael C. Rygel]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:SlateUSGOV.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a cyan colored slate. USGS.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Slate''' is a fine-grained, foliated, homogeneous metamorphic rock derived from an original shale-type sedimentary rock composed of clay or volcanic ash through low-grade regional metamorphism. It is the finest grained foliated metamorphic rock.<ref name=Marshak>Essentials of Geology, 3rd Ed, Stephen Marshak</ref> Foliation may not correspond to the original sedimentary layering, but instead is in planes perpendicular to the direction of metamorphic compression.<ref name=Marshak/> Slate is frequently grey in color, especially when seen, en masse, covering roofs. However, slate occurs in a variety of colors even from a single locality; for example, slate from North Wales can be found in many shades of grey, from pale to dark, and may also be purple, green or cyan. '''Def.''' a "fine-grained homogeneous [...] rock composed of clay or [...] ash which [...] cleaves easily into thin layers"<ref name=SlateWikt>{{ cite web |title=slate |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=4 February 2015 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/slate |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}</ref> is called a '''slate'''. {{clear}} ==Sedimentary rocks== '''Def.''' "one of the major groups of rock that makes up the crust of the Earth; formed by the deposition of either the weathered remains of other rocks, the results of biological activity, or precipitation from solution"<ref name=SedimentaryRockWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=sedimentary rock |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=13 April 2006 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sedimentary_rock |accessdate=8 December 2018 }}</ref> is called a '''sedimentary rock'''. ==Aeolianites== [[Image:EolianiteLongIsland.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Holocene eolianite is on Long Island, Bahamas. Credit: [[w:User:Wilson44691|Wilson44691]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "rock formed from dune sand, often calcareous"<ref name=AeolianiteWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:Visviva|Visviva]] |title=aeolianite |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=28 September 2007 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aeolianite |accessdate=2014-12-06 }}</ref> is called an '''aeolianite'''. {{clear}} ==Argillites== [[Image:Argillite.JPG|right|thumb|250px|This is a piece of black argillite from Haida Gwaii. Credit: [[c:User:Gbuchana|Gbuchana]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Graptoliitargilliit Pakri.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Greyish chunks of graptolitic argillite in front of Pakri Cliff, yellowish and white chunks are limestone. Credit: [[:et:User:Siim|Siim Sepp]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "fine-grained sedimentary rock, intermediate between shale and slate, sometimes used as a building material"<ref name=ArgilliteWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=argillite |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=27 July 2016 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/argillite |accessdate=2017-01-29 }}</ref> is called an '''argillite'''. {{clear}} ==Arkoses== [[Image:Arkose with K-feldspar (pinkish-orangish) and quartz (gray) grains.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Arkose can have grains of K-feldspar (pinkish-orangish) and quartz (gray). Credit: [https://www.flickr.com/people/47445767@N05 James St. John].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "sedimentary rock consisting of small fragments of feldspar and quartz similar to a coarse sand"<ref name=ArkoseWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=arkose |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=30 January 2007 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/arkose |accessdate=2014-12-06 }}</ref> is called an '''arkose'''. {{clear}} ==Breccias== [[Image:DebrisFlowDepositRestingSpringsPass.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Tertiary breccia is at Resting Springs Pass, Mojave Desert, California. Credit: [[c:User:Wilson44691|Wilson44691]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Azurite-Malachite Breccia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This unusual breccia is cemented by azurite and malachite, Morenci Mine, Arizona. Credit: [http://www.flickr.com/people/jsjgeology/ James St. John].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "rock composed of angular fragments in a matrix that may be of a similar or a different material"<ref name=BrecciaWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:68.239.110.19|68.239.110.19]] |title=breccia |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=16 May 2006 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/breccia |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}</ref> is called a '''breccia'''. {{clear}} ==Calcarenites== [[Image:Pietra di bismantova parete.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Pietra di Bismantova in the northern Appennine (Emilia Romagna region, northern Italy) is an example of calcarenite formation. Credit: .]] '''Def.''' a "form of limestone (or dolomite) composed of sand sized grains derived from the erosion of older rocks"<ref name=CalcareniteWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=calcarenite |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=19 December 2012 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/calcarenite |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}</ref> is called a '''calcarenite'''. {{clear}} ==Conglomerates== [[Image:Lehigh conglom.jpg|right|thumb|250px|The boulder is of conglomerate with cobble-sized clasts. Credit: [[w:User:Jstuby|Jstuby]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Carmelo Formation at Point Lobos.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Carmelo Formation (Conglomerate) is at Point Lobos. Credit: [https://sites.google.com/site/thebrockeninglory/ Brocken Inaglory].]] '''Def.''' a "rock consisting of gravel or pebbles embedded in a matrix"<ref name=ConglomerateWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=conglomerate |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=11 September 2005 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/conglomerate |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}</ref> is called a '''conglomerate'''. {{clear}} ==Clastic rocks== [[Image:LvMS-Lvm.jpg|thumb|Thin section is of a clast (sand grain), derived from a basalt scoria. Vesicles (air bubbles) can be seen throughout the clast. Plane light above, cross-polarized light below. Scale box is 0.25 mm. Credit: [[w:User:Qfl247|Qfl247]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Clastic rocks are composed of fragments, or clasts, of pre-existing minerals and rock, where a clast is a fragment of geological detritus,<ref name=EGG-3>Essentials of Geology, 3rd Ed, Stephen Marshak, p. G-3</ref> chunks and smaller grains of rock broken off other rocks by physical weathering.<ref name=EGG-5>Essentials of Geology, 3rd Ed, Stephen Marshak, p. G-5</ref> {{clear}} ==Claystones== [[Image:GLMsed.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Glacial Lake Missoula claystone is shown. Credit: [[w:User:Qfl247|Qfl247]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Claystone2.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Claystone is in Slovakia. Credit: [[c:User:Pelex|Pelex]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "rock composed of fine, clay particles"<ref name=ClaystoneWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=claystone |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=6 February 2009 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/claystone |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}</ref> is called a '''claystone'''. {{clear}} ==Coals== {{main|Rocks/Coals|Coals}} [[Image:Coal bituminous.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Bituminous coal is a sedimentary rock. Credit: USGS.]] [[Image:Bituminous Coal.JPG|thumb|right|250px|A piece of bituminous coal is displayed. Credit: [[c:User:Amcyrus2012|Amcyrus2012]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Us coal regions 1996.png|thumb|left|250px|Continental United States coal regions are mapped. Credit: USGS.]] '''Def.''' "a black rock formed from prehistoric plant remains, composed largely of carbon and burned as a fuel"<ref name=CoalWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:Rob~enwiktionary|Rob~enwiktionary]] |title=coal |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=29 May 2004 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/coal |accessdate=2017-01-30 }}</ref> is called a '''coal'''. '''Def.''' a black coal having a relatively high volatile content is called a '''bituminous coal'''. {{clear}} ==Diamictites== [[Image:Diamictite Mineral Fork.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Boulder of diamictite of the Precambrian Mineral Fork Formation is lithified glacial till, along the Elephant Head Trail, Antelope Island, Utah. Credit: [[w:User:Jstuby|Jstuby]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' "nonsorted, noncalcareous terrigenous deposits composed of sand and/or larger particles dispersed through a muddy matrix"<ref name=Schermerhorn>{{ cite journal |author=L. J. G. Schermerhorn |title=Terminology of Mixed Coarse-Fine Sediments: NOTES |journal=Journal of Sedimentary Petrology |date=September 1966 |volume=36 |issue=3 |pages=831-5 |url=http://archives.datapages.com/data/sepm/journals/v33-37/data/036/036003/0831.htm |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2014-11-08 }}</ref> are called '''diamictons'''. '''Def.''' a lithified diamicton is called a '''diamictite'''.<ref name=Schermerhorn/> "Such rocks have in common a mixed, ill-sorted, disperse-megaclastic lithology with a great to extreme range of size grades."<ref name=Schermerhorn/> The definitions of these rocks are "without regard to origin".<ref name=Schermerhorn/> '''Def.''' a "sedimentary, calcareous conglomerate containing a mixture of particles; mixtite"<ref name=DiamictiteWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=diamictite |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=3 February 2009 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/diamictite |accessdate=2017-01-31 }}</ref> is called a '''diamictite'''. {{clear}} ==Greensands== [[Image:Greensand.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A roadcut within the Llano Uplift on Texas Highway 1431 about 18 km northwest Marble Falls, Texas, exposes greensand of the Lion Mountain Sandstone (Cambrian) in the lower unit. Notice the normal fault cutting through the formation. Credit: [[w:User:Erimus|Erimus]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "greenish sandstone containing glauconite"<ref name=GreensandWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=greensand |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=1 May 2008 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/greensand |accessdate=2017-01-30 }}</ref> is called a '''greensand'''. {{clear}} ==Greywackes== [[Image:Mineraly.sk - kremenec.jpg|right|thumb|250px|This is a sample of greywacke. Credit: www.mineraly.sk.]] '''Def.''' a "hard dark sandstone with poorly sorted angular grains of quartz, feldspar, and small rock fragments in a compact, clay-fine matrix"<ref name=GreywackeWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:Equinox|Equinox]] |title=greywacke |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=16 December 2014 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/greywacke |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}</ref> is called a '''greywacke'''. {{clear}} ==Gritstones== [[Image:Salt cellar 2 (2).jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Salt Cellar, a gritstone tor on Derwent Edge in the Peak District, England. Credit: [[w:User:Mick Knapton|Mick Knapton]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "form of sedimentary rock, similar to sandstone but coarser"<ref name=GritstoneWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:Conrad.Irwin|Conrad.Irwin]] |title=gritstone |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=5 February 2009 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gritstone |accessdate=2017-01-31 }}</ref> is called a '''gritstone'''. {{clear}} ==Lias== [[Image:Lower Lias Nash Point Glamorgan.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Lower Lias sequence is exposed at Nash Point, Glamorgan, Wales. Credit: [[c:User:Wilson44691|Wilson44691]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "stratigraphic group from the lower Jurassic period, consisting of thin layers of blue limestone [present in parts of southern England]"<ref name=LiasWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:Widsith|Widsith]] |title=lias |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=25 July 2008 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lias |accessdate=2015-02-19 }}</ref> is called a '''lias'''. {{clear}} ==Limestones== [[Image:Muschelkalk-Sediment.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Layers of alpine limestone are dated to the Triassic. Credit: [[c:User:Gikü|Gikü]].{{tlx|free media}}]] The middle Triassic layers of alpine limestone in the image on the right were deposited on the bottom of a shallow sea. {{clear}} ==Lithification== [[Image:Differentially cemented & eroded sandstone Fantasy Canyon, Utah.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Differentially cemented & eroded sandstone occur in the Eocene of Fantasy Canyon, Utah, USA. Credit: [https://www.flickr.com/people/47445767@N05 James St. John].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' the "compaction and cementation of sediment into rock"<ref name=LithificationWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=lithification |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=12 January 2007 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lithification |accessdate=2015-02-19 }}</ref> is called '''lithification'''. '''Def.''' a "subdivision of any stratigraphic unit that has characteristic lithologic features"<ref name=LithofaciesWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=lithofacies |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=7 April 2009 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lithofacies |accessdate=2015-02-19 }}</ref> is called a '''lithofacies'''. '''Def.''' the "formation of sedimentary rock"<ref name=LithogenesisWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=lithogenesis |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=28 December 2011 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lithogenesis |accessdate=2015-02-19 }}</ref> is called '''lithogenesis'''. '''Def.''' "an element that forms silicates or oxides and is concentrated in the minerals of the Earth's crust"<ref name=LithophileWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=lithophile |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=3 November 2005 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lithophile |accessdate=2015-02-19 }}</ref> is called a '''lithophile'''. "The rocks are quartzose sandstones that were deposited on the eastern shore of ancient Lake Uinta, which existed during the Eocene. Some wisps and ribbons of dark-colored, magnetite-rich sand are present in the sandstone. The variety of chaotic rockforms at Fantasy Canyon are quite diverse - these cannot be explained by ordinary weathering and erosion. Close examination shows that erosion has acted upon differentially cemented sandstone. The sandstone has not undergone complete lithification and diagenesis - groundwater lobes have preferentially cemented portions of the sandstone, especially immediately adjacent to joint planes. The poorly-cemented sandstone was easily eroded & the better-cemented sandstone remains."<ref name=John>{{ cite web |author=James St. John |title=Fantasy Canyon |publisher=Flickr |location= |date=10 June 2012 |url=https://www.flickr.com/people/47445767@N05 |accessdate=2017-01-25 }}</ref> "Fantasy Canyon [is located] between Red Wash & Coyote Wash, Chapita Wells Gas Field, west-northwest of the town of Bonanza & south-southeast of the town of Vernal & east of the town of Ouray, northeastern Utah, USA."<ref name=John/> {{clear}} ==Mudstones== [[Image:East Beach 1 2006.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Mudstone formation is on Lyme Regis East Beach. Credit: [[w:User:Ballista|Ballista]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Mudstone.JPG|left|thumb|200px|Sample is of mudstone. Credit: [[c:User:Manishwiki15|Manishwiki15]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Red mudrock.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Red mudrock is in the Ragged Reef Formation (Pennsylvanian), Cumberland Basin, Nova Scotia. Credit: [[c:User:Rygel, M.C.|Michael C. Rygel]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "fine-grained sedimentary rock whose original constituents were clays or muds"<ref name=MudstoneWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:Doug Hockin|Doug Hockin]] |title=mudstone |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=24 April 2007 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mudstone |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}</ref> is called a '''mudstone'''. {{clear}} ==Oolites== [[Image:OoidSurface01.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ooids occur on the surface of a limestone; Carmel Formation (Middle Jurassic) of southern Utah. Credit: .]] [[Image:CarmelOoids.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Thin-section is of calcitic ooids from an oolite within the Carmel Formation (Middle Jurassic) of southern Utah. Credit: .]] '''Def.''' a "rock consisting of spherical grains within a mineral cortex accreted around a nucleus, often of quartz grains"<ref name=OoliteWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=oolite |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=15 May 2006 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/oolite |accessdate=2017-01-30 }}</ref> is called an '''oolite'''. {{clear}} ==Pelites== '''Def.''' a "sedimentary rock containing very fine particles"<ref name=PeliteWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=pelite |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=26 July 2016 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pelite |accessdate=2017-01-31 }}</ref> is called a '''pelites'''. ==Phosphorites== [[Image:Peloidal phosphorite Phosphoria Formation Simplot Mine Idaho.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Peloidal phosphorite is from the Phosphoria Formation, Simplot Mine, Idaho, specimen 4.6 cm wide. Credit: [https://www.flickr.com/people/47445767@N05 James St. John].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Fossiliferous peloidal phosphorite, Yunnan Province China.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Fossiliferous peloidal phosphorite specimen is 4.7 cm across, from Yunnan Province, China. Credit: [https://www.flickr.com/people/47445767@N05 James St. John].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' "a sedimentary rock rich in phosphate minerals such as apatite"<ref name=PhosphoriteWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=phosphorite |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=13 June 2006 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/phosphorite |accessdate=2017-02-01 }}</ref> is called a '''phosphorite'''. {{clear}} ==Radiolarites== [[Image:Radiolarian chert, San Simeon state park.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Radiolarian chert outcrop is near Cambria, California, where individual beds range from about 2 to 5 cm thick Credit: Peter D. Tillman.]] '''Def.''' "the sedimentary rock formed from" "radiolarian ooze"<ref name=RadiolariteWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:Metaknowledge|Metaknowledge]] |title=radiolarite |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=13 September 2012 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/radiolarite |accessdate=2017-01-31 }}</ref> is called a '''radiolarite'''. {{clear}} ==Sandstones== [[Image:Bunter Sandstone (detail), Hopstone, Shropshire - geograph.org.uk - 419156.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Bunter Sandstone (detail), Hopstone, Shropshire, has layers of coloured pebbles often found in this Triassic rock, where this image shows about one metre (height) of sandstone. Credit: [http://www.geograph.org.uk/profile/12192 Roger Kidd].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Kangaroo Creek Sandstone 4.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Outcrop of Kangaroo Creek Sandstone is in Clarence Moreton Basin, New South Wales. Credit: [[c:User:Yendor of yinn|Yendor of yinn]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "sedimentary rock produced by the consolidation and compaction of sand, cemented with clay etc"<ref name=SandstoneWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=sandstone |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=24 January 2005 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/sandstone |accessdate=2017-01-31 }}</ref> is called a '''sandstone'''. Sandstone classification by the Dott scheme uses the relative abundance of quartz, feldspar, and lithic framework grains and the abundance of a muddy matrix between the larger grains.<ref name="Dott">{{ cite journal |author=Dott, R. H. |year=1964 |title=Wacke, graywacke and matrix – what approach to immature sandstone classification |journal=Journal of Sedimentary Petrology |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=625–632 |doi=10.1306/74D71109-2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865D |ref=Dott }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Shales== [[Image:PIA16550-MarsCuriosityRover-ShalerOutcrop-20121207.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The outcrop's striking layers, some at angles to each other, is a pattern called crossbedding. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS.]] [[Image:MarcellusShaleCloseUp.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Marcellus shale shown along Rt 174 just south of Slate Hill Rd, Marcellus, NY. Credit: [[c:User:Lvklock|Lvklock]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Pyrite-117549.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Black Shale occurs with pyrite. Credit: [[c:User:Rob Lavinsky|Rob Lavinsky]].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "fine-grained [...] rock of a thin, laminated, and often friable, structure"<ref name=ShaleWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:Poccil|Poccil]] |title=shale |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=20 October 2004 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/shale |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}</ref> is called a '''shale'''. Shale is a fine-grained, clastic sedimentary rock formed from mud that is a mix of flakes of clay minerals and tiny fragments (silt-sized particles) of other minerals, especially quartz and calcite.<ref name=Blatt>Blatt, Harvey and Robert J. Tracy (1996) ''Petrology: Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic'', 2nd ed., Freeman, pp. 281–292 {{isbn|0-7167-2438-3}}</ref> Shale is characterized by its tendency to split into thin layers (laminae) less than one centimeter in thickness. This property is called ''fissility''.<ref name=Blatt/> Shale is the most common sedimentary rock.<ref name=RocksMaterials>{{cite web |title=Rocks: Materials of the Lithosphere – Summary |publisher=prenhall.com |accessdate=2007-07-31 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224031431/http://wps.prenhall.com:80/esm_lutgens_foundations_3/0,6540,354318-,00.html |archive-date=15 March 2021 }}</ref> The term ''shale'' is sometimes applied more broadly, as essentially a synonym for mudrock, rather than in the more narrow sense of clay-rich fissile mudrock.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Boggs |first1=Sam |title=Principles of sedimentology and stratigraphy |date=2006 |publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall |location=Upper Saddle River, N.J. |isbn=0131547283 |page=139 |edition=4th}}</ref> {{clear}} ==Siltstones== [[Image:Greyish red siltstone unit.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A well-developed veined network, a fossilised soil structure, extends down from the top of a greyish red siltstone unit, and is underlain by a zone of calcareous nodules. Credit: P. J. Barrett, B. P. Kohn, R. A. Askin & J. G. McPherson.]] [[Image:Siltstone1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Siltstone is at UAT, Estonia. Credit: [[c:User:Siim|Siim Sepp]].{{tlx|free media}}]] At the upper right is a small portion of the stratigraphic column between the Hatherton and MacKay glaciers in Antarctica. The top rock layer is a greyish red siltstone. The next downward is a greenish grey siltstone penetrated by sinuous tubes that may be roots or root-like structures. Underlaying this is "a zone of calcareous nodules."<ref name=Barrett>{{ cite journal |author=P. J. Barrett |author2=B. P. Kohn |author3=R. A. Askin |author4=J. G. McPherson |title=Preliminary report on Beacon Supergroup studies between the Hatherton and Mackay glaciers, Antarctica |journal=New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics |month= |year=1971 |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=605-14 |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00288306.1971.10421951 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1080/00288306.1971.10421951 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-09-27 }}</ref> "The Beacon Supergroup (Barrett, 1970) in the Transantarctic Mountains is largely a flat-lying, nonmarine sequence from Devonian or older to Jurassic in age. It consists of the Taylor Group (Devonian or older), a quartzose sandstone sequence, and the Victoria Group (Permian and Triassic), dominantly a coal-bearing sandstone-siltstone sequence (Harrington, 1965)."<ref name=Barrett/> "The Taylor Group comprises up to 1,450 m of quartzose sandstone, with smaller conglomerate, arkosic and shaly units [...]. [The] youngest Taylor Group unit [is] the Aztec Siltstone [of which the image at the right exhibits]."<ref name=Barrett/> '''Def.''' a "sedimentary rock whose composition is intermediate in grain size between the coarser sandstone and the finer mudstone"<ref name=SiltstoneWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:Doug Hockin|Doug Hockin]] |title=siltstone |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=24 April 2007 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/siltstone |accessdate=2017-01-31 }}</ref> is called a '''siltstone'''. {{clear}} ==Taconites== [[Image:Taconite.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Taconite, in the United States, is a hard, silica-rich iron ore mined in the Lake Superior region. Credit: USGS.{{tlx|free media}}]] "This rock is widely spread over the whole length of the Mesabi, and being different from anything found elsewhere and peculiar to this horizon of the Taconic, has been called ''taconyte'' by the writer."<ref name=Winchell>Winchell, Horace V. (1891) [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b4195970;view=1up;seq=399 "The Mesabi iron range,"] in: Winchell, Newton H., ed., ''The Geological and Natural History Survey of Minnesota'' (Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA: Harrison & Smith), vol. 20, p. 124. [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b4195970;view=1up;seq=412 From p. 124:]</ref> Taconite is a variety of iron formation, an iron-bearing (over 15% iron) sedimentary rock, in which the iron minerals are interlayered with quartz, chert, or carbonate, of the Precambrian Biwabik Iron Formation of northeastern Minnesota, bearing a superficial resemblance to iron-bearing rocks from the Taconic Mountains of New York state.<ref name=Winchell/> {{clear}} ==Travertines== [[Image:TravertineUSGOV.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an example of a travertine. Credit: USGS.]] '''Def.''' "light, porous form of concretionary limestone (or calcite)"<ref name=TravertineWikt>{{ cite book |title=travertine |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=17 December 2014 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/travertine |accessdate=2015-02-09 }}</ref> is called a '''travertine'''. {{clear}} ==Turbidites== [[Image:Turbidites.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Turbidites (interbedded with mudstones/siltstones) from the Ross Sandstone Formation. Credit: USGS.]] [[Image:Turbidite 2.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Turbidite (Gorgoglione Flysch) is from Miocene, South Italy. Credit: Geologist.]] '''Def.''' "sea-bottom deposits formed by massive slope failures where rivers have deposited large deltas"<ref name=USGSTurbidites>{{ cite web |author=USGSTurbidites |title=Earthquake Glossary - turbidites |publisher=USGS |location=Menlo Park, California USA |date=July 24, 2012 |url=http://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=turbidites |accessdate=2014-12-02 }}</ref> are called '''turbidites'''. "Turbidites [shown in the image on the right] are sea-bottom deposits formed by massive slope failures where rivers have deposited large deltas. These slopes fail in response to earthquake shaking or excessive sedimentation load. The temporal correlation of turbidite occurrence for some deltas of the Pacific Northwest suggests that these deposits have been formed by earthquakes."<ref name=USGSTurbidites/> "Turbidites (interbedded with mudstones/siltstones) from the Ross Sandstone Formation Turbidite system of Namurian age in County Clare, Western Ireland. The sandstone beds were formed in a deep basin by turbidites coming from a delta area."<ref name=USGSTurbidites/> {{clear}} ==Hadean== '''Def.''' # "the geologic eon from about 4,600 to 3,800 million years ago; marked by the formation of the solar system, a stable Earth-Moon orbit and the first rocks"<ref name=HadeanWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=Hadean |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=31 May 2005 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Hadean |accessdate=2015-02-13 }}</ref> or # the "eon before 4,000 Ma"<ref name=HadeanWikt1>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:DCDuring|DCDuring]] |title=Hadean |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=4 November 2014 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Hadean |accessdate=2015-02-13 }}</ref> is called the '''Hadean'''. "[U]ranium-lead dating [has been conducted] on fragments of the mineral zircon extracted from Apollo 14 lunar samples. The pieces of zircon were minuscule — no bigger than a grain of sand."<ref name=Dunn>{{ cite web |author=Marcia Dunn |title=Scientists: Moon over the hill at 4.51 billion years old |publisher=Associated Press |location= |date=11 January 2017 |url=http://hosted2.ap.org/APDEFAULT/b2f0ca3a594644ee9e50a8ec4ce2d6de/Article_2017-01-11-US-SCI--Age%20of%20Moon/id-eb8f2dde9b4447ffa75cb076263938f9 |accessdate=2017-01-14 }}</ref> "Size doesn't matter, they record amazing information nonetheless! The moon holds "so much magic ... the key to understand how our beautiful Earth formed and evolved."<ref name=Barboni>{{ cite web |author=Melanie Barboni |title=Scientists: Moon over the hill at 4.51 billion years old |publisher=Associated Press |location= |date=11 January 2017 |url=http://hosted2.ap.org/APDEFAULT/b2f0ca3a594644ee9e50a8ec4ce2d6de/Article_2017-01-11-US-SCI--Age%20of%20Moon/id-eb8f2dde9b4447ffa75cb076263938f9 |accessdate=2017-01-14 }}</ref> More "zircons from Apollo 14 samples [from the moon's Fra Mauro highlands collected in February 1971 are being studied], but [are not expected] to change [the] estimate of 4.51 billion years for the moon's age, possibly 4.52 billion years at the most."<ref name=Dunn/> "It would be more a double-checking than anything else."<ref name=Barboni/> Regardless "of how the moon came to be — one big strike at Earth, many smaller ones or even none at all — you still end up at the end solidifying the moon as we know it today."<ref name=Barboni/> "We finally pinned down a minimum age for the moon formation, regardless of how it formed."<ref name=Barboni/> ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Rocks/Rocky objects/Callisto|Callisto]] * [[Rocks/Rocky objects/Ceres|Ceres]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Comets|Comets]] * [[Rocks/Rocky objects/Dione|Dione]] * [[Rocks/Ice sheets/Enceladus|Enceladus]] * [[Original research/Glaciations|Glaciations]] * [[Glaciology]] * [[Volcanoes/Io|Io]] * [[Rocks/Rocky objects/Mercury|Mercury]] * [[Minerals/Mineralogy|Mineralogy]] * [[Chemicals/Rocks|Rocks]] * [[Volcanoes/Volcanic rocks|Volcanic and igneous rocks]] {{Div col end}} ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database] <!-- footer templates --> {{Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Rock radiation astronomy}} <!-- footer categories --> [[Category:Radiation astronomy/Lectures]] dr1nr2t0medvb3cu9ah5lt56iyy76k6 0 234445 2415620 2415510 2022-08-16T18:29:16Z Marshallsumter 311529 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Rosetta OSIRIS NAC comet 67P 20140803 2 625.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. Credit: ESA/Rosetta/MPS for OSIRIS Team MPS/UPD/LAM/IAA/SSO/INTA/ UPM/DASP/IDA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] [[Image:Rosetta OSIRIS NAC comet 67P 20140803 1 625.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This image shows Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko rotated around a vertical axis from the right. Credit: ESA/Rosetta/MPS for OSIRIS Team MPS/UPD/LAM/IAA/SSO/INTA/ UPM/DASP/IDA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] The image at the right is an optical astronomy image of the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko. Rosetta's OSIRIS narrow-angle camera made the image on 3 August 2014 from a distance of 285 km. The image resolution is 5.3 metres/pixel. The left image is rotated 90° from the right. The location of the right image is the front view of the left side just out of view in the left image. The object rotates by the right hand rule from the left image to the right. Note that due to the evaporation of volatiles, the surface of the rocky object appears pitted or cratered. {{clear}} ==Theoretical comets== [[Image:Comet-Hale-Bopp-29-03-1997 hires adj.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The comet Hale–Bopp in the night sky. Credit: [http://salzgeber.at Philipp Salzgeber].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' a "celestial body consisting mainly of ice, dust and gas in a (usually very eccentric) orbit around the Sun and having a "tail" of melted matter blown away [back]<ref name=CometWikt1>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:Stephen G. Brown|Stephen G. Brown]] |title=comet |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=5 November 2005 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/comet |accessdate=19 June 2019 }}</ref> from it by the solar wind when [as]<ref name=CometWikt1/> it is close to [approaches]<ref name=CometWikt1/> the Sun"<ref name=CometWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]] |title=comet |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=25 February 2004 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/comet |accessdate=19 June 2019 }}</ref> is called a '''comet'''. '''Def.''' a "comet which orbits the Sun and which returns to the innermost point of its orbit at known, regular intervals"<ref name=PeriodicCometWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:WikiPedant|WikiPedant]] |title=periodic comet |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=4 November 2007 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/periodic_comet |accessdate=19 June 2019 }}</ref> is called a '''periodic comet'''. '''Def.''' "any periodic comet with an orbital period of less than 200 years"<ref name=ShortPeriodCometWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:AryamanA|AryamanA]] |title=short-period comet |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=11 February 2016 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/short-period_comet |accessdate=19 June 2019 }}</ref> is called a '''short-period comet'''. '''Def.''' any periodic comet with an orbital period from 200 to thousands of years is called a '''long-period comet'''. {{clear}} ==Meteors== {{main|Radiation/Meteors}} [[Image:Meteor burst.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This picture is of the Alpha-Monocerotid meteor outburst in 1995. It is a timed exposure where the meteors have actually occurred several seconds to several minutes apart. Credit: NASA Ames Research Center/S. Molau and P. Jenniskens.{{tlx|free media}}]] Some wanderers are '''meteors'''. A '''meteor''' is the visible path of a meteoroid that has entered the Earth's atmosphere. Meteors typically occur in the mesosphere, and most range in altitude from 75&nbsp;km to 100&nbsp;km.<ref name=Erickson>{{cite book |url=http://www.haystack.mit.edu/~pje/meteors/ | title = Millstone Hill UHF Meteor Observations: Preliminary Results | author = Philip J. Erickson}}</ref> Millions of meteors occur in the Earth's atmosphere every day. Most meteoroids that cause meteors are about the size of a [[w:pebble|pebble]]. The Perseid meteor shower, usually the richest meteor shower of the year, peaks in August. Over the course of an hour, a person watching a clear sky from a dark location might see as many as 50-100 meteors. Most meteors are actually pieces of rock that have broken off a comet and continue to orbit the Sun. The Earth travels through the comet debris in its orbit. As the small pieces enter the Earth's atmosphere, friction causes them to burn up. '''Def.''' "[a]ll other objects [not a planet or dwarf planet], except satellites, orbiting the Sun" are called collectively '''Small Solar-System Bodies'''.<ref name=Christensen>{{ cite book |author=Lars Lindberg Christensen |title=IAU 2006 General Assembly: Result of the IAU Resolution votes |publisher=International Astronomical Union |date=August 24, 2006 |url=http://www.iau.org/static/archives/releases/pdf/iau0603.pdf |accessdate=2011-10-30 }}</ref> "Coronal mass ejections (CMEs) are large‐scale expulsions of plasma and magnetic field from the solar corona to the interplanetary space. During a large CME event, ∼10<sup>16</sup> g of coronal material with energies of ∼10<sup>32</sup> ergs are ejected from the Sun [Hundhausen, 1997; Vourlidas et al., 2002]. While accelerating away from the Sun, CMEs present speeds between few tens up to ∼2500 km/s. CMEs with speeds exceeding the magnetosonic speed can drive fast shocks ahead of them. CME‐driven fast shocks are able to accelerate charged particles up to very high energies (∼GeV/nucleon) [Wang and Wang, 2006]."<ref name=Loesch>{{ cite journal |author=C. Loesch |author2=M. Opher |author3=M. V. Alves |author4=R. M. Evans |author5=W. B. Manchester |title=Signatures of two distinct driving mechanisms in the evolution of coronal mass ejections in the lower corona |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |month=April 13, |year=2011 |volume=116 |issue= |pages=A04106 |url=http://plutao.dpi.inpe.br/col/dpi.inpe.br/plutao/2011/06.11.03.21/doc/2010JA015582.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1029/2010JA015582 |pmid= |accessdate=2014-02-16 }}</ref> Current "knowledge of the orbital structure of the outer solar system, [is] mostly slanted towards that information which has been learned from the Canada-France-Ecliptic Plane Survey (CFEPS: www.cfeps.net). Based on our current datasets (inside and outside CFEPS) outer solar system modeling is now entering the erra of precission cosmogony."<ref name=Kavelaars>{{ cite journal |author=J. J. Kavelaars |title=The Outer Solar System, from Centaurs to the Detached Disk: Entering the Era of Precision Cosmogony, In: ''Asteroids, Comets, Meteors'' |publisher=Lunar and Planetary Institute |location=Houston, TX, USA |month=May |year=2012 |editor= |volume= |issue=LPI Contribution No. 1667 |pages=6460 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu//abs/2012LPICo1667.6460K |arxiv= |bibcode=2012LPICo1667.6460K |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=2013-12-20 }}</ref> "Since the discovery of the first members of the Kuiper belt (Jewitt and Luu, 1993) the growth in knowledge of the outer solar system has been marked (perhaps driven) by the discovery of individual objects whose dynamics pointed at previously unknown reserviours; for example: 1993 RO and the plutinos, 1996 TL66 and the ‘scattering disk’, 2003 CR103 and the detectatch disk, 90377 Sedna and the Inner Oort Cloud."<ref name=Kavelaars/> The "‘main Kuiper belt’ is populated by dynamically ‘hot’ and ‘cold’ subcomponents (Brown 2001), the dyncamically ‘cold’ component is further sub-divided into a ‘stirred’ and ‘kernel’ component (Petit et al., 2011). The plane of the Ecliptic does not match the ecliptic or invariable planes of the solar sytem (Elliot et al., 2005). Collisional families exists, Haumea (Brown et al., 2007)."<ref name=Kavelaars/> {{clear}} ==Protons== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Protons|Proton astronomy}} [[Image:Angeo-39-379-2021-f04-high-res.png|thumb|right|250px|Abundance of the position of the ''Rosetta'' spacecraft (a), position at which warm protons were detected (b) and occurrence rate of detections normalized to the spacecraft dwell time (c) is given. Credit: Charlotte Goetz, Herbert Gunell, Fredrik Johansson, Kristie LLera, Hans Nilsson, Karl-Heinz Glassmeier, and Matthew G. G. T. Taylor.{{tlx|free media}}]] Cosmic "ray protons at energies up to 10 GeV [may be] able to build-up large amount of organic refractory material at depth of several meters in a comet during [its] long life in the Oort cloud (~4.6 x 10<sup>7</sup> yr). Ion bombardment might also lead to the formation of a substantial stable crust (Johnson et al., 1987)."<ref name="Andronico">{{cite journal |author=G. Andronico |author2=G. A. Baratta |author3=F. Spinella |author4=G. Strazzulla |title=Optical evolution of laboratory-produced organics - applications to Phoebe, Iapetus, outer belt asteroids and cometary nuclei |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=October |year=1987 |volume=184 |issue=1-2 |pages=333-6 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1987A%26A...184..333A |arxiv= |bibcode=1987A&A...184..333A |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-09-25 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Ultraviolets== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Ultraviolets}} [[Image:Kohoutek-uv.jpg|thumb|right|250px|False color image of Comet Kohoutek is photographed with a far-ultraviolet electrographic camera during a Skylab spacewalk on 25 December 1973. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] "Considering photon bombardment first, interstellar and solar ultraviolet (that is, h𝛎 > 3 eV) photons have copious fluxes in the Oort cloud and Kuiper belt, providing the energy necessary to break bonds and initiate substantial chemical change in cometary surfaces. Ultraviolet photosputtering is capable of eroding away the uppermost few micrometres of icy surfaces<sup>35</sup>. But more importantly, in a classic series of laboratory experiments and theoretical studies, M. Greenberg showed that ultraviolet photons would produce significant alteration of the composition, colour, and volatility of the upper several to few tens of micrometres of cometary surfaces<sup>36</sup>. Others<sup>37,38</sup> confirmed and extended these results, showing that ultraviolet photons promote surface darkening (to albedos of only a few per cent) and devolitalization that becomes progressively more severe with dosage, and therefore age. Because of their much closer proximity to the Sun, Kuiper belt comets experience a much (~10<sup>5</sup> times) higher ultraviolet and solar cosmic ray (SCR) surface dose, greatly increasing the total deposited charged-particle energy incident on the surfaces of these bodies, relative to Oort cloud comets, but their ~10 times lower average surface age somewhat mitigates this effect."<ref name=Stern>{{ cite journal |author=S. Alan Stern |title=The evolution of comets in the Oort cloud and Kuiper belt |journal=Nature |date=7 August 2003 |volume=42 |issue= |pages=639-642 |url=https://www.boulder.swri.edu/recent/Nature_comets.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=19 June 2019 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Violets== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Violets|Violet astronomy}} [[Image:Comet Hale-Bopp 1995O1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Image of comet C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp), taken on 1997 April 04, with a 225mm f/2.0 Schmidt Camera (focal length 450mm) on Kodak Panther 400 color slide film with an exposure time of 10 minutes. Credit: E. Kolmhofer, H. Raab; Johannes-Kepler-Observatory, Linz, Austria.{{tlx|free media}}]] "The abundance ratios of stable isotopes of the light elements in comets may provide clues of cosmogonical significance."<ref name=Arpigny>{{ cite journal |author=C. Arpigny |author2=R. Schulz |author3=J. Manfroid |author4=I. Ilyin |author5=J. A. Stüwe |author6=J.-M. Zucconi |title=The isotope ratios <sup>12</sup>C/<sup>13</sup>C and <sup>14</sup>N/<sup>15</sup>N in comet C/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp) |journal=Bulletin of the American Astronomical Society |month=October |year=2000 |volume=32 |issue=10 |pages=1074 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000DPS....32.4114A |arxiv= |bibcode=2000DPS....32.4114A |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-12-20 }}</ref> "In 1997 we observed comet Hale-Bopp with the 2.6 m Nordic Optical Telescope on La Palma, Canary Islands, with a view to estimating the <sup>12</sup>C/<sup>13</sup>C abundance ratio. About twenty high-resolution (λ /Δ λ ~ 70000) spectra of the strong CN Violet (0,0) band were secured with the SOFIN spectrograph from 7 to 13 April. The heliocentric and geocentric distances of the comet were then close to 0.9 AU and 1.4 AU, respectively. While the data do show the expected lines of the <sup>13</sup>C<sup>14</sup>N isotopic molecule, we have been surprised to find in addition a number of very weak features, which are real and turn out to be positioned very near to the theoretical wavelengths of lines pertaining to the R branch of <sup>12</sup>C<sup>15</sup>N."<ref name=Arpigny/> {{clear}} ==Cyans== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Cyans|Cyan astronomy}} [[Image:C2007N3Lulin2panel brimacombe.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Recent changes in Comet Lulin's greenish coma and tails are shown in these two panels taken on January 31st (top) and February 4th (bottom) 2009. In both views the comet has an apparent antitail to the left of the coma of dust. Credit: Joseph Brimacombe, Cairns, Australia.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:PanSTARRS C-2012 K1.png|thumb|right|250px|Sweeping slowly through northern skies, the comet PanSTARRS C/2012 K1 posed for this telescopic portrait on June 2nd in the constellation Ursa Major. Credit: Alessandro Falesiedi.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] Perhaps the most prominent cyan planetary source is Uranus, which has only been visited by the space probe Voyager 2. More recent images come from the Hubble Space Telescope in orbit around Earth. Methane possesses prominent absorption bands in the visible and near-infrared (IR) making Uranus [[w:aquamarine (color)|aquamarine]] or cyan in color.<ref name="Lunine">{{cite journal |title=The Atmospheres of Uranus and Neptune |author=Jonathan I. Lunine |journal = Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume=31 |pages=217–263 1993 |doi=10.1146/annurev.aa.31.090193.001245 | bibcode=1993ARA&A..31..217L }}</ref> “During the Halley Monitoring Program at La Silla from Feb.17 to Apr.17,1986 ... In the light of the neutral CN-radical a continuous formation and expansion of [cyan] gas-shells could be observed.”<ref name="Schlosser">{{cite book |author=Wolfhard Schlosser |author2=Rita Schulz |author3=Paul Koczet |title=The cyan shells of Comet P/Halley, In: ''Proceedings of the 20th ESLAB Symposium on the Exploration of Halley's Comet'' |publisher=European Space Agency |location= |date= 1986 |volume=3 |editor= |pages=495-8 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1986ESASP.250c.495S |doi= |pmid= |isbn= }}</ref> “The gas-expansion velocity decreases with increasing heliocentric distance from 1 km/s in early March to 0.8 km/s in April.”<ref name="Schlosser"/> Shown at right, "Lulin's green color comes from the gases that make up its Jupiter-sized atmosphere. Jets spewing from the comet's nucleus contain cyanogen (CN: a poisonous gas found in many comets) and diatomic carbon (C<sub>2</sub>). Both substances glow green when illuminated by sunlight"<ref name="Phillips">{{cite book |author=James A. Phillips |title=Green Comet Approaches Earth |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration Science News |location= |date= 2009 |url=http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2009/04feb_greencomet/ |accessdate=2012-05-05 }}</ref> The electric blue glow of electricity results from the spectral emission of the excited ionized atoms (or excited molecules) of air (mostly oxygen and nitrogen) falling back to unexcited states, which happens to produce an abundance of electric blue light. This is the reason electrical sparks in air, including lightning, appear electric blue. It is a coincidence that the color of Cherenkov radiation and light emitted by ionized air are a very similar blue despite their very different methods of production. On the right is a visual image of comet PanSTARRS C/2012 K1. "Now within the inner solar system, the icy body from the Oort cloud sports two tails, a lighter broad dust tail and crooked ion tail extending below and right. The comet's condensed greenish coma makes a nice contrast with the spiky yellowish background star above. NGC 3319 appears at the upper left of the frame that spans almost twice the apparent diameter of the full Moon."<ref name=Nemiroff>{{ cite book |author= Robert Nemiroff |author2=Jerry Bonnell |title=Comet PanSTARRS with Galaxy |publisher=NASA/GSFC |location=Greenbelt, Maryland USA |date=6 June 2014 |url=http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap140606.html |accessdate=2015-08-31 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Infrareds== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Infrareds}} [[Image:Ssc2003-06j.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an infrared image of the periodic comet Schwassmann-Wachmann I (P/SW-1) in a nearly circular orbit just outside that of Jupiter. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/D. Cruikshank (NASA Ames) & J. Stansberry (University of Arizona.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Infrared Structure of Comet Holmes.jpg|thumb|right|250px|These images are of comet Holmes. The contrast has been enhanced for the right image to show anatomy. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/W. Reach (SSC-Caltech).{{tlx|free media}}]] "NASA's new Spitzer Space Telescope has captured [the image right] of an unusual comet that experiences frequent outbursts, which produce abrupt changes in brightness. Periodic comet Schwassmann-Wachmann I (P/SW-1) has a nearly circular orbit just outside that of Jupiter, with an orbital period of 14.9 years. It is thought that the outbursts arise from the build-up of internal gas pressure as the heat of the Sun slowly evaporates frozen carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide beneath the blackened crust of the comet nucleus. When the internal pressure exceeds the strength of the overlying crust, a rupture occurs, and a burst of gas and dust fragments is ejected into space at speeds of 450 miles per hour (200 meters per second)."<ref name=Cruikshank>{{ cite book |author=Dale Cruikshank |title=Comet Schwassmann-Wachmann 1 |publisher=NASA, JPL, California Institute of Technology |location=Pasadena, California, USA |date=December 18, 2003 |url=http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/images/1115-ssc2003-06j-Comet-Schwassmann-Wachmann-1 |accessdate=2012-11-26 }}</ref> "This 24-micron image of P/SW-1 was obtained with Spitzer's multiband imaging photometer. The image shows thermal infrared emission from the dusty coma and tail of the comet. The nucleus of the comet is about 18 miles (30 kilometers) in diameter and is too small to be resolved by Spitzer. The micron-sized dust grains in the coma and tail stream out away from the Sun. The dust and gas comprising the comet's nucleus is part of the same primordial materials from which the Sun and planets were formed billions of years ago. The complex carbon-rich molecules they contain may have provided some of the raw materials from which life originated on Earth."<ref name=Cruikshank/> "Schwassmann-Wachmann 1 is thought to be a member of a relatively new class of objects called "Centaurs," of which 45 objects are known. These are small icy bodies with orbits between those of Jupiter and Neptune. Astronomers believe that Centaurs are recent escapees from the Kuiper Belt, a zone of small bodies orbiting in a cloud at the distant reaches of the solar system."<ref name=Cruikshank/> "Two asteroids, 1996 GM36 (left) and 5238 Naozane (right) were serendipitously captured in the comet image. Because they are closer to us than the comet and have faster orbital velocities, they appear to move relative to the comet and background stars, thereby producing a slight elongated appearance. The Spitzer data have allowed astronomers to use thermal measurements, which reduce the uncertainties of visible-light albedo (reflectivity) measurements, to determine their size. With radii of 1.4 and 3.0 kilometers, these are the smallest main-belt asteroids yet measured by infrared means."<ref name=Cruikshank/> In the second image pair, "NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope captured the picture on the left of comet Holmes in March 2008, five months after the comet suddenly erupted and brightened a millionfold overnight. The contrast of the picture has been enhanced on the right to show the anatomy of the comet."<ref name=Reach>{{ cite book |author=W. Reach |title=Anatomy of a Busted Comet |publisher=NASA, JPL, California Institute of Technology |location=Pasadena, California, USA |date=October 10, 2008 |url=http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/images/2742-ssc2008-18a-Anatomy-of-a-Busted-Comet |accessdate=2012-11-26 }}</ref> "Every six years, comet 17P/Holmes speeds away from Jupiter and heads inward toward the sun, traveling the same route typically without incident. However, twice in the last 116 years, in November 1892 and October 2007, comet Holmes mysteriously exploded as it approached the asteroid belt. Astronomers still do not know the cause of these eruptions."<ref name=Reach/> "Spitzer's infrared picture at left reveals fine dust particles that make up the outer shell, or coma, of the comet. The nucleus of the comet is within the bright whitish spot in the center, while the yellow area shows solid particles that were blown from the comet in the explosion. The comet is headed away from the sun, which lies beyond the right-hand side of the picture."<ref name=Reach/> "The contrast-enhanced picture on the right shows the comet's outer shell, and strange filaments, or streamers, of dust. The streamers and shell are a yet another mystery surrounding comet Holmes. Scientists had initially suspected that the streamers were small dust particles ejected from fragments of the nucleus, or from hyperactive jets on the nucleus, during the October 2007 explosion. If so, both the streamers and the shell should have shifted their orientation as the comet followed its orbit around the sun. Radiation pressure from the sun should have swept the material back and away from it. But pictures of comet Holmes taken by Spitzer over time show the streamers and shell in the same configuration, and not pointing away from the sun. The observations have left astronomers stumped."<ref name=Reach/> "The horizontal line seen in the contrast-enhanced picture is a trail of debris that travels along with the comet in its orbit."<ref name=Reach/> "The Spitzer picture was taken with the spacecraft's multiband imaging photometer at an infrared wavelength of 24 microns."<ref name=Reach/> "The deuterium enrichment of cometary water is one of the most important cosmogonic indicators in comets. The (D/H)<sub>H<sub>2</sub>O</sub> ratio preserves information about the conditions under which comet material formed, and tests the possible contribution of comets in delivering water for Earth's oceans. Water (H<sub>2</sub>O) and HDO were sampled in comet 8P/Tuttle from 2008 January 27 to 2008 February 3 using the new IR spectrometer (Cryogenic Infrared Echelle Spectrograph) at the 8.2 m Antu telescope of the Very Large Telescope Observatory atop Cerro Paranal, Chile."<ref name=Villanueva>{{ cite journal |author=Geronimo L. Villanueva |author2=Michael J. Mumma |author3=Boncho P. Bonev |author4=Michael A. DiSanti |author5=Erika L. Gibb |author6=H. Böhnhardt |author7=M. Lippi |title=A Sensitive Search for Deuterated Water in Comet 8p/Tuttle |journal=The Astrophysical Journal Letters |month=January |year=2009 |volume=690 |issue=1 |pages=L5-9 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009ApJ...690L...5V |arxiv= |bibcode=2009ApJ...690L...5V |doi=10.1088/0004-637X/690/1/L5 |pmid= |accessdate=2013-12-22 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Submillimeters== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Submillimeters|Submillimeter astronomy}} [[Image:1989-11-06 Okazaki 19891106 mpm.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Comet C/1989 Q1 (Okazaki-Levy-Rudenko) 1989-Nov-06 Martin Mobberley. Credit: Carl Hergenrother and Martin Mobberley.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "The submillimeter emission from [a cometary] nucleus can be estimated under the assumption of thermal equilibrium."<ref name=Jewitt/> "[V]isible meteors consist of 0.1- to 1-mm-sized debris from active comets (Williams 1990)."<ref name=Jewitt>{{ cite journal |author=David Jewitt |author2=Jane Luu |title=Submillimeter Continuum Emission from Comets |journal=Icarus |month=November |year=1992 |volume=108 |issue=1 |pages=187-96 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0019103592900286 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-10-22 }}</ref> The "effective opacity decreases as a+ [the maximum grain radius] increases in [the] radius range [1 to 100 mm], apparently because the larger particles become individually optically thick and so contribute to the mass [the total grain mass of the cometary coma] faster than they contribute to the radiating cross section."<ref name=Jewitt/> "Calculations were made using the wavelength-dependent complex refractive indices of silicate (Draine 1985), glassy carbon (Edoh 1983), and Tholin (Khare ''et al.'' 1984). [...] these materials were chosen as broadly representative of the types of matter thought to be present in comet dust."<ref name=Jewitt/> "Comet [Okazaki-Levy-Rudenko] was [observed November 18-20 and 22-24, 1989 UTC and] found to be a weak but persistent source at 800 μm".<ref name=Jewitt/> ==Radios== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Radios|Radio astronomy}} No comets were successfully detected in the radio band until the 1973 passage of comet Kohoutek.<ref name=Altenhoff2002>{{cite journal | first=W. J. | last=Altenhoff | title=Radio continuum observations of Comet C/1999 S4 (LINEAR) before, during, and after break-up of its nucleus | journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics | volume=391 | year=2002 | issue=1 | pages=353–360 | doi=10.1051/0004-6361:20020783 | bibcode=2002A&A...391..353A }}</ref> '''Interplanetary scintillation''' refers to random fluctuations in the intensity of [[w:radio wave|radio wave]]s of [[w:Sky|celestial]] origin, on the timescale of a few seconds. It is analogous to the [[w:Scintillation (astronomy)|twinkling]] one sees looking at [[w:star|star]]s in the [[w:sky|sky]] at night, but in the radio part of the [[w:electromagnetic spectrum|electromagnetic spectrum]] rather than the [[w:visible spectrum|visible one]]. Interplanetary scintillation is the result of radio waves traveling through fluctuations in the density of the [[w:electron|electron]] and [[w:proton|proton]]s that make up the [[w:solar wind|solar wind]]. Scintillation occurs as a result of variations in the [[w:refractive index|refractive index]] of the medium through which waves are traveling. The solar wind is a [[w:plasma (physics)|plasma]], composed primarily of electrons and lone protons, and the variations in the index of refraction are caused by variations in the [[w:density|density]] of the plasma.<ref>Jokipii (1973), pp. 11–12.</ref> Different indices of refraction result in [[w:phase (waves)|phase]] changes between waves traveling through different locations, which results in [[w:interference (physics)|interference]]. As the waves interfere, both the [[w:frequency|frequency]] of the wave and its [[w:angular size|angular size]] are broadened, and the intensity varies.<ref>Alurkar (1997), p. 11.</ref> "Comets provide important clues to the physical and chemical processes that occurred during the formation and early evolution of the Solar System [...] Comparing abundances and cosmogonic values (isotope and ortho:para (o/p) ratios) of cometary parent volatiles to those found in the interstellar medium, in disks around young stars, and between cometary families, is vital to understanding planetary system formation and the processing history experienced by organic matter in the so-called interstellar-comet connection [2]. [...] ground-based radio observations towards comets C/2009 P1 (Garradd) and C/2012 F6 (Lemmon) [...] constrain the chemical history of these bodies."<ref name=Gicquel>{{ cite journal |author=Adeline Gicquel |author2=Stefanie Milam |author3=Martin Cordiner |author4=Geronimo Villanueva |author5=Steven Charnley |author6=Iain Coulson |author7=Anthony Remijan |author8=Michael A. DiSanti |author9=Boncho P. Bonev |author10=Yi-Jehng Kuan |author11=Yo-Ling Chuang |title=The volatile composition of comets C 2009/P1 (Garradd) and C 2012/F6 (Lemmon) from ground-based radio observations |journal=EPSC Abstracts |month=September |year=2013 |volume=8 |issue=09 |pages=370-1-3 |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013EPSC....8..370G |arxiv= |bibcode=2013EPSC....8..370G |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2013-12-22 }}</ref> ==Sun-grazing comets== [[Image:Comet Lovejoy Cruises around the Sun.webm|right|thumb|300px|Comet Lovejoy survives it sun-grazing cruise around the Sun and back into space (Dec. 15-16, 2011). Credit: https://www.youtube.com/user/SDOmission2009. {{tlx|free media}}]] "Sun-grazing comets almost never re-emerge, but their sublimative destruction near the sun has only recently been observed directly, while chromospheric impacts have not yet been seen, nor impact theory developed."<ref name=Brown>{{ cite journal |author=J.C. Brown, H.E. Potts, L.J. Porter, & G.le Chat |title=Mass Loss, Destruction and Detection of Sun-grazing & -impacting Cometary Nuclei |journal=Astronomy & Astrophysics |date=November 8, 2011 |volume=535 |issue= |pages=12 |url=http://arxiv.org/pdf/1107.1857.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201015660 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-11-25 }}</ref> "[N]uclei are ... destroyed by ablation or explosion ... in the chromosphere, producing flare-like events with cometary abundance spectra."<ref name=Brown/> "The death of a comet at r ~ ''R''<sub>ʘ</sub> has been seen directly only very recently (Schrijver et al 2011) using the SDO AIA XUV instrument. This recorded sublimative destruction of Comet C/2011 N3 as it crossed the solar disk very near periheloin ''q'' = 1.139''R''<sub>ʘ</sub>."<ref name=Brown/> "The phenomenon of flare induced sunquakes - waves in the photosphere - discovered by Kosovichev and Zharkova (1998) and now widely studied (e.g. Kosovichev 2006) should also result from the momentum impulse delivered by a cometary impact."<ref name=Brown/> {{clear}} ==Leonid meteor showers== [[Image:Leonid Meteor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The photograph shows the meteor, afterglow, and wake as distinct components of a meteor during the peak of the 2009 Leonid Meteor Shower. Credit: [[c:User:Navicore|Navicore]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Leonid meteor shower as seen from space (1997).jpg|thumb|left|250px|This photograph shows the Leonids as many begin contacting the Earth's atmosphere. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] "The Leonid meteor shower peaked early Saturday (Nov. 17 [2012]), and some night sky watchers caught a great view. The Leonids are a yearly meteor display of shooting stars that appear to radiate out of the constellation Leo. They are created when Earth crosses the path of debris from the comet Tempel-Tuttle, which swings through the inner solar system every 33 years."<ref name=Moskowitz>{{ cite book |author=Clara Moskowitz |title=Amazing Leonid Meteor Shower Photos Captured By Stargazers |publisher=SPACE.com |location= |date=November 17, 2012 |url=http://news.yahoo.com/amazing-leonid-meteor-shower-photos-captured-stargazers-163450853.html |accessdate=2012-11-18 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Orionid meteor showers== [[Image:Halley's Comet - May 29 1910.jpg|thumb|left|250px|An image of Halley's Comet was taken on May 29, 1910. Credit: Edward Emerson Barnard at Yerkes Observatory, in Williams Bay, Wisconsin.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Orionid meteor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A green and red Orionid meteor is shown. Credit: [https://sites.google.com/site/thebrockeninglory/ Brocken Inaglory].{{tlx|free media}}]] "The Orionid meteor shower [leftover bits of Halley's Comet] is scheduled to reach its maximum before sunrise on Sunday morning (Oct. 21 [2012]). This will be an excellent year to look for the Orionids, since the [[moon]] will set around 11 p.m. local time on Saturday night (Oct. 20) and will not be a hindrance at all ... The orbit of Halley's Comet closely approaches the Earth's orbit at two places. One point is in the early part of May producing a meteor display known as the Eta Aquarids. The other point comes in the middle to latter part of October, producing the Orionids."<ref name=Rao>{{ cite book |author=Joe Rao |title=Orionid Meteor Shower Spawned by Halley's Comet Peaks This Weekend |publisher=SPACE.com |location= |date=October 19, 2012 |url=http://news.yahoo.com/orionid-meteor-shower-spawned-halleys-comet-peaks-weekend-160214151.html |accessdate=2012-10-19 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Perseid meteor showers== [[Image:Perseid Meteor Shower (201508130002HQ).jpg|thumb|right|250px|In this 20 second exposure, a meteor streaks across the sky during the annual Perseid meteor shower Thursday, Aug. 13, 2015, in Spruce Knob, West Virginia. Credit: NASA/Bill Ingalls.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Perseid meteor shower, usually the richest meteor shower of the year, peaks in August. Over the course of an hour, a person watching a clear sky from a dark location might see as many as 50-100 meteors. Most meteors are actually pieces of rock that have broken off a comet and continue to orbit the Sun. The Earth travels through the comet debris in its orbit. As the small pieces enter the Earth's atmosphere, friction causes them to burn up. {{clear}} ==Quadrantids== [[Image:QUADRANTID meteor on January 3 2009.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Quadrantid meteor is bright enough to be seen at twilight. Credit: [https://sites.google.com/site/thebrockeninglory/ Brocken Inaglory].{{tlx|free media}}]] The Quadrantids ('''QUA''') are a January meteor shower, with the zenithal hourly rate (ZHR) of this shower as high as that of two other reliably rich meteor showers, the Perseids in August and the Geminids in December.<ref name="amsmeteors.org">{{ cite web |url=http://www.amsmeteors.org/meteor-showers/meteor-faq/#7 |title=Does the published meteor rate for a shower really represent what I should expect to see? |publisher=American Meteor Society |accessdate=2012-12-29 }}</ref> The meteor rates exceed one-half of their highest value for only about eight hours (compared to two days for the August Perseids), which means that the stream of particles that produces this shower is narrow, and apparently deriving within the last 500 years from some orbiting body.<ref name="space.com">{{ cite web |url=http://www.space.com/spacewatch/081219-ns-meteor-shower.html |title=Stellar Meteor Shower Jan. 3 |publisher=Space.com |accessdate=2009-01-03 }}</ref> The parent body of the Quadrantids was tentatively identified in 2003<ref name="sjaa">{{ cite web |date=Dec 8, 2003 |title=2003 EH1 is the Quadrantid shower parent comet |publisher=The Ephemeris (San Jose Astronomical Association newsletter) |author=Peter Jenniskens |url=http://ephemeris.sjaa.net/0401/e.html |accessdate=2004-12-17}}</ref> as the minor planet (196256) 2003 EH1, which in turn may be related to the comet C/1490 Y1<ref name=Jenniskens2004>{{ cite journal |last=Jenniskens |first=Peter |title=2003 EH1 Is the Quadrantid Shower Parent Comet |journal=The Astronomical Journal |volume=127 |issue=5 |pages=3018–3022 |date=2004 |doi=10.1086/383213 |bibcode=2004AJ....127.3018J}}</ref> that was observed by Chinese, Japanese and Korean astronomers some 500 years ago. {{clear}} ==Asteroids== {{main|Radiation astronomy/Asteroids}} '''Def.''' a "naturally occurring solid object, [which is] smaller than a planet<ref name=AsteroidWikt>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]] |title=asteroid |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=18 August 2005 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/asteroid |accessdate=31 August 2015 }}</ref> and is not a comet,<ref name=AsteroidWikt2>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:Kwamikagami|Kwamikagami]] |title=asteroid |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=19 January 2012 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/asteroid |accessdate=31 August 2015 }}</ref> that orbits a star"<ref name=AsteroidWikt1>{{ cite web |author=[[wikt:User:41.240.160.214|41.240.160.214]] |title=asteroid |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=19 March 2008 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/asteroid |accessdate=31 August 2015 }}</ref> is called an '''asteroid'''. '''Usage notes''' "The term "asteroid" has never been precisely defined. It was coined for objects which looked like stars in a telescope but moved like planets. These were known from the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter, and were later found co-orbiting with Jupiter (Trojan asteroids) and within the orbit of Mars. They were naturally distinguished from comets, which did not look at all starlike. Starting in the 1970s, small non-cometary bodies were found outside the orbit of Jupiter, and usage became divided as to whether to call these "asteroids" as well. Some astronomers restrict the term "asteroid" to rocky or rocky-icy bodies with orbits up to Jupiter. They may retain the term planetoid for all small bodies, and thus tend to use it for icy or rocky-icy bodies beyond Jupiter, or may use dedicated words such as centaurs, Kuiper belt objects, transneptunian objects, etc. for the latter. Other astronomers use "asteroid" for all non-cometary bodies smaller than a planet, even large ones such as Sedna and (occasionally) Pluto. However, the distinction between asteroid and comet is an artificial one; many outer "asteroids" would become comets if they ventured nearer the Sun. The official terminology since 2006 has been small Solar System body for any body that orbits the Sun directly and whose shape is not dominated by gravity."<ref name=AsteroidWikt/> ==D asteroids== [[Image:Hidalgoanimation2003.gif|thumb|right|250px|Animation of 944 Hidalgo's movement over 5 minutes in 2003 was taken by the Very Large Telescope. Credit: European Southern Observatory/W. J. Merline.{{tlx|free media}}]] "Two comets observed at low activity (visible nuclei) also have properties more consistent with D asteroids than any other class (very low reported geometric albedos of 0.02 and red colors)."<ref name=Hartmann>{{ cite journal |author=William K. Hartmann |author2=David J. Tholen |author3=Dale P. Cruikshank |title=The relationship of active comets, “extinct” comets, and dark asteroids |journal=Icarus |month=January |year=1987 |volume=69 |issue=1 |pages=33-50 |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0019103587900054 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2016-10-10 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Y asteroids== [[Image:YarkovskyEffect.svg|thumb|right|300px|Yarkovsky effect:<br />1. Radiation from asteroid's surface <br />2. Prograde rotating asteroid <br />2.1 Location with "Afternoon" <br />3. Asteroid's orbit <br />4. Radiation from Sun. Credit: [[w:user:Graevemoore|Graevemoore]].{{tlx|free media}}]] The possible importance of the Yarkovsky effect is the movement of meteoroids about the [[Solar System]].<ref>{{cite journal |first=E. J. |last=Öpik |title=Collision probabilities with the planets and the distribution of interplanetary matter |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy |volume=54A |issue= |pages=165–199 |year=1951 |jstor=20488532 }}</ref> The diurnal effect is the dominant component for bodies with diameter greater than about 100 m.<ref name=Bottke06review>{{cite journal |last=Bottke, Jr. |first=William F., ''et al.'' |title=The Yarkovsky and YORP Effects: Implications for Asteroid Dynamics |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |volume=34 |pages=157–191 |year=2006 |doi=10.1146/annurev.earth.34.031405.125154 |bibcode = 2006AREPS..34..157B }}</ref> On very long timescales over which the spin axis of the body may be repeatedly changed due to collisions (and hence also the direction of the diurnal effect changes), the seasonal effect will also tend to dominate.<ref name=Bottke06review /> The effect was first measured in 1991–2003 on the asteroid 6489 Golevka which drifted 15&nbsp;km from its predicted position over twelve years (the orbit was established with great precision by a series of radar observations in 1991, 1995 and 1999 from the Arecibo Observatory radio telescope).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Chesley |first=Steven R. |title=Direct Detection of the Yarkovsky Effect via Radar Ranging to Asteroid 6489 Golevka |journal=Science |volume=302 |issue=5651 |pages=1739–1742 |year=2003 |doi=10.1126/science.1091452 |bibcode = 2003Sci...302.1739C }}</ref> The "population of asteroids in comet-like orbits using available asteroid size and albedo catalogs of data taken with the ''Infrared Astronomical Satellite'' [I], ''AKARI'' [A], and the ''Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer'' [W] on the basis of their orbital properties (i.e., the Tisserand parameter with respect to Jupiter, T<sub>J</sub>, and the aphelion distance, Q, [is] 123 asteroids in comet-like orbits [with] Q < 4.5 AU and T<sub>J</sub> < 3, [including] a considerable number (i.e., 25 by our criteria) of asteroids in comet-like orbits have high albedo, pv > 0.1. [As] such high-albedo objects mostly consist of small (D < 3 km) bodies distributed in near-Earth space (with perihelion distance of q < 1.3 AU) [may be] susceptible to the Yarkovsky effect and drifted into comet-like orbits via chaotic resonances with planets."<ref name=Kim>{{ cite journal |author=Yoonyoung Kim |author2=Masateru Ishiguro |author3=Fumihiko Usui |title=Physical properties of asteroids in comet-like orbits in infrared asteroid survey catalogs |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=24 June 2014 |volume=789 |issue=2 |pages=151 |url=https://arxiv.org/pdf/1405.2989.pdf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi=10.1088/0004-637X/789/2/151 |pmid= |accessdate=22 June 2019 }}</ref> "There are 138,285 asteroids whose albedos and sizes are given in the I–A–W catalog. [...] nearly all high-albedo [asteroids in comet-like orbits] ACOs consist of small asteroids at q < 1.3 AU. This trend cannot be explained by the observational bias. Because the result is obtained based on the mid-infrared data, which, unlike optical observations, are less sensitive to albedo values, it provides reliable sets of asteroid albedo information. If there are big ACOs with high albedo beyond q = 1.3 AU, they would be detected easily. Although further dynamical study is essential to evaluate the population quantitatively, we propose that such ACOs with high albedos were injected from the domain of T<sub>J</sub> > 3 via the Yarkovsky effect, because small objects with higher surface temperature are susceptible to the thermal drag force and gradually change their orbital elements to be observed as ACOs in our list."<ref name=Kim/> "Although there are uncertainties in the dynamical simulation such as the value of the Yarkovsky force and the rocket force (for active comets), we conservatively consider that these three objects (2000 SU236, 2008 UM7, and 2009 SC298) are ACOs and PDCs. ["potential dormant comet" (PDC) is one having a low albedo (pv < 0.1) among ACOs. The second term is a paronomasia associating the spectra of potential dormant comets with spectra similar to P-type, D-type, or C-type asteroids (Licandro et al. 2008; DeMeo & Binzel 2008).]"<ref name=Kim/> "Let us consider how the Yarkovsky effect moves an asteroid into a comet-like orbit. As shown [...], high-albedo ACOs concentrate in a range of 2 < a < 3.5 AU, similar to main-belt asteroids and [Jupiter-family comets] JFCs. The Tisserand parameter is a function of a, e, and i, [the semimajor axis, eccentricity, and inclination, respectively] while the Yarkovsky effect changes a. Due to the similarity in a between high-albedo ACOs and main-belt asteroids, we conjecture that subsequent dynamical effects may change e and i. Widely known as a standard model for orbital evolution of near-Earth asteroids, the Yarkovsky effect could move small main-belt asteroids' orbits until they are close to resonances with planets, and subsequently, these resonances can push them into terrestrial planet crossing orbits (see, e.g., Morbidelli et al. 2002). Numerical simulations demonstrated that chaotic resonances cause a significant increase in the e and i of test particles in the resonance regions (Gladman et al. 1997). Bottke et al. (2002) suggested that some objects on T<sub>J</sub> < 3 (or even T<sub>J</sub> < 2) can result from chaotic resonances. [...] Although there are a couple of ACOs close to resonances, their semimajor axes are not related to these major resonances. Therefore, it may be reasonable to think that encounters with terrestrial planets as well as chaotic resonances with massive planets can drift main-belt asteroids into comet-like orbits."<ref name=Kim/> "In particular, we stress again the significance of high-albedo ACOs. As we discussed through our ground-based observation with the Subaru Telescope, high-albedo ACOs, which may have composition similar to silicaceous asteroids, definitively exist in the I–A–W database. Considering the very low T<sub>J</sub> as well as the small size and perihelion distance, we suggest that such high-albedo ACOs have been injected via nongravitational forces, most likely the Yarkovsky effect."<ref name=Kim/> {{clear}} ==Interplanetary medium== {{main|Interplanetary medium}} [[Image:Halley's Comet, 1910.JPG|thumb|right|180px|This is a photograph taken in 1910 during the passage of Halley's comet. Credit: The Yerkes Observatory.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''Def.''' that part of outer space between the planets of a solar system and its star is called '''interplanetary space'''. '''Def.''' the material which fills the [[w:Solar system|solar system]] and through which all the larger solar system bodies such as planets, asteroids and comets move is called an '''interplanetary medium'''. "It is found that near 1 AU, the dominant group of the local geometrical cross section changes."<ref name=Ishimoto>{{ cite journal |author=Hiroshi Ishimoto |title=Collisional evolution and the resulting mass distribution of interplanetary dust |journal=Earth, Planets, and Space |month=June |year=1998 |volume=50 |issue=6 |pages=521-9 |url=http://www.terrapub.co.jp/journals/EPS/pdf/5006_07/50060521.pdf |bibcode=1998EP%26S...50..521I |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2011-10-06 }}</ref> Approximately 80 % of interplanetary dust is cometary at R ~ 0.8 AU. {{clear}} ==Comets== [[Image:McNaught Comet.jpg|thumb|right|250px|McNaught Comet is captured in visual color with a Canon 350D...EF50...F2...25 sec. Credit: [[w:User:Davewhite7|Davewhite7]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:CometWestESO.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Visual photograph of Comet West in early March 1976 shows red gases coming off the comet's head and multicolor dust tail. Credit: Peter Stättmayer (Munich Public Observatory) and ESO.{{tlx|free media}}]] A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04.<ref name=Britt/> At left is an image of Comet West. "Comet West was a stunning sight in the predawn sky of March, 1976, bright with a tall and broad dust tail. ... [T]he comet [was] discovered on photographs taken in August 1975 by Richard West of the European Southern Observatory ... Comet West passed perihelion on February 25, 1976, at a distance of 0.20 a.u. [and] had reached about magnitude -3 at perihelion. Several observers saw it telescopically in daylight, and John Bortle observed it with the naked eye shortly before sunset. ... The following morning, March 7, ... It was brilliant, with a head as bright as Vega (which was nearly overhead) and a huge tail, about 20 degrees tall, straight near the bottom and bending to the left in its upper reaches. The comet quickly faded during March".<ref name=Hoffman>{{ cite book |author=Tony Hoffman |title=Comet West: The Great Comet of 1976 |publisher=Earthlink |location= |date= |url=http://home.earthlink.net/~tonyhoffman/cometwest.htm |accessdate=2013-05-02 }}</ref> Although many comets are photographed in black and white, not that many are actually only white but have colors. The image at right of McNaught Comet shows white and other colors, as does Comet West at left. {{clear}} ==Comet Bennett 1970 II== [[Image:Comet Bennett.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Photograph of comet Bennett on April 4.02, 1970, by K. Lubeck from Hamburg Observatory, 2 minute exposure. Credit: Burlaga, L. F.; Rahe, J.; Donn, B. D.; Neugebauer, M.{{tlx|free media}}]] The velocities of the cyan molecule as produced in the head of comet Bennett 1970 II have been measured.<ref name=Matveev>{{ cite journal |author=I. N. Matveev |title=Determination of velocities of cyan molecule production in the head of comet Bennett 1970 II |journal=Kometnyj Tsirkulyar |date= 1982 |volume= |issue=286 |pages= |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1982KomTs.286.....M |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-03-23 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Comet Borrelly== [[Image:PIA03501.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image reveals dust being ejected from the nucleus of comet Borrelly. Credit: NASA/JPL.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Comet borrelly.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Comet Borrelly is imaged by Deep Space 1 revealing no surface ice. Credit: NASA/JPL.{{tlx|free media}}]] "A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04.<ref name=Britt>{{ cite book |date=29 November 2001 |title=Comet Borrelly Puzzle: Darkest Object in the Solar System |publisher=Space.com |author=Robert Roy Britt |url=http://web.archive.org/web/20090122074028/http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/solarsystem/borrelly_dark_011129.html |accessdate=1 September 2012 }}</ref> "This image, taken by Deep Space 1 on September 22, 2001, has been enhanced to reveal dust being ejected from the nucleus of comet Borrelly. As a result, the nucleus, which is about eight kilometers (about five miles) long, is bright white in the image. The main dust jet is directed towards the bottom left of the frame, around 35 degrees away from the comet-Sun line. The jet emerges as actually comprised of at least three smaller features. This active region as a whole is at least three kilometers (less than two miles) long."<ref name=Lavoie>{{ cite book |author=Sue Lavoie |title=PIA03501: Several Jets and a Crater on Comet Borrelly |publisher=NASA/JPL |location=Pasadena, California USA |date=22 September 2001 |url=http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA03501 |accessdate=7 October 2016 }}</ref> "Another, smaller, jet feature is seen on the tip of the nucleus on the lower right-hand limb. Dust also seems to be ejected from there into the night-side hemisphere, probably from the dayside hemisphere. The expansion of the gas and dust mixture into the vacuum of space has swept some material around the body of the nucleus so that it appears above the night-side hemisphere. The night-side of the nucleus could not be seen, of course."<ref name=Lavoie/> "The line between day and night on the comet is towards the upper right. This representation shows a faint ring of brightness separated from the terminator by a dark, unlit area. It is possible that this is a crater rim, seen in grazing illumination, which is just about to cross into darkness as the comet rotates. The direction to the Sun is directly downwards."<ref name=Lavoie/> On the left is a close-up picture of comet Borelly. The right portion is a topographic relief map of the cometary nucleus. "Comets are sometimes described as "dirty snowballs," but a close flyby of one by NASA's Deep Space 1 spacecraft last fall detected no frozen water on its surface."<ref name=Heil>{{ cite book |author=Martha Heil |title=NASA Spacecraft Finds Comet Has Hot, Dry Surface |publisher=NASA/JPL |location=Pasadena, California USA |date=22 September 2001 |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/releases/2002/release_2002_80.html |accessdate=7 October 2016 }}</ref> "The spectrum suggests that the surface is hot and dry. It is surprising that we saw no traces of water ice."<ref name=Soderblom>{{ cite book |author=Laurence Soderblom |title=NASA Spacecraft Finds Comet Has Hot, Dry Surface |publisher=NASA/JPL |location=Pasadena, California USA |date=22 September 2001 |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/releases/2002/release_2002_80.html |accessdate=7 October 2016 }}</ref> "We know the ice is there. It's just well-hidden. Either the surface has been dried out by solar heating and maturation or perhaps the very dark soot-like material that covers Borrelly's surface masks any trace of surface ice."<ref name=Soderblom/> "The Deep Space 1 science team released pictures and other initial findings days after the spacecraft flew within 2,171 kilometers (1,349 miles) of the comet's solid nucleus on September 22, 2001."<ref name=Heil/> "Comet Borrelly is in the inner solar system right now, and it's hot, between 26 and 71 degrees Celsius (80 and 161 degrees Fahrenheit), so any water ice on the surface would change quickly to a gas. As the components evaporate, they leave behind a crust, like the crust left behind by dirty snow."<ref name=Buratti>{{ cite book |author=Bonnie Buratti |title=NASA Spacecraft Finds Comet Has Hot, Dry Surface |publisher=NASA/JPL |location=Pasadena, California USA |date=22 September 2001 |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/releases/2002/release_2002_80.html |accessdate=7 October 2016 }}</ref> "It seems to be covered in this dark material, which has been loosely connected with biological material. This suggests that comets might be a transport mechanism for bringing the building blocks of life to Earth."<ref name=Buratti/> "It's remarkable how much information Deep Space 1 was able to gather at the comet, particularly given that this was a bonus assignment for the probe."<ref name=Rayman>{{ cite book |author=Marc Rayman |title=NASA Spacecraft Finds Comet Has Hot, Dry Surface |publisher=NASA/JPL |location=Pasadena, California USA |date=22 September 2001 |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/releases/2002/release_2002_80.html |accessdate=7 October 2016 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko== [[Image:Comet 67P-C-G.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This is an image of the nucleus of Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko by Rosetta. Credit: ESA Rosetta Mission.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Comet 67P on 19 September 2014 NavCam mosaic.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Images taken by the ''Rosetta'' navigation camera (NAVCAM) on 19 September 2014 at 28.6 km (17.8 mi) from the centre of comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko. Credit: ESA/Rosetta/NAVCAM.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Comet 67P C-G on 6 Mar 2015 NavCam.jpg|left|thumb|250px|Single frame Rosetta spacecrast NAVCAM image of Comet 67P/C-G was taken on 6 March from a distance of 82.9 km to the comet. Credit: ESA/Rosetta/NAVCAM.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Comet 67P on 24 October - NAVCAM (15464989957).jpg|right|thumb|250px|Four-image montage comprises images taken by Rosetta's navigation camera from a distance of 9.8 km from the centre of comet 67P/C-G – about 7.8 km from the surface. Credit: ESA/Rosetta/NAVCAM.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Comet 67P on 26 October - NAVCAM (15038644724).jpg|right|thumb|250px|Image is taken by Rosetta's navigation camera from a distance of 9.8 km from the centre of comet 67P/C-G Credit: ESA/Rosetta/NAVCAM.{{tlx|free media}}]] "The short period comets have orbital periods <20 years and low inclination. Their orbits are controlled by Jupiter and thus they are also called Jupiter Family comets. [...] Because the orbit crosses that of Jupiter, the comet will have gravitational interactions with this massive planet. The objects orbit will gradually change from these interactions and eventually the object will either be thrown out of the Solar System or collide with a planet or the Sun."<ref name=sheppard>{{ cite book |author=jf |title=The Jupiter Family Comets |publisher=Carnegie Institution of Washington |location=Washington, DC |date= |editor= |pages=1 |url=http://home.dtm.ciw.edu/users/sheppard/satellites/jf.html |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=5 February 2018 }}</ref> Perihleion distance in AU = 1.243, eccentricity = 0.641, inclination = 7.0, and orbital period in years = 2.745.<ref name=fernandez>{{ cite book |author=yfernandez |title=List of Jupiter-Family and Halley-Family Comets |publisher=University of Central Florida |location=Orlando, FL |date=28 July 2015 |editor= |pages=1 |url=https://physics.ucf.edu/~yfernandez/cometlist.html#jf |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |isbn= |accessdate=5 February 2018 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Comet Halley== [[Image:1986HalleysComet1SM.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Unguided photograph of Halleys Comet in 1986 using a Mamiya-Seckor 500 SLR camera and Tri-X film with a 10-minute exposure to show star trails. Credit: [[c:user:Vega1952|Vega1952]].{{tlx|free media}}]] “During the Halley Monitoring Program at La Silla from Feb.17 to Apr.17,1986 ... In the light of the neutral CN-radical a continuous formation and expansion of [cyan] gas-shells could be observed.”<ref name=Schlosser/> “The gas-expansion velocity decreases with increasing heliocentric distance from 1 km/s in early March to 0.8 km/s in April.”<ref name=Schlosser/> The 1910 approach, which came into naked-eye view around 10 April<ref name=Yeomans>{{ cite book |title=Great Comets in History |author=D. K. Yeomans |publisher=Jet Propulsion Laboratory |url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?great_comets |year=1998 |accessdate=15 March 2007 }}</ref> and came to perihelion on 20 April,<ref name=Yeomans/> was notable for several reasons: it was the first approach of which photographs exist, and the first for which [[w:spectroscopic|spectroscopic]] data were obtained.<ref name=Mendis>{{ cite journal |title=A Postencounter view of comets |author=D. A. Mendis |journal=Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=11–49 |year=1988 |bibcode=1988ARA&A..26...11M |doi=10.1146/annurev.aa.26.090188.000303 }}</ref> Furthermore, the '''comet''' made a relatively close approach of 0.15AU,<ref name=Yeomans/> making it a spectacular sight. Indeed, on 19 May, the Earth actually passed through the tail of the comet.<ref name=Ridpath>{{ cite book |year=1985 |title=Through the comet’s tail |publisher=Revised extracts from A Comet Called Halley by Ian Ridpath, published by Cambridge University Press in 1985 |author=Ian Ridpath |url=http://www.ianridpath.com/halley/halley12.htm |accessdate=2011-06-19 }}</ref><ref name=Nunnally>{{ cite book |date=May 16, 2011 |title=This Week in Science History: Halley’s Comet |publisher=pfizer: ThinkScience Now |author=Brian Nunnally |url=http://science.pfizer.com/content/this-week-in-science-history-halleys-comet/ |accessdate=2011-06-19 }}</ref> One of the substances discovered in the tail by spectroscopic analysis was the toxic gas [[w:cyanogen|cyanogen]],<ref name=NYCTimes>{{ cite book |title=Yerkes Observatory Finds Cyanogen in Spectrum of Halley's Comet, n: ''The New York Times'' |url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9407E4DF1430E233A2575BC0A9649C946196D6CF&legacy=true |date=8 February 1910 |accessdate=15 November 2009 }}</ref> which led astronomer [[w:Camille Flammarion|Camille Flammarion]] to claim that, when Earth passed through the tail, the gas "would impregnate the atmosphere and possibly snuff out all life on the planet."<ref name=Smith/> His pronouncement led to panicked buying of gas masks and quack "anti-comet pills" and "anti-comet umbrellas" by the public.<ref>{{ cite book |title=Interesting Facts About Comets |publisher=Universe Today |year=2009 |url=http://www.universetoday.com/tag/comet-nucleus/ |accessdate=15 January 2009 }}</ref> In reality, as other astronomers were quick to point out, the gas is so diffuse that the world suffered no ill effects from the passage through the tail.<ref name=Smith>{{ cite journal |title=Ten Notable Apocalypses That (Obviously) Didn't Happen |url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/Ten-Notable-Apocalypses-That-Obviously-Didnt-Happen.html |journal=Smithsonian magazine 2009 |accessdate=14 November 2009 }}</ref> "It is quite possible that [faint streamers preceding the main tail and lying nearly in the prolonged radius vector] may have touched the Earth, probably between May 19.0 and May 19.5, [1910,] but the Earth must have passed considerably to the south of the main portion of the tail [of Halley's comet]."<ref name=Curtis>{{ cite journal |author=Heber D. Curtis |title=Photographs of Halley's Comet made at the Lick Observatory |journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific |date=June 1910 |volume=22 |issue=132 |pages=117-30 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1910PASP...22..117C |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2011-11-02 }}</ref> A [[magnetohydrodynamics]] (MHD) and chemical comet-coma model is applied to describe and analyze the plasma flow, magnetic field, and ion abundances in [[w:Comet Halley|Comet Halley]].<ref name=Wegmann/> A comparison of model results is made with the data from the [[w:Giotto (spacecraft)|Giotto]] mission.<ref name=Wegmann>{{ cite journal |author=R. Wegmann |author2=H.U. Schmidt |author3=W.F. Huebner |author4=D.C. Boice |title=Cometary MHD and chemistry |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |month=November |year=1987 |volume=187 |issue=1-2 |pages=339-50 |url= |bibcode=1987A&A...187..339W |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2011-08-07 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==103P/Hartley (Hartley 2)== [[Image:NASAHartley2Comet.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Comet Hartley 2 is taken by NASA on November 4, 2010, by Deep Impact spacecraft Credit: JPL/NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] In November 2007 the JPL team targeted ''Deep Impact'' toward Comet 103P/Hartley (Hartley 2); however, this would require an extra two years of travel for ''Deep Impact'' (including earth gravity assists in December 2007 and December 2008).<ref name="EPOXIMissionStatus">{{ cite web |title=Mission Status Reports |publisher=NASA |accessdate=May 11, 2009 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101115215854/http://epoxi.umd.edu/1mission/status.shtml }}</ref> On May 28, 2010, a burn of 11.3 seconds was conducted, to enable the June 27 Earth fly-by to be optimized for the transit to Hartley 2 and fly-by on November 4. The velocity change was {{Convert|0.1|m/s|ft/s|sp=us|abbr=on}}.<ref>[http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/epoxi/epoxi20100528.html NASA Spacecraft Burns For Home, Then Comet], media release 2010-185, NASA, May 28, 2010, accessed June 1, 2010</ref> On November 4, 2010, the ''Deep Impact'' extended mission (EPOXI) returned images from comet Hartley 2.<ref name="AOLhartley"/> EPOXI came within {{convert|700|km|sp=us}} of the comet, returning detailed photographs of the "peanut" shaped cometary nucleus and several bright jets. The probe's medium-resolution instrument captured the photographs.<ref name="AOLhartley">{{ cite web |url=http://www.aolnews.com/science/article/deep-impact-nasa-ship-begins-photographing-mysterious-comet/19702972?icid=main%7Chtmlws-main-n%7Cdl1%7Csec1_lnk1%7C182333 |title=AOL News: ''NASA Spaceship Captures Images of a Bizarre Comet'' |date=November 4, 2010 |author=Traci Watson, Contributing Editor }}</ref> {{clear}} ==17P/Holmes== [[Image:17P Holmes 2007 11 29 detail.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The image shows [[C:Category:17P/Holmes|Comet 17P/Holmes]]. Credit: [[c:user:Johnpane|Johnpane]].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:17pHolmes 071104 eder vga.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Comet Holmes (17P/Holmes) in 2007 shows a blue ion tail on the right. Credit: [http://eder.csillagaszat.hu/en.htm Ivan Eder].{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Infrared Structure of Comet Holmes.jpg|thumb|right|250px|These images are of comet Holmes. The contrast has been enhanced for the right image to show anatomy. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/W. Reach (SSC-Caltech).{{tlx|free media}}]] In the second image pair, "NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope captured the picture on the left of comet Holmes in March 2008, five months after the comet suddenly erupted and brightened a millionfold overnight. The contrast of the picture has been enhanced on the right to show the anatomy of the comet."<ref name=Reach/> "Every six years, comet 17P/Holmes speeds away from Jupiter and heads inward toward the sun, traveling the same route typically without incident. However, twice in the last 116 years, in November 1892 and October 2007, comet Holmes mysteriously exploded as it approached the asteroid belt. Astronomers still do not know the cause of these eruptions."<ref name=Reach/> "Spitzer's infrared picture at left reveals fine dust particles that make up the outer shell, or coma, of the comet. The nucleus of the comet is within the bright whitish spot in the center, while the yellow area shows solid particles that were blown from the comet in the explosion. The comet is headed away from the sun, which lies beyond the right-hand side of the picture."<ref name=Reach/> "The contrast-enhanced picture on the right shows the comet's outer shell, and strange filaments, or streamers, of dust. The streamers and shell are a yet another mystery surrounding comet Holmes. Scientists had initially suspected that the streamers were small dust particles ejected from fragments of the nucleus, or from hyperactive jets on the nucleus, during the October 2007 explosion. If so, both the streamers and the shell should have shifted their orientation as the comet followed its orbit around the sun. Radiation pressure from the sun should have swept the material back and away from it. But pictures of comet Holmes taken by Spitzer over time show the streamers and shell in the same configuration, and not pointing away from the sun. The observations have left astronomers stumped."<ref name=Reach/> "The horizontal line seen in the contrast-enhanced picture is a trail of debris that travels along with the comet in its orbit."<ref name=Reach/> "The Spitzer picture was taken with the spacecraft's multiband imaging photometer at an infrared wavelength of 24 microns."<ref name=Reach/> {{clear}} ==Comet C/2018 Y1 Iwamoto== [[Image:Iwamoto 2018Y1feb11UT23.43sec34x30gif2.gif|right|thumb|300px|This is an animation of photographs of C/2018 Y1 Iwamoto with the RASA 8" - Rowe-Ackermann Schmidt Astrograph. Credit: Michael Jäger.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "A beautiful Valentine's Day comet [sped] past Earth [last night]. Known as the Valentine's Day comet C/2018Y1 Iwamoto, it's the first binocular comet of 2019, which means its green glow will be visible to the human eye through a pair of binoculars."<ref name=Walden>{{ cite book |author=Lisa Walden |title=A bright green Valentine's Day comet will speed past Earth tonight |publisher=Yahoo! News |location= |date=February 14, 2019 |url=https://news.yahoo.com/bright-green-valentine-apos-day-105400584.html?.tsrc=daily_mail&uh_test=1_07 |accessdate=15 February 2019 }}</ref> "Travelling at roughly 238,000 kilometres per hour (or 148,000 miles per hour), the comet has just passed the sun and will be heading closer to Earth throughout Thursday 14th February."<ref name=Walden/> "It will be visible throughout the day but the best views will occur after dark. You can track exactly where the comet is in the sky using this [https://in-the-sky.org/findercharts.php?startday=14&startmonth=2&startyear=2019&duration=3&objtype=0&objtxt=&objs=136811 online tool]."<ref name=Walden/> "This particular bright green comet was only discovered recently by astronomer Masayuki Iwamoto".<ref name=Walden/> {{clear}} ==Comet Kohoutek 1973 XII== [[Image:Comet Kohoutek (S74-17688).jpg|thumb|right|250px|A color image of Comet Kohoutek, with its tail pointed towards the bottom right with the coma at top left on 11 January 1974 is seen from Catalina Observatory. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] The neutral cyan coma of comet Kohoutek 1973 XII is measured.<ref name=Amirkhanov>{{ cite journal |author=RS Amirkhanov |author2=KI Churyumov |author3=Gorodetsij |title=Physical parameters of the neutral cyan coma of comet Kohoutek, 1973 XII. |journal=Kometnyj Tsirkulyar |date= 1978 |volume= |issue=220 |pages= |url= |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Comet Lovejoy== [[Image:Iss030e015472 Edit.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Comet Lovejoy has a blue ion tail leading away off to the left. Credit: NASA/Dan Burbank.{{tlx|free media}}]] [[Image:Lovejoy C-2011 W3 imaged by STEREO-A EUVI.gif|thumb|right|250px|Comet Lovejoy is detected in STEREO/SECCHI's EUVI-A imager's 17.1-nm wavelength. Credit: STEREO/SECCHI image courtesy NASA/NRL.{{tlx|free media}}]] At right is Comet Lovejoy as detected in STEREO/SECCHI's EUVI-A imager's 17.1-nm wavelength. "The comet is clearly visible racing away from the Sun, leaving a wiggly-tail in its wake! Why the wiggles? We're not sure -- we need to start studying that when we get all of the spacecraft data from STEREO-B this weekend. However, we think there may some kind of helical motion going on, or perhaps there's a projection affect and we're seeing tail material magnetically "clinging" to coronal loops and moving with them. There are other possibilities too, though, and we will certainly investigate those! We should have equivalent images from the STEREO-A spacecraft which we will also get this weekend. When we pair these together, and throw in the SDO images too, we should be able to get an incredibly unique 3-D picture of how this comet is reacting the intense coronal heat and magnetic loops."<ref name=Battams>{{ cite book |author=Karl Battams |title=The Great "Birthday Comet" of 2011, Chapter 2: Survival |publisher=Naval Research Laboratory |location=Washington, DC, USA |date=2 December 2011 |url=http://sungrazer.nrl.navy.mil/index.php?p=news/birthday_comet |accessdate=2013-07-07 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Comet Lulin== [[Image:C2007N3Lulin2panel brimacombe.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Recent changes in Comet Lulin's greenish coma and tails are shown in these two panels taken on January 31st (top) and February 4th (bottom) 2009. In both views the comet has an apparent antitail to the left of the coma of dust. Credit: Joseph Brimacombe, Cairns, Australia.{{tlx|free media}}]] Shown at the right "Lulin's green color comes from the gases that make up its Jupiter-sized atmosphere. Jets spewing from the comet's nucleus contain cyanogen (CN: a poisonous gas found in many comets) and diatomic carbon (C<sub>2</sub>). Both substances glow green when illuminated by sunlight".<ref name=Phillips/> {{clear}} ==Comet McNaught== [[Image:Comet McNaught CRW 5337.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Comet McNaught is imaged on 21 January, 2007. Credit: cigumo.{{tlx|free media}}]] Comet McNaught, also known as the Great Comet of 2007 and given the designation C/2006 P1, is a non-periodic comet discovered on 7 August 2006 by British-Australian astronomer Robert H. McNaught using the Uppsala Southern Schmidt Telescope.<ref>{{cite web|title=Report on the comet discovery and progress from Robert McNaught's homepage|accessdate=17 January 2007|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070119092745/http://www.mso.anu.edu.au/~rmn/C2006P1.htm|archive-date=19 January 2007}}</ref> It was the brightest comet in over 40 years, and was easily visible to the naked eye for observers in the Southern Hemisphere in January and February 2007. {{clear}} ==Comet PanSTARRS C/2012 K1== [[Image:PanSTARRS C-2012 K1.png|thumb|right|250px|Sweeping slowly through northern skies, the comet PanSTARRS C/2012 K1 posed for this telescopic portrait on June 2nd in the constellation Ursa Major. Credit: Alessandro Falesiedi.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] On the right is a visual image of comet PanSTARRS C/2012 K1. "Now within the inner solar system, the icy body from the Oort cloud sports two tails, a lighter broad dust tail and crooked ion tail extending below and right. The comet's condensed greenish coma makes a nice contrast with the spiky yellowish background star above. NGC 3319 appears at the upper left of the frame that spans almost twice the apparent diameter of the full Moon."<ref name=Nemiroff>{{ cite book |author= Robert Nemiroff |author2=Jerry Bonnell |title=Comet PanSTARRS with Galaxy |publisher=NASA/GSFC |location=Greenbelt, Maryland USA |date=6 June 2014 |url=http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap140606.html |accessdate=2015-08-31 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Comet Schwassmann-Wachmann I (P/SW-1)== [[Image:Ssc2003-06j.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an infrared image of the periodic comet Schwassmann-Wachmann I (P/SW-1) in a nearly circular orbit just outside that of Jupiter. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/D. Cruikshank (NASA Ames) & J. Stansberry (University of Arizona.{{tlx|free media}}]] "NASA's new Spitzer Space Telescope has captured [the image right] of an unusual comet that experiences frequent outbursts, which produce abrupt changes in brightness. Periodic comet Schwassmann-Wachmann I (P/SW-1) has a nearly circular orbit just outside that of Jupiter, with an orbital period of 14.9 years. It is thought that the outbursts arise from the build-up of internal gas pressure as the heat of the Sun slowly evaporates frozen carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide beneath the blackened crust of the comet nucleus. When the internal pressure exceeds the strength of the overlying crust, a rupture occurs, and a burst of gas and dust fragments is ejected into space at speeds of 450 miles per hour (200 meters per second)."<ref name=Cruikshank/> "This 24-micron image of P/SW-1 was obtained with Spitzer's multiband imaging photometer. The image shows thermal infrared emission from the dusty coma and tail of the comet. The nucleus of the comet is about 18 miles (30 kilometers) in diameter and is too small to be resolved by Spitzer. The micron-sized dust grains in the coma and tail stream out away from the Sun. The dust and gas comprising the comet's nucleus is part of the same primordial materials from which the Sun and planets were formed billions of years ago. The complex carbon-rich molecules they contain may have provided some of the raw materials from which life originated on Earth."<ref name=Cruikshank/> "Schwassmann-Wachmann 1 is thought to be a member of a relatively new class of objects called "Centaurs," of which 45 objects are known. These are small icy bodies with orbits between those of Jupiter and Neptune. Astronomers believe that Centaurs are recent escapees from the Kuiper Belt, a zone of small bodies orbiting in a cloud at the distant reaches of the solar system."<ref name=Cruikshank/> {{clear}} ==Comet C/2013 A1 Siding Spring== [[Image:NASA-14090-Comet-C2013A1-SidingSpring-Hubble-20140311.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Comet C/2013 A1 is seen by NASA's Hubble Space Telescope. Credit: NASA, ESA, and J.-Y. Li (Planetary Science Institute).{{tlx|free media}}]] "A comet that flew close to Mars showered the red planet with fine cometary dust, according to observations by a trio of spacecraft."<ref name=Cooper>{{ cite book |author=Keith Cooper |title=Comet dust ionises Mars’ atmosphere |publisher=Astronomy Now |location=United Kingdom |date=10 November 2014 |url=http://astronomynow.com/2014/11/10/comet-dust-ionises-mars-atmosphere/ |accessdate=2015-05-18 }}</ref> "Comet C/2013 A1 Siding Spring passed within 139,500 kilometres of the red planet on 19 October, the closest a comet has ever been seen to come to a planet without actually colliding with it. To avoid being damaged by the comet dust, all spacecraft orbiting Mars moved to the far side of the planet for 20 minutes while the comet dust was at its most intense, but this did not prevent them from studying the effects it had on Mars’ atmosphere."<ref name=Cooper/> “They call this comet encounter a once-in-a-lifetime event, but it’s more like once in a million years.”<ref name=Schneider>{{ cite book |author=Nick Schneider |title=Comet dust ionises Mars’ atmosphere |publisher=Astronomy Now |location=United Kingdom |date=10 November 2014 |url=http://astronomynow.com/2014/11/10/comet-dust-ionises-mars-atmosphere/ |accessdate=2015-05-18 }}</ref> "The European Space Agency’s Mars Express spacecraft detected an increase in electrons in Mars’ upper atmosphere, partly ionising it. This was attributed to fine cometary dust penetrating the atmosphere, which led to a meteor storm of thousands of meteors per hour. The increase in electrons led to the creation of a temporary new layer of charged particles in the ionosphere, which runs from an altitude of 120 kilometres to several hundred kilometres above. This is the first time such an event has been seen, even on Earth the extra density of electrons was measured to be five to ten times higher than normal by NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter. Another NASA spacecraft, MAVEN, which also observed the new layer in the ionosphere, will monitor for any long-term events as it goes about its regular duties of studying Mars’ atmosphere."<ref name=Cooper/> "MAVEN’s Imaging Ultraviolet Spectrograph was able to ascertain the species of ions that flooded into the ionosphere from the comet, the first time a comet that has come direct from the distant Oort Cloud has been sampled in this way. It detected the signal of magnesium, iron and sodium ions following the meteor shower, a signal that dominated Mars’ ultraviolet spectrum for hours afterwards, taking two days to dissipate."<ref name=Cooper/> "The results show that dust from the comet, which has a nucleus two kilometres across, according to high resolution images from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, had a dramatic effect on Mars’ atmosphere."<ref name=Cooper/> “Observing the effects on Mars of the comet’s dust slamming into the upper atmosphere makes me very happy that we decided to put our spacecraft on the other side of Mars at the peak of the dust tail passage and out of harm’s way.”<ref name=Green>{{ cite book |author=Jim Green |title=Comet dust ionises Mars’ atmosphere |publisher=Astronomy Now |location=United Kingdom |date=10 November 2014 |url=http://astronomynow.com/2014/11/10/comet-dust-ionises-mars-atmosphere/ |accessdate=2015-05-18 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Comet Swan== [[Image:2006-10-26-comet-swan-large.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a real color composite image of Comet Swan. Credit: Ginger Mayfield.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] "Comet Swan recently made a swing through the inner solar and emerged in the evening sky. Astronomy enthusiast Ginger Mayfield recorded the blue-green color of the comet's nucleus and a tenuous tail in this composite created from multiple images taken on October 26 from Divide, Colorado."<ref name=SpaceArchive>{{ cite book |author=Space Archive |title=Comet Swan |publisher=SpaceArchive.com |location= |date=4 November 2006 |url=http://www.spacearchive.info/news-2006-archive.htm |accessdate=22 February 2014 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Comet West 1976 VI== [[Image:C-west-1976-ps.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Comet West reached peak brightness in March 1976. Credit: J. Linder/ESO.{{tlx|free media}}]] The physical parameters of the neutral cyan coma of comet West (1975n) have been measured.<ref name=Oshchepkov>{{ cite journal |author=V. A. Oshchepkov, N. M. Shiper |title=Physical parameters of the neutral cyan coma of comet West (1975n) |journal=Kometnyj Tsirkulyar |date= 1978 |volume= |issue=234 |pages= |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1978KomTs.234.....O |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-03-23 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Solar binary== {{main|Solar binary}} [[Image:Aj424241f8 lr.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a Keck adaptive optics image of TYC 4110-01037-1 in K′. Credit: Keith Matthews at the Keck Observatory.{{tlx|fairuse}}]] The Sun-Jupiter binary may serve to establish an upper limit for interstellar cometary capture when three bodies are extremely unequal in mass, such as the Sun, Jupiter, and a third body (potential comet) at a large distance from the binary.<ref name=Valtonen83>{{ cite journal |author=MJ Valtonen |title=On the capture of comets into the Solar System |journal=The Observatory |date=February 1983 |volume=103 |issue=2 |pages=1-4 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1983Obs...103....1V |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=2012-03-12 }}</ref> The basic problem with a capture scenario even from passage through “a cloud of some 10 million years, or from a medium enveloping the solar system, is the low relative velocity [~0.5 km s<sup>-1</sup>] required between the solar system and the cometary medium.”<ref name=Valtonen82>{{ cite journal |author=M. J. Valtonen |author2=K. A. Innanen |title=The capture of interstellar comets |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |date=April 1982 |volume=255 |issue=4 |pages=307-15 |url= |arxiv= |bibcode=1982ApJ...255..307V |doi=10.1086/159830 |pmid= |accessdate=2012-03-12 }}</ref> The capture of interstellar comets by Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune together cause about as many captures as Jupiter alone.<ref name=Valtonen82/> ==Exploratory astronomy== {{main|Exploratory astronomy}} [[Image:Deep Space 1 clean (PIA04242).png|thumb|right|250px|Artist's concept illustrates the Deep Space 1 spacecraft. Credit: NASA/JPL.{{tlx|free media}}]] "Deep Space 1 was launched on 24 October 1998 as part of NASA's New Millennium Program, which is managed by JPL for NASA's Office of Space Science, Washington, D.C. The California Institute of Technology manages JPL for NASA."<ref name=Lavoie/> "Deep Space 1 completed its primary mission testing ion propulsion and 11 other advanced, high-risk technologies in September 1999. NASA extended the mission, taking advantage of the ion propulsion and other systems to undertake this chancy but exciting, and ultimately successful, encounter with the comet."<ref name=Lavoie/> The Deep Space 1 spacecraft carried out a flyby of asteroid 9969 Braille, which was its primary science target. The mission was extended twice to include an encounter with comet 19P/Borrelly. {{clear}} ==Long-period comets== [[Image:Comet Kohoutek orbit p391.svg|thumb|right|250px|Orbits of Comet Kohoutek (red) and the Earth (blue), illustrating the high orbital eccentricity of its orbit and its rapid motion when close to the Sun. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] Long-period comets have highly eccentric orbits and periods ranging from 200 years to thousands of years.<ref name="SBP"/> An eccentricity greater than 1 when near perihelion does not necessarily mean that a comet will leave the Solar System.<ref name=Elenin2011>{{cite web |url=http://spaceobs.org/en/2011/03/07/vliyanie-planet-gigantov-na-orbitu-komety-c2010-x1-elenin/ |title=Influence of giant planets on the orbit of comet C/2010 X1 |first=Leonid |last=Elenin |date=7 March 2011 |accessdate=11 August 2013 }}</ref> Single-apparition or non-periodic comets are similar to long-period comets because they also have parabolic or slightly hyperbolic trajectories<ref name="SBP">{{cite web |title=Small Bodies: Profile |url=http://pds.jpl.nasa.gov/planets/special/smbod.htm |publisher=NASA/JPL |date=29 October 2008 |accessdate=11 August 2013 }}</ref> when near perihelion in the inner Solar System. However, gravitational perturbations from giant planets cause their orbits to change. Single-apparition comets have a hyperbolic or parabolic osculating orbit which allows them to permanently exit the Solar System after a single pass of the Sun.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3K9Fhu2q-8gC&pg=PA21 |page=21 |title=Astronomy and Astrophysics |{{isbn|978-0-7637-7786-9}} |author1=Joardar |first1=S |last2=Bhattacharya |first2=A. B |last3=Bhattacharya |first3=R |date=2008 }}</ref> The Sun's Hill sphere has an unstable maximum boundary of 230,000 AU ({{convert|1.1|pc|ly|abbr=off}}).<ref name=Chebotarev1964>{{cite journal |bibcode=1964SvA.....7..618C |title=Gravitational Spheres of the Major Planets, Moon and Sun |author1=Chebotarev |first1=G. A. |volume=7 |date=1964 |pages=618 |journal=Soviet Astronomy }}</ref> Only a few hundred comets have been seen to reach a hyperbolic orbit (e > 1) when near perihelion<ref name="e1">{{cite web |title=JPL Small-Body Database Search Engine: e > 1 |publisher=JPL |url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb_query.cgi?obj_group=all;obj_kind=all;obj_numbered=all;OBJ_field=0;ORB_field=0;c1_group=ORB;c1_item=Bg;c1_op=%3E;c1_value=1;table_format=HTML;max_rows=100;format_option=comp;c_fields=AcBgBiBjBqChCk;.cgifields=format_option;.cgifields=ast_orbit_class;.cgifields=table_format;.cgifields=obj_kind;.cgifields=obj_group;.cgifields=obj_numbered;.cgifields=com_orbit_class&query=1&c_sort=BgD |accessdate=13 August 2013 }}</ref> that using a heliocentric unperturbed two-body curve fitting, best-fit suggests they may escape the Solar System. As of 2018, 1I/ʻOumuamua is the only object with an eccentricity significantly greater than one that has been detected, indicating an origin outside the Solar System. While ʻOumuamua showed no optical signs of cometary activity during its passage through the inner Solar System in October 2017, changes to its trajectory—which suggests outgassing—indicate that it is probably a comet.<ref name="Oumuamua">{{cite news |url=https://www.space.com/41015-interstellar-visitor-oumuamua-comet-after-all.html |title=Interstellar Visitor 'Oumuamua Is a Comet After All |work=Space.com |first=Chelsea |last=Gohd |date=27 June 2018 |access-date=27 September 2018 }}</ref> Comet C/1980 E1 had an orbital period of roughly 7.1&nbsp;million years before the 1982 perihelion passage, but a 1980 encounter with Jupiter accelerated the comet giving it the largest eccentricity (1.057) of any known hyperbolic comet.<ref name="C/1980E1-jpl">{{cite web |url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=1980E1 |title=C/1980 E1 (Bowell) |work=JPL Small-Body Database |type=1986-12-02 last obs |accessdate=13 August 2013 }}</ref> If comets pervaded interstellar space, they would be moving with velocities of the same order as the relative velocities of stars near the Sun (a few tens of km per second). If such objects entered the Solar System, they would have positive specific orbital energy and would be observed to have genuinely hyperbolic trajectories. A rough calculation shows that there might be four hyperbolic comets per century within Jupiter's orbit, give or take one and perhaps two orders of magnitude.<ref name=McGlynn>{{cite journal |doi=10.1086/185590 |title=On the nondetection of extrasolar comets |date=1989 |last1=McGlynn |first1=Thomas A. |last2=Chapman |first2=Robert D. |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=346 |pages=L105 |bibcode=1989ApJ...346L.105M }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Interstellar comets== [[Image:2I Borisov movement gif.gif|thumb|right|250px|An animation of the interstellar comet 2I/Borisov's movement is shown. Credit: [[c:user:Exoplanetaryscience|Lefty7283]].{{tlx|free media}}]] An interstellar object is an astronomical object that is located in interstellar space including objects that are on an interstellar trajectory but are temporarily passing close to a star, such as certain asteroids and comets (including exocomets<ref name="Valtonen">{{ cite journal | last = Valtonen| first = Mauri J.| author2 = Jia-Qing Zheng | author3 = Seppo Mikkola | title = Origin of oort cloud comets in the interstellar space | journal = Celestial Mechanics and Dynamical Astronomy | volume = 54 | issue = 1–3 | pages = 37–48 | date = March 1992 | url = http://www.springerlink.com/content/g43v16167077453u/ | doi = 10.1007/BF00049542 | accessdate = 2008-12-30 |bibcode = 1992CeMDA..54...37V }}</ref><ref name="Francis">{{ cite journal | last = Francis| first = Paul J. | date = 2005-12-20 | title = The Demographics of Long-Period Comets | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | volume = 635 | issue = 2 | pages = 1348–1361 | doi = 10.1086/497684 | bibcode = 2005ApJ...635.1348F | url = http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/0004-637X/635/2/1348/62880.web.pdf?request-id=035fe065-820f-4c15-b74e-1cb158b2a41d | accessdate = 2009-01-03 |arxiv = astro-ph/0509074 }}</ref>) An interstellar comet can probably, on rare occasions, be captured into a heliocentric orbit while passing through the [[Solar System]]. Computer simulations show that [[Jupiter]] is the only planet massive enough to capture one, and that this can be expected to occur once every sixty million years.<ref name="Torbett">{{ cite journal | last = Torbett| first = M. V. | title = Capture of 20 km/s approach velocity interstellar comets by three-body interactions in the planetary system | journal = Astronomical Journal | volume = 92 | pages = 171–175 | date = July 1986 | bibcode = 1986AJ.....92..171T | doi = 10.1086/114148 }}</ref> Current models of Oort cloud formation predict that more comets are ejected into interstellar space than are retained in the Oort cloud, with estimates varying from 3 to 100 times as many.<ref name=Francis/> Other simulations suggest that 90–99% of comets are ejected.<ref name="Choi">{{ cite web | last = Choi | first = Charles Q. | title = The Enduring Mysteries of Comets | publisher = Space.com | url = http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/071224-mm-comet-mysteries.html | date = 2007-12-24 | accessdate = 2008-12-30 }}</ref> There is no reason to believe comets formed in other star systems would not be similarly scattered.<ref name=Valtonen /> A more recent estimate, following the detection of 'Oumuamua, predicts that "The steady-state population of similar, ~100 m scale interstellar objects inside the orbit of Neptune is ~1{{e|4}}, each with a residence time of ~10 years."<ref name="Jewitt2017">{{ cite journal |doi=10.3847/2041-8213/aa9b2f |title=Interstellar Interloper 1I/2017 U1: Observations from the NOT and WIYN Telescopes |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=850 |issue=2 |pages=L36 |year=2017 |last1=Jewitt|first1=David|last2=Luu|first2=Jane|last3=Rajagopal|first3=Jayadev|last4=Kotulla|first4=Ralf|last5=Ridgway|first5=Susan|last6=Liu|first6=Wilson|last7=Augusteijn|first7=Thomas |bibcode=2017ApJ...850L..36J |arxiv=1711.05687 }}</ref> There should be hundreds of 'Oumuamua-size interstellar objects in the Solar System, based on calculated orbital characteristics, with known examples: 2011 SP25, 2017 RR2, 2017 SV13, and 2018 TL6.<ref name="MNRAS-20181129">{{ cite journal |last1=Siraj |first1=Amir |last2=Loeb |first2=Abraham |title=Identifying Interstellar Objects Trapped in the Solar System through Their Orbital Parameters |url=https://arxiv.org/pdf/1811.09632.pdf |date=29 November 2018 |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume=000 |pages=1-5 |accessdate=1 December 2018 }}</ref> These are all orbiting the sun, but with unusual orbits, and are assumed to have been trapped at some occasion. {{clear}} ==C/2019 Q4 (Borisov)== [[Image:Interstellar visitors.jpg|right|thumb|300px|A comparison of two interstellar objects passing through our solar system is diagrammed. Credit: [[c:user:Tony873004|Tony873004]].{{tlx|free media}}]] "An object that seems to be a comet from around another star is speeding through the solar system. This comet, dubbed C/2019 Q4 (Borisov), marks the second time that astronomers have seen an interstellar visitor on its way past the sun."<ref name=Grossman>{{ cite web |author=Lisa Grossman |title=Astronomers have spotted a second interstellar object |publisher=Science News |location= |date=12 September 2019 |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/astronomy-interstellar-comet-space?utm_source=email&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=latest-newsletter-v2&utm_source=Latest_Headlines&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=Latest_Headlines |accessdate=20 September 2019 }}</ref> "Ukrainian amateur astronomer Gennady Borisov spotted the comet on August 30."<ref name=Grossman/> "In the days that followed, other astronomers took enough observations of the comet to show that its orbit is not bound to the sun, a telltale sign that the object is from interstellar space."<ref name=Holman>{{ cite web |author=Matthew Holman |title=Astronomers have spotted a second interstellar object |publisher=Science News |location= |date=12 September 2019 |url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/astronomy-interstellar-comet-space?utm_source=email&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=latest-newsletter-v2&utm_source=Latest_Headlines&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=Latest_Headlines |accessdate=20 September 2019 }}</ref> The "International Astronomical Union’s Minor Planet Center in Cambridge, Mass., [...] reported C/2019 Q4’s trajectory September 11 in a public bulletin."<ref name=Grossman/> "There have been three or four different groups that have checked the orbit and poked at it from different directions, and everybody reaches the same conclusion."<ref name=Holman/> "The comet is close to the sun and low on the horizon, which make it difficult to observe."<ref name=Holman/> “This is an unusual thing. You always want to be extra careful when you get an answer that’s not typical. That said, I think it will hold up."<ref name=Holman/> "C/2019 Q4, on the other hand, is just past the solar system’s doorstep, on a trajectory that will take it between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars. It will make its closest approach to Earth (at about twice the distance between Earth and the sun) on December 29."<ref name=Grossman/> {{clear}} ==ʻOumuamua== [[Image:Oumuamua-solar system 2018.png|right|thumb|300px|This shows the hyperbolic path of extrasolar object ʻOumuamua, the first confirmed interstellar object, discovered in 2017. Credit: [[c:user:Tomruen|Tomruen]].{{tlx|free media}}]] "A newly discovered comet is screaming away from Earth, and based on its weird orbital trajectory might be the first comet ever observed to come from interstellar space. A sky-surveying telescope in Hawaii spotted the fast-moving object, now called C/2017 U1, on 18 October, after its closest approach to the sun. The following week, astronomers made 34 separate observations of the object and found it has a strange trajectory that doesn't appear to circle the sun."<ref name=Boyle>{{ cite journal |author=Rebecca Boyle |title=Glimpse of the first interstellar comet? |journal=New scientist |date=2017 |volume= |issue=3150 |pages=15 |url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=6438678 |arxiv= |bibcode= |doi= |pmid= |accessdate=16 February 2019 }}</ref> The image on the right shows 'Oumuamua's hyperbolic trajectory across the full solar system, with annual markers, and planet positions on 1/1/2018. ʻOumuamua showed no signs of a cometary coma despite its close approach to the Sun, but underwent non-gravitational acceleration which is seen in many icy comets,<ref name="Nature 27-6-2018">{{ cite journal |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0254-4 |title=Non-gravitational acceleration in the trajectory of 1I/2017 U1 (ʻOumuamua) |journal=Nature |volume=559 |issue=7713 |pages=223–226 |year=2018 |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0254-4 |pmid=29950718 |last1=Micheli |first1=M. |last2=Farnocchia |first2=D. |last3=Meech |first3=K.J. |last4=Buie |first4=M.W. |last5=Hainaut |first5=O.R. |last6=Prialnik |first6=D. |last7=Schörghofer |first7=N. |last8=Weaver |first8=H.A. |last9=Chodas |first9=P.W. |last10=Kleyna |first10=J.T. |last11=Weryk |first11=R. |last12=Wainscoat |first12=R.J. |last13=Ebeling |first13=H. |last14=Keane |first14=J.V. |last15=Chambers |first15=K.C. |last16=Koschny |first16=D. |last17=Petropoulos |first17=A.E. |display-authors=1 }}</ref><ref>{{ cite journal |last=Królikowska|first=Małgorzata|last2=Dybczyński|first2=Piotr A. |date=2013-10-01 |title=Near-parabolic comets observed in 2006-2010. The individualized approach to 1/a-determination and the new distribution of original and future orbits |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013MNRAS.435..440K |journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume=435 |pages=440–459 |doi=10.1093/mnras/stt1313 |issn=0035-8711 }}</ref> although other reasons have been suggested.<ref name="UT-230181031">{{ cite web |last=Williams |first=Matt |title=Could Oumuamua Be an Extra-Terrestrial Solar Sail? |url=https://www.universetoday.com/140391/could-oumuamua-be-an-extra-terrestrial-solar-sail/ |date=2 November 2018 |work=Universe Today |accessdate=2 November 2018 }}</ref><ref name="ARX-20181101">{{ cite arxiv |last1=Bialy |first1=Shmuel |last2=Loeb |first2=Abraham |title=Could Solar Radiation Explain ʻOumuamua's Peculiar Acceleration? |date=26 October 2018 |eprint=1810.11490v4 |class=astro-ph.EP }}</ref><ref name="SA-201809287">{{ cite web |last=Loeb |first=Abraham |title=How to Search for Dead Cosmic Civilizations |url=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/how-to-search-for-dead-cosmic-civilizations/ |date=26 September 2018 |work=Scientific American |accessdate=26 September 2018 }}</ref> The object could be a remnant of a disintegrated interstellar comet (or exocomet).<ref name="UT-20190201">{{ cite web |last=Williams |first=Matt |title=Oumuamua Could be the Debris Cloud of a Disintegrated Interstellar Comet |url=https://www.universetoday.com/141398/oumuamua-could-be-the-debris-cloud-of-a-disintegrated-interstellar-comet/#more-141398 |date=1 February 2019 |work=Universe Today |accessdate=2 February 2019 }}</ref><ref name="ARX-20190201">{{ cite journal |last=Sekanina |first=Zdenek |title=1I/‘Oumuamua As Debris Of Dwarf Interstellar Comet That Disintegrated Before Perihelion |url=https://arxiv.org/pdf/1901.08704.pdf |date=31 January 2019 |journal=arXiv |arxiv=1901.08704v3 |accessdate=2 February 2019 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Comet Machholz 1== [[Image:96P 20070403 000500 HI1A.png|thumb|left|Comet Machholz 1 (96P/Machholz) is viewed by STEREO-A (April 2007). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] Comets Machholz 1 is a possible example of such comets, as it has an atypical chemical makeup for comets in the Solar System.<ref name="MacRobert">{{ cite news | last = MacRobert| first = Alan | title = A Very Oddball Comet | publisher = Sky & Telescope | date = 2008-12-02 | url = http://www.skyandtelescope.com/news/35379224.html | accessdate = 2010-03-26 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Comet Hyakutake== [[Image:Hyakutake Color.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Comet Hyakutake (C/1996 B2) might be an interstellar object captured by the Solar System. Credit: E. Kolmhofer, H. Raab; Johannes-Kepler-Observatory, Linz, Austria.{{tlx|free media}}]] Comet Hyakutake C/1996 B2 is a possible example of such comets, as it has an atypical chemical makeup for comets in the Solar System.<ref name="science">{{ cite journal | last=Mumma | first=M.J. | author2 = Disanti, M.A. | author3 = dello Russo, N. | author4 = Fomenkova, M. | author5 = Magee-Sauer, K. | author6 = Kaminski, C.D. | author7 = D.X. Xie | title=Detection of Abundant Ethane and Methane, Along with Carbon Monoxide and Water, in Comet C/1996 B2 Hyakutake: Evidence for Interstellar Origin | journal=Science | date=1996 | volume=272 | pages=1310–1314 | bibcode = 1996Sci...272.1310M | doi=10.1126/science.272.5266.1310 | pmid=8650540 | issue=5266 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==C/1980 E1 (Bowell)== [[Image:C1980 E1-orbit.png|thumb|right|250px|Hyperbolic trajectory is for C/1980 E1. Credit: [[c:user:Tomruen|Tomruen]].{{tlx|free media}}]] It is possible for objects orbiting a star to be ejected due to interaction with a third massive body, such a process was initiated in early 1980s when C/1980 E1, initially gravitationally bound to the Sun, passed near Jupiter and was accelerated sufficiently to reach escape velocity from the Solar System, changing its orbit from elliptical to hyperbolic and making it the most eccentric known object at the time, with an eccentricity of 1.057.<ref name=jpldata1986>{{ cite web |type=1986-12-02 last obs |title=JPL Small-Body Database Browser: C/1980 E1 (Bowell) |url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=1980%20E1 |accessdate=2010-01-08}}</ref> It is headed for interstellar space. Before entering the inner Solar System for a 1982 perihelion passage, C/1980 E1 had a barycentric (epoch 1950-Jan-01) orbit with an aphelion of {{convert|75000|AU|ly|sigfig=2}}, and a period of approximately 7.1 million&nbsp;years.<ref name="barycenter">{{cite web | author=JPL Horizons On-Line Ephemeris System output | url=https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons_batch.cgi?batch=1&COMMAND=%271980+E1%27&TABLE_TYPE=%27ELEMENTS%27&START_TIME=%271950-01-01%27&STOP_TIME=%272050-01-01%27&STEP_SIZE=%27100%20years%27&CENTER=%27@0%27&OUT_UNITS=%27AU-D%27 | title=Barycentric Osculating Orbital Elements for Comet C/1980 E1 (Bowell) }} Solution using the Solar System Barycenter. Ephemeris Type:Elements and Center:@0 (To be outside planetary region, inbound epoch 1950 and outbound epoch 2050)</ref> As the comet was approaching on 9 December 1980, it passed within 0.228&nbsp;AU of [[Jupiter]],<ref name=jpl-close>{{cite web |type=last observation: 1986-12-30 |title=JPL Close-Approach Data: C/1980 E1 (Bowell) |url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=1980E1;cad=1#cad |accessdate=2015-09-26}}</ref> which accelerated the comet briefly giving an (epoch 1981-Jan-09) eccentricity of 1.066.<ref name=barycenter/> The comet came to perihelion on 12 March 1982,<ref name=jpldata>{{cite web |type=last observation: 1986-12-30 |title=JPL Small-Body Database Browser: C/1980 E1 (Bowell) |url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=1980E1 |accessdate=2015-09-26}}</ref> when it had a velocity of {{convert|23.3|km/s|mph}} with respect to the Sun. Since the epoch of 1977-Mar-04, C/1980 E1 has had a barycentric eccentricity greater than 1,<ref name=barycenter/> keeping it on a hyperbolic trajectory that will eject it from the Solar System. Objects in hyperbolic orbits have a negative semimajor axis, giving them a positive orbital energy. After leaving the Solar System, C/1980 E1 will have an interstellar velocity {{nowrap|(<math>v_\infty</math>)}} of 3.77 km/s.<ref name=Note>{{cite book|title=speed|1={{nowrap|1=''v'' = 42.1219 {{radic|1/''r'' − 0.5/''a''}}}}, where ''r'' is the distance from the Sun, and ''a'' is the major semi-axis. At epoch 2500, C/1980 E1 will have a barycentric semi-major axis of −62.44.}}</ref> The Minor Planet Center does not directly list a semimajor axis for this comet.<ref name=mpc>{{cite web |title=C/1980 E1 (Bowell) Orbit at the Minor Planet Center |url=http://www.minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=C%2F1980+E1 |access-date=2015-09-28}}</ref> The escape velocity from the Sun at Neptune's orbit is 7.7 km/s. By June 1995, the comet was passing Neptune's orbit at 30.1 AU from the Sun continuing its ejection trajectory at 8.6 km/s.<ref name="Neptune">{{cite web |title=Horizons Batch: Passing Neptune's orbit at 30.1 AU from the Sun |publisher=[[JPL Horizons On-Line Ephemeris System|JPL Horizons]] |type=[[Escape velocity#List of escape velocities|Solar escape velocity]] at 30.1 AU is about 7.67 km/s |url=https://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons_batch.cgi?batch=1&COMMAND='1980+E1'&MAKE_EPHEM='YES'&TABLE_TYPE='OBSERVER'&START_TIME='1995-06-04'&STOP_TIME='1995-06-05'&STEP_SIZE='1%20day'&QUANTITIES='19,22'&CENTER='@sun' }}</ref> Since February 2008, the comet has been more than 50&nbsp;AU from the Sun.<ref name="Horizons">{{cite web |title=Horizons Ephemeris |publisher=JPL Solar System Dynamics |author1=Yeomans, Donald K. |author2=Chamberlin, Alan B |url=http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/horizons.cgi?find_body=1&body_group=sb&sstr=1980E1 |accessdate=2011-02-22}}</ref> {{clear}} ==514107 Kaʻepaokaʻawela== [[Image:2015 BZ509-orbit.png|right|thumb|300px|Retrograde orbit of 2015 BZ<sub>509</sub> has 100 day motion markers. Credit: [[c:user:Tomruen|Tomruen]].{{tlx|free media}}]] Asteroid (514107) 2015 BZ509 may be a former interstellar object, captured some 4.5 billion years ago, as evidenced by its co-orbital motion with Jupiter and its retrograde orbit around the Sun.<ref>{{ cite web |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2018/05/asteroid-came-another-solar-system-and-it-s-here-stay |title=This asteroid came from another solar system—and it’s here to stay |publisher=Science }}</ref> 514107 Kaʻepaokaʻāwela, provisionally designated 2015 {{chem|BZ|509}} and nicknamed Bee-Zed,<ref name=Phys.org>{{cite news |author = Staff |title = The stable retrograde orbit of the Bee-Zed asteroid explained |url = https://phys.org/news/2017-06-stable-retrograde-orbit-bee-zed-asteroid.html |work = Phys.org |date = 28 June 2017}}</ref> is a small asteroid, approximately {{cvt|3|km|mi|sigfig=1|sp=us}} in diameter,<ref name="CNRS">{{Cite press release |title = Discovery of the first body in the Solar System with an extrasolar origin |date = 22 May 2018 |publisher = CNRS |website = www2.cnrs.fr |url = http://www2.cnrs.fr/en/3117.htm |accessdate= 31 May 2018}}</ref> in a resonant, co-orbital motion with [[Jupiter]].<ref name=Wiegert>{{Cite journal |first1 = Paul |last1 = Wiegert |author-link1= Paul Wiegert |first2 = Martin |last2 = Connors |first3 = Christian |last3 = Veillet |date = March 2017 |title = A retrograde co-orbital asteroid of Jupiter |journal = Nature |volume = 543 |issue = 7647 |pages = 687–689 |bibcode = 2017Natur.543..687W |doi = 10.1038/nature22029 |pmid = 28358083 |s2cid = 205255113 }}</ref> It is an unusual minor planet in that its orbit is retrograde, which is opposite to the direction of most other bodies in the [[Solar System]].<ref name="BadAstronomy">{{cite web |last1 = Plait |first1 = Phil |title = Meet Jupiter's backwards little friend: Asteroid 2015 BZ509 |publisher = SyFy Wire |date = Mar 30, 2017 |url = http://www.syfy.com/syfywire/meet-jupiters-backwards-little-friend-asteroid-2015-bz509 |accessdate = 30 March 2017}}</ref> It was discovered on 26 November 2014, by astronomers of the Pan-STARRS survey at Haleakala Observatory on the island of Maui, United States.<ref name="MPC-object">{{cite web |title = (514107) Ka'epaoka'awela = 2015 BZ509 |work = Minor Planet Center |url = https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/db_search/show_object?object_id=514107 |accessdate = 7 March 2018}}</ref> Kaʻepaokaʻāwela is the first example of an asteroid in a 1:–1 resonance with any of the planets.<ref name=Wiegert2017>{{cite book |last = Wiegert | first = Paul |title = The first retrograde co-orbital asteroid: 2015 BZ509 – a Trojan in retreat |date = 30 March 2017 |publisher = University of Western Ontario |url = http://www.astro.uwo.ca/~wiegert/2015BZ509/ |accessdate = 7 March 2018}}</ref> {{clear}} ==Hills clouds== [[Image:Kuiper oort.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Hills cloud is the inner Oort Cloud. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] The Hills cloud (also called the ''inner Oort cloud'' and ''inner cloud''<ref>[http://villemin.gerard.free.fr/Science/Asteroid.htm astronomie, astéroïdes et comètes]</ref>) is a vast theoretical circumstellar disc, interior to the Oort cloud, whose outer border would be located at around 20,000 to 30,000 AU from the Sun, and whose inner border, less well-defined, is hypothetically located at 250-1500 AU, well beyond planetary and Kuiper Belt object orbits - but distances might be much greater. If it exists, the Hills cloud contains roughly 5 times as many comets as the Oort cloud.<ref name=SOA>{{cite journal |title= The Formation and Extent of the Solar System Comet Cloud |journal= The Astronomical Journal |volume= 94 |pages= 1330 |date= 1987 |bibcode = 1987AJ.....94.1330D |last1 = Duncan |first1 = M. |last2= Quinn |first2= T. |last3= Tremaine |first3= S. |doi= 10.1086/114571 }}</ref> Objects ejected from the Hills cloud are likely to end up in the classical Oort cloud region, maintaining the Oort cloud.<ref>{{Cite magazine| title= The Formation of the Oort cloud and the Primitive Galactic Environment | author= J. A. Fernandez | journal= Icarus | volume= 129 | issue= 1 | pages= 106–119 | year= 1997 | doi= 10.1006/icar.1997.5754 |bibcode = 1997Icar..129..106F }}</ref> The existence of the Hills cloud is plausible, since many bodies have been found already. It would be denser than the Oort cloud.<ref name="hills1981">{{cite journal |author= Jack G. Hills |date= 1981 |title= Comet showers and the steady-state infall of comets from the Oort Cloud |journal= Astronomical Journal |volume= 86 |pages= 1730–1740 |bibcode= 1981AJ.....86.1730H |doi= 10.1086/113058 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url = http://fermat.nap.edu/books/0309043336/html/251.html |title = Planetary Sciences: American and Soviet Research, Proceedings from the U.S.-U.S.S.R. Workshop on Planetary Sciences, p. 251 |date = 1991 |accessdate = November 7, 2007 }}</ref> Comets may be rooted in a cloud orbiting the outer boundary of the Solar System.<ref>{{Cite journal | title=Note on Stellar Perturbations of Nearby Parabolic Orbits | author=Ernst Öpik | journal=Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences | volume=67 | pages=169–182 | date=1932 }}</ref> Comets are usually destroyed after several passes through the inner Solar System, so if any had existed for several billion years (since the beginning of the Solar System), no more could be observed now.<ref name=Oort>{{Cite journal | title=The Structure of the Cloud of Comets Surrounding the Solar System and a Hypothesis Concerning its Origin | author=Jan Oort | journal=Bull. Astron. Inst. Neth. | volume=11 | pages=91–110 | date=1950 | bibcode=1950BAN....11...91O }}</ref> The distribution of the inverse of the semi-major axes showed a maximum frequency which suggested the existence of a reservoir of comets between {{convert|40000|and|150000|AU|ly|1|abbr=on}} away.<ref name=Oort/> This reservoir, located at the limits of the Sun's sphere of astrodynamic influence, would be subject to stellar disturbances, likely to expel cloud comets outwards or inwards.<ref name=Oort/> Most estimates place the population of the Hills cloud at about 20 trillion (about five to ten times that of the outer cloud), although the number could be ten times greater than that.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://young-earth-creationism.blogspot.com/2012/05/oung-earth-evidence-short-period-comets.html | title=Young Earth Evidence – Short-period Comets | author=Dave E. Matson | date=May 2012 | publisher=Young Earth Creationism }}</ref> The orbits of most cloud comets have a semi-major axis of 10,000 AU, much closer to the Sun than the proposed distance of the Oort cloud.<ref name="hills1981"/> Moreover, the influence of the surrounding stars and that of the galactic tide should have sent the Oort cloud comets either closer to the Sun or outside of the Solar System. The presence of an inner cloud, which would have tens or hundreds of times as many cometary nuclei as the outer halo was proposed.<ref name="hills1981"/> The majority of comets in the Solar System were located not in the Oort cloud area, but closer and in an internal cloud, with an orbit with a semi-major axis of 5,000 AU.<ref name="Inner oort cloud2">{{Cite journal |bibcode = 1988MNRAS.235....1B |title = Cratering constraints on the inner Oort cloud : Steady-state models |journal = Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume = 235 |pages = 1–32 |last1 = Bailey |first1 = M. E. |last2 = Stagg |first2 = C. R. |year = 1988 |doi = 10.1093/mnras/235.1.1 }}</ref> It is likely that the Hills cloud is the largest concentration of comets across the Solar System.<ref name="Inner oort cloud">{{Cite journal |bibcode = 1988MNRAS.235....1B |title = Cratering constraints on the inner Oort cloud : Steady-state models |journal = Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume = 235 |pages = 1–32 |last1 = Bailey |first1 = M. E. |last2 = Stagg |first2 = C. R. |year = 1988 |doi = 10.1093/mnras/235.1.1 }}</ref> The Hills cloud is much denser than the outer Oort cloud; it is somewhere between 5,000 and 20,000 AU in size. In contrast, the Oort cloud is between {{convert|20000|and|50000|AU|ly|1|abbr=on}} in size.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.universetoday.com/32522/oort-cloud/ |title=What is the Oort Cloud? |date=10 August 2015 |author=Matt Williams |publisher=Universe Today |accessdate=February 20, 2016 }}</ref> The mass of the Hills cloud may be five times more massive than the Oort cloud.<ref>[http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-iarticle_query?bibcode=1987AJ.....94.1330D&db_key=AST&page_ind=0&data_type=GIF&type=SCREEN_VIEW&classic=YES The Formation and Extent of the Solar System Comet Cloud]</ref> Or, the mass of the Hills cloud to be 13.8 Earth masses, if the majority of the bodies are located at 10,000 AU.<ref name="Inner oort cloud2" /> The vast majority of Hills cloud objects consists of various ices, such as water, methane, ethane, carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide.<ref>E. L. Gibb, M. J. Mumma, N. Dello Russo, M. A. DiSanti and K. Magee-Sauer (2003). "Methane in Oort Cloud comets".</ref> However, the discovery of the object 1996 PW, an asteroid on a typical orbit of a long-period comet, suggests that the cloud may also contain rocky objects.<ref>{{Cite journal | title=Origin and Evolution of the Unusual Object 1996 PW: Asteroids from the Oort Cloud? | author1=P. R. Weissman |author2=H. F. Levison | journal=Astrophysical Journal Letters | volume=488 | pages=L133 | date=October 1997 | doi=10.1086/310940 |bibcode = 1997ApJ...488L.133W }}</ref> The carbon analysis and isotopic ratios of nitrogen firstly in the comets of the families of the Oort cloud and the other in the body of the Jupiter area shows little difference between the two, despite their distinctly remote areas, which suggests that both come from a protoplanetary disk,<ref>D. Hutsemekers, J. Manfroid, E. Jehin, C. Arpigny, A. Cochran, R. Schulz, J.A. Stüwe, and J.M. Zucconi (2005). "Isotopic abundances of carbon and nitrogen in Jupiter-family and Oort Cloud comets".</ref> a conclusion also supported by studies of comet cloud sizes and the recent impact study of Comet Tempel 1.<ref>Michael J. Mumma, Michael A. DiSanti, Karen Magee-Sauer et al. (2005). "Parent Volatiles in Comet 9P/Tempel 1: Before and After Impact". Science Express 310 (5746): 270–274.</ref> {{clear}} ==Oort clouds== {{multiple image |direction = vertical |align = right |width = 285 |image1=PIA17046 - Voyager 1 Goes Interstellar.jpg |image2=Kuiper oort-en.svg |caption1=This graphic shows the distance from the Oort cloud to the rest of the Solar System and two of the nearest stars measured in astronomical units (AU). The scale is logarithmic, with each specified distance ten times further out than the previous one. Credit: NASA / JPL-Caltech.{{tlx|free media}} |caption2=An artist's rendering is of the Oort cloud and the Kuiper belt (inset). Sizes of individual objects have been exaggerated for visibility. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}} }} [[Image:PIA18003-NASA-WISE-StarsNearSun-20140425-2.png|thumb|left|upright=1.2|300px|Stars closest to the Sun include Barnard's Star (25 April 2014).<ref name="NASA-20140425a">{{cite web |last1=Clavin |first1=Whitney |last2=Harrington |first2=J.D. |title=NASA's Spitzer and WISE Telescopes Find Close, Cold Neighbor of Sun |url=http://www.nasa.gov/jpl/wise/spitzer-coldest-brown-dwarf-20140425/ |date=25 April 2014 |work=NASA |archivedate=26 April 2014 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140426004939/http://www.nasa.gov/jpl/wise/spitzer-coldest-brown-dwarf-20140425 |accessdate=25 April 2014 }}</ref> Credit: NASA/Penn State University.{{tlx|free media}}]] The '''Oort cloud''' or the '''Öpik–Oort cloud'''<ref name = "Whipple">{{ cite journal | author = Fred Lawrence Whipple |author2=G. Turner |author3=J. A. M. McDonnell |author4=M. K. Wallis | title = A Review of Cometary Sciences | url = http://rsta.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/323/1572/339.short | journal = Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A | volume = 323 | issue = 1572 | pages = 339–347 [341] | publisher = Royal Society Publishing | date = 1987-09-30 | bibcode = 1987RSPTA.323..339W | doi = 10.1098/rsta.1987.0090 }}</ref> is a hypothesized spherical cloud of comets which may lie roughly 50,000 AU, or nearly a light-year, from the [[Stars/Sun|Sun]].<ref name="Morbidelli2006">{{ cite book |author=Alessandro Morbidelli |year=2006 |title=Origin and dynamical evolution of comets and their reservoirs of water ammonia and methane. |url=https://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0512256 |arxiv=astro-ph/0512256 }}</ref> This places the cloud at nearly a quarter of the distance to Proxima Centauri, the nearest star to the Sun. The outer limit of the Oort cloud defines the cosmographical boundary of the [[Solar System]] and the region of the Sun's gravitational dominance.<ref name="NASA_SSE_oort">{{ cite book |title=Kuiper Belt & Oort Cloud |url=http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=KBOs&Display=OverviewLong |publisher=NASA |accessdate=2011-08-08 }}</ref> The Oort cloud is divided into two regions: a circumstellar disc-shaped inner Oort cloud (or Hills cloud) and a circumstellar envelope, spherical outer Oort cloud. Both regions lie beyond the heliosphere and in interstellar space.<ref name="Morbidelli2006a">{{cite arXiv |author=Alessandro Morbidelli |date=2006 |title=Origin and dynamical evolution of comets and their reservoirs of water ammonia and methane |eprint=astro-ph/0512256 }}</ref><ref name="jpl.PIA17046">{{cite web |url=http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA17046 |title=Catalog Page for PIA17046 |work=Photo Journal |publisher=NASA |date= |accessdate=April 27, 2014 }}</ref> ''Voyager 1'', the fastest<ref name="New_Horizons2006">{{cite web |title=New Horizons Salutes Voyager |date=August 17, 2006 |publisher=New Horizons |accessdate=November 3, 2009 |url=https://www.webcitation.org/5x3s4O3KH?url=http://pluto.jhuapl.edu/news_center/news/081706.php }}</ref> and farthest<ref name="g.2013sep13">{{cite news |last=Clark |first=Stuart |title=Voyager 1 leaving solar system matches feats of great human explorers |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/across-the-universe/2013/sep/13/voyager-1-solar-system-great-explorers |newspaper=The Guardian |date=September 13, 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.spacetoday.org/SolSys/Voyagers20years.html |title=Voyagers are leaving the Solar System |work=Space Today |date=2011 |accessdate=May 29, 2014 }}</ref> of the interplanetary space probes currently leaving the Solar System, will reach the Oort cloud in about 300 years<ref name="jpl.PIA17046"/><ref name="ut.104717">{{cite web |url=http://www.universetoday.com/104717/its-official-voyager-1-is-now-in-interstellar-space/ |title=It's Official: Voyager 1 Is Now In Interstellar Space |work=UniverseToday |date= 2013-09-12 |accessdate=April 27, 2014 }}</ref> and would take about 30,000 years to pass through it.<ref name="Ghose2013">{{cite web |last=Ghose |first=Tia |title=Voyager 1 Really Is In Interstellar Space: How NASA Knows |work=Space.com |publisher=TechMedia Network |date=September 13, 2013 |url=http://www.space.com/22797-voyager-1-interstellar-space-nasa-proof.html |accessdate=September 14, 2013 }}</ref><ref name="How_We_Know">{{cite web |last=Cook |first=J.-R |title=How Do We Know When Voyager Reaches Interstellar Space? |publisher=NASA / Jet Propulsion Lab | date=September 12, 2013 |url=http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.php?release=2013-278 |accessdate=September 15, 2013 }}</ref> However, around 2025, the radioisotope thermoelectric generators on ''Voyager 1'' will no longer supply enough power to operate any of its scientific instruments, preventing any further exploration by ''Voyager 1.'' '''Def.''' a "roughly spherical region of space composed of comet-like bodies and other minor planets and asteroids that orbit distantly in planetary systems"<ref name=OortCloudWikt>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:70.51.46.39|70.51.46.39]] |title=Oort cloud |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=17 March 2016 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Oort_cloud |accessdate=19 June 2019 }}</ref> is called an '''Oort cloud'''. '''Def.''' a "roughly spherical region of space from 50,000 to 100,000 astronomical units (approximately 1 light year) from the sun; supposedly the source of most comets around the Solar System"<ref name=OortCloudWikt1>{{ cite book |author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]] |title=Oort Cloud |publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc |location=San Francisco, California |date=13 March 2005 |url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Oort_Cloud |accessdate=19 June 2019 }}</ref> is called an '''Oort Cloud'''. {{clear}} ==Interstellar medium== {{main|Interstellar medium}} [[Image:Epsilon eridani dustring.gif|thumb|right|250px|This submillimeter image is of a ring of dust particles around the star Epsilon Eridani. Credit: Jane Greaves.{{tlx|free media}}]] The submillimeter "wavelength view [at right] of a ring of dust particles around Epsilon Eridani, taken with the SCUBA camera at the James Clerk Maxwell Telescope. The false-colour scale is brightest where there is more dust. Epsilon Eridani is marked by the star symbol, although the star itself is not seen at submillimetre wavelengths. Pluto's orbit (marking the edge of our Solar System) is shown at the same scale."<ref name=Greaves>{{ cite book |author=Jane Greaves |title=Astronomers discover a nearby star system just like our own Solar System |publisher=Joint Astronomy Centre |location=Hilo, Hawaii, USA |date=July 8, 1998 |url=http://outreach.jach.hawaii.edu/pressroom/1998_epseri/ |accessdate=2014-03-12 }}</ref> "The ring is "strikingly similar" to the outer comet zone in our Solar System, and shows an intriguing bright region that may be particles trapped around a young planet."<ref name=Greaves/> "What we see looks just like the comet belt on the outskirts of our Solar System, only younger, [...] It's the first time we've seen anything like this around a star similar to our Sun. In addition, we were amazed to see a bright spot in the ring, which may be dust trapped in orbit around a planet."<ref name=Greaves/> "Epsilon Eridani is far more similar to our Sun than either Vega or Fomalhaut."<ref name=Greaves/> "This star system is a strong candidate for planets, but if there are planets, it's unlikely there could be life yet. When the Earth was this young, it was still being very heavily bombarded by comets and other debris."<ref name=Greaves/> "It is also a star in our local neighbourhood, being only about 10 light years away, which is why we can see so much detail in the new image."<ref name=Greaves/> "If an astronomer could have seen what our Solar System looked like four billion years ago, it would have been very much as Epsilon Eridani looks today, [...] This is a star system very like our own, and the first time anyone has found something that truly resembles our Solar System; it's one thing to suspect that it exists, but another to actually see it, and this is the first observational evidence."<ref name=Zuckerman>{{ cite book |author=Benjamin Zuckerman |title=Astronomers discover a nearby star system just like our own Solar System |publisher=Joint Astronomy Centre |location=Hilo, Hawaii, USA |date=July 8, 1998 |url=http://outreach.jach.hawaii.edu/pressroom/1998_epseri/ |accessdate=2014-03-12 }}</ref> "Beyond Pluto in our Solar System is a region containing more than 70,000 large comets, and hundreds of millions of smaller ones, called the "Kuiper belt". The image [...] shows dust particles that the astronomers believe are analogous to our Kuiper belt at the same distance from Epsilon Eridani as the Kuiper belt is from our Sun. Although the image cannot reveal comets directly, the dust that is revealed is believed to be debris from comets."<ref name=Greaves/> "Epsilon Eridani's inner region contains about 1,000 times more dust than our Solar System's inner region, which may mean it has about 1,000 times more comets [...]. Epsilon Eridani is believed to be only 500 million years to 1 billion years old; our Sun is estimated to be 4.5 billion years old, and its inner region is believed to have looked very similar at that age."<ref name=Greaves/> "The new image -- which is from short-radio wavelengths, and is not an optical picture -- was obtained using the 15-meter James Clerk Maxwell Telescope [JCMT] at the Mauna Kea Observatory in Hilo, Hawaii. The JCMT is the world's largest telescope dedicated to the study of light at "submillimeter" wavelengths. The [...] camera called SCUBA (Submillimeter Common User Bolometer Array), which was built by the Royal Observatory in Edinburgh (which is now the UK Astronomical Technology Centre). SCUBA uses detectors cooled to a tenth of a degree above absolute zero (-273 degrees Celsius) to measure the tiny amounts of heat emission from small dust particles at a wavelength close to one-millimeter."<ref name=Greaves/> "The implication is that if there is one system similar to ours at such a close star, presumably there are many others, [...] In the search for life elsewhere in the universe, we have never known where to look before. Now, we are closing in on the right candidates in the search for life."<ref name=Zuckerman/> "A region near the star that is partially evacuated indicates that planets may have formed, [...] the presence of planets is the most likely explanation for the absence of dust in this region because planets absorb the dust when they form."<ref name=Greaves/> "There may be a planet stirring up the dust in the ring and causing the bright spot, or it could be the remnants of a massive collision between comets."<ref name=Dent>{{ cite book |author=Bill Dent |title=Astronomers discover a nearby star system just like our own Solar System |publisher=Joint Astronomy Centre |location=Hilo, Hawaii, USA |date=July 8, 1998 |url=http://outreach.jach.hawaii.edu/pressroom/1998_epseri/ |accessdate=2014-03-12 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==Exocomets== [[Image:NASA-ExocometsAroundBetaPictoris-ArtistView.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Artist's impression is of planet formation processes, including exocomets and other planetesimals, around Beta Pictoris. Credit: NASA/FUSE/Lynette Cook.{{tlx|free media}}]] The first exocomets were detected in 1987<ref name="Ferlet et al.1987">{{ cite journal | bibcode=1987A&A...185..267F |title=The Beta Pictoris circumstellar disk. V - Time variations of the CA II-K line |author1=Ferlet, R. |author2=Vidal-Madjar, A. |author3= Hobbs, L. M. |year=1987 |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume=185 |pages=267–270 }}</ref><ref name="Beust1990">{{ cite journal |bibcode=1990A&A...236..202B |title=The Beta Pictoris circumstellar disk. X - Numerical simulations of infalling evaporating bodies |last1=Beust |first1=H. |last2=Lagrange-Henri |first2=A.M. |last3=Vidal-Madjar |first3=A. |last4=Ferlet |first4=R. |volume=236 |year=1990 |pages=202–216 |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics }}</ref> around Beta Pictoris, a very young A-type main-sequence star. There are now a total of 11 stars around which exocomets have been observed or suspected.<ref name="Lagrange-Henri et al.1990">{{ cite journal | bibcode=1990A&A...227L..13L |title=HR 10 - A new Beta Pictoris-like star? |author1=Lagrange-Henri, A. M. |author2=Beust, H. |author3=Ferlet, R. |author4=Vidal-Madjar, A. |author5= Hobbs, L. M. |last-author-amp=yes |year=1990 |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume=227 |pages=L13–L16 }}</ref><ref name="Lecavelier Des Etangs et al.1997">{{ cite journal | bibcode=1997A&A...325..228L |title=HST-GHRS observations of candidate &beta; Pictoris-like circumstellar gaseous disks |author=Lecavelier Des Etangs, A.|display-authors=etal |year=1997 |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume=325 |pages=228–236 }}</ref><ref name="Welsh et al.2013">{{ cite journal | bibcode=2013PASP..125..759W |title=Circumstellar Gas-Disk Variability Around A-Type Stars: The Detection of Exocomets? |author1=Welsh, B. Y. |author2=Montgomery, S. |year=2013 |journal=Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific |volume=125 |issue=929 |pages=759–774 |doi=10.1086/671757 }}</ref><ref name=Kiefer2014>{{ cite journal | bibcode=2014A&A...561L..10K |title=Exocomets in the circumstellar gas disk of HD 172555 |author1=Kiefer, F. |author2=Lecavelier Des Etangs, A. ''et al.'' |year=2014 |journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics |volume=561 |pages=L10 |doi=10.1051/0004-6361/201323128 |arxiv = 1401.1365 }}</ref> All discovered exocometary systems (Beta Pictoris, HR 10,<ref name=" Lagrange-Henri et al.1990" /> 51 Ophiuchi, HR 2174,<ref name=" Lecavelier Des Etangs et al.1997" /> 49 Ceti, 5 Vulpeculae, 2 Andromedae, HD 21620, HD 42111, HD 110411,<ref name="Welsh et al.2013" /><ref name="Space-20130107">{{ cite web |title='Exocomets' Common Across Milky Way Galaxy |date=7 January 2013 |publisher=Space.com |accessdate=8 January 2013 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140916085824/http://www.space.com/19156-exocomets-alien-solar-systems.html }}</ref> and more recently HD 172555<ref name=Kiefer2014/>) are around very young A-type stars. A gaseous cloud around 49 Ceti has been attributed to the collisions of comets in that planetary system.<ref>{{ cite journal |arxiv=1207.1747 |title=A 40 Myr Old Gaseous Circumstellar Disk at 49 Ceti: Massive CO-Rich Comet Clouds at Young A-Type Stars |journal=The Astrophysical Journal |volume=758 |issue=2 |pages=77 |year=2012 |last1=Zuckerman |first1=B. |last2=Song |first2=Inseok |doi=10.1088/0004-637X/758/2/77 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==International Cometary Explorer== [[Image:ISEE3-ICE-trajectory.gif|thumb|right|250px|ISEE-3 is inserted into a "halo" orbit on June 10, 1982. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]] The International Cometary Explorer (ICE) spacecraft was originally known as [the] International Sun/Earth Explorer 3 (ISEE-3) satellite. ISEE-3 was launched on August 12, 1978. It was inserted into a "halo" orbit about the libration point some 240 Earth radii upstream between the Earth and Sun. ISEE-3 was renamed ICE (International Cometary Explorer) when, after completing its original mission in 1982, it was gravitationally maneuvered to intercept the comet P/Giacobini-Zinner. On September 11, 1985, the veteran NASA spacecraft flew through the tail of the comet. The X-ray spectrometer aboard ISEE-3 was designed to study both solar flares and cosmic gamma-ray bursts over the energy range 5-228 keV. The instruments aboard ISEE-3 are designed to detect # protons in the energy range 150 eV - 7 keV and electrons in the 10 eV - 1 keV range (Solar wind plasma experiment), # Low, Medium and High-Energy Cosmic Rays (1-500 MeV/n, Z = 1-28, electrons 2-10 MeV, for Medium Energy; H to Ni, 20-500 MeV/n for High-energy), # H-Fe 30 MeV/n - 15 GeV/n and electrons 5-400 MeV for the Cosmic-Ray Energy Spectrum experiment, # 17 Hz - 100 kHz magnetic and electric field wave levels (Plasma Waves Spectrum Analyzer), # low-energy solar proton acceleration and propagation processes in interplanetary space, Energetic Particle Anisotropy Spectrometer (EPAS), # 2 keV to > 1 MeV interplanetary and solar electrons, # radio mapping of solar wind disturbances (type III bursts) in 3-D, 30 kHz - 2 MHz, # solar wind ion composition, 300-600 km/s, 840 eV/Q to 11.7 keV/Q, M/Q = 1.5 to 5.6, # cosmic ray isotope spectrometer 5-250 MeV/n, Z=3-28, A=6-64 (Li-Ni), # ground based solar studies with the Stanford ground-based solar telescope, and the comparison of these measurements with measurements of the interplanetary magnetic field and solar wind made by other experiments on this spacecraft, # X- and gamma-ray bursts, 5-228 keV, and # Gamma-ray bursts, 0.05-6.5 MeV direction, profile, spectrum.<ref name=Bell>{{ cite book |author=E. Bell II |title=ISEE 3 |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration |location= |date=December 8, 2012 |url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraftDisplay.do?id=1978-079A |accessdate=2012-12-08 }}</ref> {{clear}} ==References== {{reflist|2}} ==External links== * [http://www.aerith.net/comet/weekly/current.html Weekly Information about Bright Comets] <!-- footer templates --> {{Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Comets}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Radiation astronomy/Lectures]] [[Category:Rocks/Lectures]] 2zm6a5qvdu1wxabralo8g17nqe9264c 10 241373 2415627 2404728 2022-08-16T20:04:15Z Marshallsumter 311529 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Navbox | name = Radiation astronomy resources | title = Radiation astronomy resources | bodyclass = hlist | titlestyle = background:#1F75FE; color:#000000; | basestyle = background:#1DACD6; | evenstyle = background:#00BFFF; | oddstyle = background:#08E8DE; | state = {{{state<includeonly>|autocollapse</includeonly>}}} | groupstyle = background:#1DACD6; color:#000000; | belowstyle = background:#1DACD6; color:#000000; | group1 = Courses | list1 = * [[Geology/Courses|Geology courses]] * [[Principles of radiation astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Courses|Radiation astronomy courses]] * [[Stars/Courses|Stars courses]] * [[X-ray astronomy/Course|X-ray astronomy course]] | group2 = Equipment and facilities | list2 = * [[Radiation/Airborne|Airborne radiation astronomy]] * [[Astronomical observatories]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Balloons|Balloon radiation astronomy]] * [[Earth orbits/Astronomy|Earth-orbit radiation astronomy]] * [[Exploratory astronomy|Exploratory radiation astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Guidance systems|Guidance systems for radiation astrometry]] * [[Heliocentric astronomy|Heliocentric radiation astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Rocketry#Orbital rocketry|Orbital-platform radiation astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Temporals#Atomic clocks|Clocks for radiation astrometry]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Detectors|Radiation astronomy detectors]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Telescopes|Radiation astronomy telescopes]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Spectrometers|Radiation astronomy spectrometers]] * [[Spectrographs/Lecture|Spectrographs]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Rocketry#Sounding rockets|Sounding rockets]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Rocketry#Sun-synchronous astronomy|Sun-synchronous radiation astronomy]] | group3 = Laboratories | list3 = * [[Radiation/Analysis/Laboratory|Analytical astronomy]] * [[Cosmogony laboratory|Cosmogony]] * [[Cratering laboratory|Cratering]] * [[Electric orbits]] * [[Electron beam heating/Laboratory|Electron beam heating]] * [[Galaxies/Laboratory|Galaxies]] * [[Intergalactic medium/Laboratory|Intergalactic medium]] * [[Locating the Sun]] * [[Magnetic field reversals/Laboratory|Magnetic field reversal]] * [[Meteorites/Laboratory|Meteorites]] * [[Neutrinos from the Sun]] * [[Spectrum of Vega]] * [[Standard candles/Laboratory|Standard candles]] * [[Vertical precession]] * [[X-ray classification of a star]] * [[X-ray trigonometric parallax/Laboratory|X-ray trigonometric parallax]] | group4 = Lessons | list4 = * [[First blue source in Boötes]] * [[First cyan source in Caelum]] * [[Sources/First gamma-ray source in Triangulum Australe|First gamma-ray source in Triangulum Australe]] * [[Sources/First green source in Tucana|First green source in Tucana]] * [[Sources/First infrared source in Crux|First infrared source in Crux]] * [[First neutron source in Volans]] * [[First orange source in Cancer]] * [[First positron source in Phoenix]] * [[First radio source in Pisces]] * [[First red source in Canis Major]] * [[First submillimeter source in Carina]] * [[First superluminal source in Indus]] * [[Sources/First ultraviolet source in Sagittarius|First ultraviolet source in Sagittarius]] * [[First violet source in Leo]] * [[First X-ray source in Andromeda]] * [[First yellow source in Aquila]] | group5 = Object lectures | list5 = * [[Radiation astronomy/Active galactic nuclei|Active galactic nuclei]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Aerometeors|Aerometeors]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Planets/Classicals/Aion|Aion]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Asteroids|Asteroids]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Clouds|Clouds]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Comets|Comets]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Craters|Craters]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors|Cryometeors]] * [[Rocks/Rocky objects/Earth|Earth]] * [[Europa]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Fieries|Fiery meteors]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Galaxies|Galaxies]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Galaxy clusters|Galaxy clusters]] * [[Ganymede]] * [[Radiation astronomy/High-velocity galaxies|High-velocity galaxies]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Hydrometeors|Hydrometeors]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Hypervelocity stars|Hypervelocity stars]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Intergalactic medium|Intergalactic medium]] * [[Interplanetary medium]] * [[Interstellar medium]] * [[Jupiter]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Kuiper belts|Kuiper belt objects]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Lightnings|Lightning]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Lithometeors|Lithometeors]] * [[Liquids/Liquid objects/Mars|Mars]] * [[Liquids/Liquid objects/Mercury|Mercury]] * [[Meteorites]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Meteoroids|Meteoroids]] * [[Radiation/Meteors|Meteors]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Showers|Meteor showers]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Minerals|Minerals]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Molecules|Molecules]] * [[Liquids/Liquid objects/Moon|Moon]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Nebulas|Nebulas]] * [[Neptune]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Oort clouds|Oort clouds]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Objects|Objects]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Particles|Particles]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Planets|Planetary objects]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Plasmas|Plasma meteors]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Rocks|Rocks]] * [[Rocky-object astronomy|Rocky objects]] * [[Gases/Gaseous objects/Saturn|Saturn]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Scattered disks|Scattered disks]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Standard candles|Standard candles]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Stars|Stars]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminals]] * [[Gases/Gaseous objects/Uranus|Uranus]] | group6 = Problem sets | list6 = * [[Angular momentum and energy]] * [[Column densities]] * [[Cosmic circuits]] * [[Energy phantoms]] * [[Furlongs per fortnight]] * [[Planck's equation]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Problem set]] * [[Radiation dosage]] * [[Radiation mathematics/Problem set]] * [[Spectrographs]] * [[Star jumping]] * [[Synchrotron radiation/Problem set|Synchrotron radiation problem set]] * [[Telescopes and cameras]] * [[Unknown coordinate systems]] * [[Unusual units]] * [[Vectors and coordinates]] | group7 = Quizzes | list7 = * [[Astronomical observatories/Quiz]] * [[Background astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Beta particles/Quiz|Beta-particles astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Blue astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Cosmic-ray astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Crater astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Cyan astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Electromagnetics/Quiz|Electromagnetic astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Radiation/Electromagnetics/Quiz|Electromagnetic radiation/Quiz]] * [[Electron astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Galaxies/Quiz]] * [[Gamma-ray astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Green astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Infrared astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Intergalactic medium/Quiz]] * [[Interplanetary medium/Quiz]] * [[Interstellar medium/Quiz]] * [[Mathematical astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Meteor astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Radiation/Meteors/Quiz|Meteor radiation/Quiz]] * [[Meteorites/Quiz]] * [[Microwave astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Muon astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Neutrino astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Neutron astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Optical astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Orange astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Positron astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Proton astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Radar astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Radiation/Quiz]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Radiation detectors/Quiz]] * [[Radiation mathematics/Quiz]] * [[Radiation/Meteors/Quiz|Radiation meteors/Quiz]] * [[Radiation satellites/Quiz]] * [[Radiation telescopes/Quiz]] * [[Radio astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Red astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Rocky-object astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Standard-candles astronomy/Quiz|Standard candles/Quiz]] * [[Submillimeter astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Superluminal astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Theoretical astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Theoretical radiation astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Ultraviolet astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Violet astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Visual astronomy/Quiz]] * [[X-ray astronomy/Quiz]] * [[X-ray trigonometric parallax/Quiz]] * [[Yellow astronomy/Quiz]] | group8 = Radiation lectures | list8 = * [[Radiation astronomy/Active galactic nuclei|Active galactic nuclei astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Aerometeors|Aerometeor astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Alpha particles|Alpha-particle astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Asteroids|Asteroid astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Baryons|Baryon astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Beta particles|Beta-particle astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Blues|Blue astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Clouds|Cloud astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Colors|Color astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Comets|Cometary astronomy]] * [[Radiation/Cosmic rays|Cosmic-ray astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors|Cryometeor astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Cyans|Cyan astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Electromagnetics|Electromagnetic astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Electrons|Electron astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Fieries|Fiery meteor astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Galaxies|Galaxy astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Galaxy clusters|Galaxy cluster astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Gamma rays|Gamma-ray astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals|Gravitational astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Greens|Green astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Hadrons|Hadron astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/High-velocity galaxies|High-velocity galaxy astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Hydrometeors|Hydrometeor astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Hypervelocity stars|Hypervelocity stellar astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Kuiper belts|Kuiper belt astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Lightnings|Lightning astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Lithometeors|Lithometeor astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Mesons|Meson astronomy]] * [[Radiation/Meteors|Meteor astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Meteoroids|Meteoroid astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Minerals|Mineral astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Showers|Meteor-shower astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Microwaves|Microwave astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Molecules|Molecule astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Muons|Muon astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Nebulas|Nebula astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Neutrals|Neutrals astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Neutrinos|Neutrino astronomy]] * [[Radiation/Neutrons|Neutron astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Oort clouds|Oort cloud astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Opticals|Optical astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Oranges|Orange astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Particles|Particle astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Plasmas|Plasma-meteor astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Positrons|Positron astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Protons|Proton astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Radars|Radar astronomy]] * [[Radiation/Astronomy|Radiation astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Radios|Radio astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Reds|Red astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Rocks|Rock astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Scattered disks|Scattered disk astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Standard candles|Standard candle astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Stars|Stellar astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Subatomics|Subatomics astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Submillimeters|Submillimeter astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Synchrotrons|Synchrotron astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Tauons|Tauon astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Ultraviolets|Ultraviolet astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Violets|Violet astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Visuals|Visual astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/X-rays|X-ray astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Yellows|Yellow astronomy]] | group9 = Resources | list9 = * [[Orbital platforms]] | group10 = Spectroscopy lectures | list10 = * [[Radiation astronomy/Absorptions|Absorption astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Chemistry|Astrochemistry]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Bands|Bands]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Continua|Continuum]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Emissions|Emission astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Empiricisms|Empirical radiation astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Distributionals|Distributional astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Intensities|Intensity astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Lensings|Lensing astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Reflections|Reflection astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Refractions|Refraction astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Scatterings|Scattering astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Sources|Radiation sources]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Spallations|Spallation astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Spatials|Spatial astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Spectrals|Spectral astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Spectroscopy|Spectroscopy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Temporals|Temporal astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Transductions|Transduction astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Transmutations|Transmutation astronomy]] * [[Theory/X-ray trigonometric parallax|X-ray trigonometric parallax]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Wavelength shifts|Wavelength shifts]] | group11 = Theory lectures | list11 = * [[Radiation astronomy/Empiricisms|Empirical radiation astronomy]] * [[Mathematics/Astronomy|Mathematical astronomy]] * [[Radiation mathematics]] * [[Stars/Radiative dynamo|Radiative dynamo]] * [[Theoretical astronomy]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Theory|Theoretical radiation astronomy]] }}<noinclude> =External links= [[Category:Science and nature templates]] </noinclude> gsfg1h92ly8q5w00x9hzs6fnkztyb49 0 246801 2415590 2401139 2022-08-16T15:15:01Z Platos Cave (physics) 2562653 wikitext text/x-wiki '''The mathematical electron model''' In the mathematical electron model <ref>Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= Programming Planck units from a mathematical electron; a Simulation Hypothesis |journal=Eur. Phys. J. Plus |volume=113 |pages=278 |date=22 March 2018 | doi=10.1140/epjp/i2018-12094-x }}</ref>, the electron is a mathematical (geometrical) formula ''f''<sub>e</sub> that embeds (dimensioned) [[v:Planck_units_(geometrical) |geometrical (Planck unit) objects]], yet itself is dimensionless, units = 1 (there is no 'physical' electron), and so is applicable to [[w:simulation hypothesis |simulation hypothesis]] modelling. The dimensioned parameters associated with the electron (mass, wavelength, frequency, charge ...) are derivatives of those embedded Planck units (for mass, length, time, charge ...) the dimension-less mathematical function ''f''<sub>e</sub> dictating the frequencies of the Planck units, ... where ''f''<sub>e</sub> is the geometry of 2 [[w:dimensionless physical constant | dimensionless physical constants]], the (inverse) [[w:fine-structure constant | fine structure constant '''α''']] = 137.035 999 139 (CODATA 2014) and [[v:Planck_units_(geometrical)#Omega | Omega]] '''Ω''' = 2.007 134 9496 :<math>f_e = 4\pi^2(2^6 3 \pi^2 \alpha \Omega^5)^3 = .2389...\;x10^{23}</math>, units = 1 === Geometrical objects === {{main|Planck units (geometrical)}} Base (Planck) units for mass <math>M</math>, length <math>L</math>, time <math>T</math>, and ampere <math>A</math> are constructed as geometrical objects in terms of the [[w:fine-structure constant | fine structure constant ''α'']] and [[v:Simulation_argument_(coding_Planck_units)#Omega | Omega ''Ω'']]. A mathematical unit relationship between the objects is dictated by <math>u^n</math> (the unit number); {| class="wikitable" |+Geometrical units ! Attribute ! Geometrical object ! Unit |- | mass | <math>M = (1)</math> | <math>unit = u^{15}</math> |- | time | <math>T = (\pi)</math> | <math>unit = u^{-30}</math> |- | [[v:Sqrt_Planck_momentum | sqrt(momentum)]] | <math>P = (\Omega)</math> | <math>unit = u^{16}</math> |- | velocity | <math>V = (2\pi\Omega^2)</math> | <math>unit = u^{17}</math> |- | length | <math>L = (2\pi^2\Omega^2)</math> | <math>unit = u^{-13}</math> |- | ampere | <math>A = (\frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^3}{\alpha})</math> | <math>unit = u^3</math> |} These objects are not independent of each other but instead are inter-related according to this unit ''u<sup>n</sup>'' relationship. This also means that they may overlap and cancel, for example the following unit-less (units = 1) ratios; :<math>units; \;\; \frac{(u^{3*3}) (u^{-13*3})}{(u^{-30})} = \frac{(ampere^3) (length^3)}{(time)} == \frac{(u^{-13*15})}{(u^{15*9}) (u^{-30*11})} == \frac{(length^{15})}{(mass^{9}) (time^{11})} = \;...\; =1</math> === Mathematical electron === The electron function (the mathematical formula for the electron) ''f<sub>e</sub>'' incorporates these geometrical base units yet itself is unit-less; units = 1. For example, ''f<sub>e</sub>'' can be defined in terms of ''σ<sub>e</sub>'', where AL as an ampere-meter (ampere-length = ''e*c'') are the units for a [[w:magnetic monopole | magnetic monopole]]. :<math>T = \pi,\; u^{-30}</math> :<math>\sigma_{e} = \frac{3 \alpha^2 A L}{2\pi^2} = {2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha \Omega^5},\; u^{-10}</math> :<math>f_e = \frac{ \sigma_{e}^3}{2T} = \frac{(2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha \Omega^5)^3}{2\pi},\; units = \frac{(u^{-10})^3}{u^{-30}} = 1</math> :<math>f_e = 4\pi^2(2^6 3 \pi^2 \alpha \Omega^5)^3 = .23895453...x10^{23},\;units = 1</math> ===== Electron parameters ===== Associated with the electron are dimensioned parameters, these parameters however deriving from the base units, ''f<sub>e</sub>'' is a mathematical function that dictates how these units are applied, but it does not have dimension units of its own, consequently there is no physical electron. By setting '''MLTA''' to their SI Planck unit equivalents; [[w:electron mass | electron mass]] <math>m_e = \frac{M}{f_e}</math> (M = [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]]) [[w:Compton wavelength | electron wavelength]] <math>\lambda_e = 2\pi L f_e</math> (L = [[w:Planck length | Planck length]]) [[w:elementary charge | elementary charge]] <math>e = A.T</math> (T = [[w:Planck time | Planck time]]) We may interpret this formula for '''f<sub>e</sub>''' whereby for the duration of the electron frequency = 0.2389 x 10<sup>23</sup> units of (Planck) time, the electron is represented by '''AL''' magnetic monopoles, these then intersect with time '''T''', the units then collapse (units '''(A*L)<sup>3</sup>/T''' = 1), exposing a unit of '''M''' (Planck mass) for 1 unit of time, which we could define as the ''mass point-state''. [[w:Wave-particle duality |Wave-particle duality]] can then be represented at the Planck level as an oscillation between an electric (magnetic monopole) wave-state (the duration dictated by ''f<sub>e</sub>'') to this unitary mass point-state. By this artifice, although the 'physical' universe is constructed from particles, particles themselves are not physical, they are mathematical. Consequently this approach is applicable to [[v:God_(programmer) |deep universe]] [[w:simulation hypothesis | simulation hypothesis]] modeling at the Planck scale. ===== Electron Mass ===== If the particle point-state is a unit of Planck mass, then we have a model for a [[w:black hole electron |black-hole electron]], the electron function '''f<sub>e</sub>''' centered around this unit of Planck mass. When the wave-state '''(A*L)<sup>3</sup>/T''' units collapse, this black-hole center is exposed for 1 unit of (Planck) time. The electron is 'now' (a unit of Planck) mass '''M'''. Mass in this consideration is not a constant property of the particle, rather the measured particle mass '''m''' would refer to the average mass, the average occurrence of the Planck mass point-state as measured over time. As for each wave-state then is a corresponding point-state, and as ''hv'' is a measure of the frequency of the wave-state, ''E = hv = mc2''. Notably however the ''c'' term is a constant unlike the ''v'' term, and so the ''m'' term is considered to refer to average mass. If the [[v:Black-hole_(Planck) |scaffolding of the universe]] includes units of (Planck) mass '''M''', then it is not necessary for the particle to have a mass '''M''', instead the point state could be the absence of particle. ===== Quarks ===== The AL magnetic monopoles may be analogous to quarks (as exponents of ''u''), but as due to the symmetry and so stability of the geometrical ''f<sub>e</sub>'' there is no fracture point by which an electron could decay, and so resemblance is conjecture. Nevertheless this could explain why the magnitude of electron charge appears to be exactly equivalent to the proton charge (and the sum universe electrically neutral) and so a quark model is worth speculation. For example, a single AL monopole ''D'' = <math>\sigma_{e}</math> could equate to a quark with an [[w:electric charge|electric charge]] of {{sfrac|-1|3}}&nbsp;[[w:elementary charge|''e'']]. 3 ''D'' quarks would constitute the electron as DDD = (AL)<sup>3</sup>. There is a candidate for a quark with an charge of {{sfrac|2|3}}&nbsp;''e'', denoted here ''U'' = <math>\sigma_{t}</math> and is centered on [[w:Planck temperature|Planck temperature T<sub>p</sub>]]. The symbols ''U'' and ''D'' are used to illustrate the charge. Note that the units for the ''U'' (magnetic monopole) quark are not the same as the units for the ''D'' (Planck temperature) quark. The basic quark versions might look like; :<math>\sigma_{e} = \frac{3 \alpha^2 A L}{2\pi^2} = ({2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha \Omega^5}),\; units = u^{-10}</math> :<math>T_p = \frac{2^7 \pi^3 \Omega^5}{\alpha},\; units = u^{20},\;...\; \sigma_{t} = \frac{3 \alpha^2 T_p}{2\pi} = ({2^6 3 \pi^2 \alpha \Omega^5}),\; units = u^{20}</math> DDD: &nbsp;&nbsp;<math>f_e = \frac{ \sigma_{e}^3}{2T} = \frac{(2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha \Omega^5)^3}{2\pi},\; units = \frac{(u^{-10})^3}{u^{-30}} = 1, \;charge = \frac{-1}{3}.\frac{-1}{3}.\frac{-1}{3} = -1e</math> DDU: &nbsp;&nbsp;<math>\sigma_{e}^2 \sigma_{t} = {(2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha \Omega^5)}^2 {(2^6 3 \pi^2 \alpha \Omega^5)},\; units = (u^{-10})^2 (u^{20}) = 1, \;charge = \frac{-1}{3}.\frac{-1}{3}.\frac{2}{3} = 0</math> UUU: &nbsp;&nbsp;<math>(2T)^2 \sigma_{t}^3 = {(2\pi)}^2 {(2^6 3 \pi^2 \alpha \Omega^5)}^3,\; units = (u^{-30})^2 (u^{20})^3 = 1, \;charge = \frac{2}{3}.\frac{2}{3}.\frac{2}{3} = 2e</math> UUD: &nbsp;&nbsp;<math>(2T) \sigma_{t}^2 \sigma_{e} = {(2\pi)} {(2^6 3 \pi^2 \alpha \Omega^5)}^2 {(2^7 3 \pi^3 \alpha \Omega^5)},\; units = (u^{-30}) (u^{20})^2 (u^{-10}) = 1, \;charge = \frac{2}{3}.\frac{2}{3}.\frac{-1}{3} = 1e</math> All the above return the electron formula ''f''<sub>e</sub> but in different charge configurations. The proton and neutron quarks would then be constructed upon these configurations, the electron as the fundamental particle. === Derivation via SI units === ==== Magnetic monopole ==== A [[w:magnetic monopole | magnetic monopole]] is a hypothesized particle that is a magnet with only 1 pole. The unit for the magnetic monopole is the ampere-meter, the SI unit for pole strength (the product of charge and velocity) in a magnet (''A m = e c''). A proposed formula for a magnetic monopole ''σ<sub>e</sub>'' <ref>Macleod, M.J. {{Cite journal |title= Programming Planck units from a mathematical electron; a Simulation Hypothesis |journal=Eur. Phys. J. Plus |volume=113 |pages=278 |date=22 March 2018 | doi=10.1140/epjp/i2018-12094-x }}</ref>; :<math>\sigma_{e} = \frac{3 \alpha^2 e c}{2 \pi^2} = 0.13708563.... \;x 10^{-6},\; units = \frac{C m}{s} </math> The following gives a formula for an electron in terms of magnetic monopoles and [[w:Planck time | Planck time]] (<math>t_p</math>). :<math>f_e = \frac{\sigma_e^3}{2 t_p} = 0.2389.... \;x 10^{23},\; units = \frac{C^3 m^3}{s^4}</math> However, although this gives us the correct numerical value, this gives us incorrect units when solving the electron mass (<math>m_P</math> = [[w:Planck mass | Planck mass]]). :<math>m_e = \frac{m_P}{f_e} = 0.910938.... \;x 10^{30},\; units = kg \frac{C^3 m^3}{s^4}</math> To resolve this we can consider the possibility that the units for ''A, m, s'' are related whereby units <math>\frac{C^3 m^3}{s^4} = 1</math> ==== Sqrt Planck momentum ==== {{main|Sqrt Planck momentum}} The sqrt of Planck momentum is not a recognized constant (it has no SI designation) and so here is denoted as ''Q'' with units ''q'' whereby Planck momentum = ''2 π Q<sup>2</sup>'', unit = kg.m/s = q<sup>2</sup>. :<math>Q = 1.019\; 113\; 411...\; unit = q \;</math> Replacing ''m'' with ''q''; [[w:Planck length | Planck length]] <math>l_p,\; unit = m = \color{red}\frac{q^2s}{kg}\color{black}</math> [[w:Speed_of_light | Speed of light]] <math>c,\; unit = \frac{m}{s} = \frac{q^2}{kg}</math> [[w:elementary charge | elementary charge]] <math>e = \frac{16 l_p c^2}{\alpha Q^3},\; units = C = \frac{q^3 s}{kg^3}</math> The excess electron mass units become; :<math> \frac{C^3 m^3}{s^4} = \frac{q^{15}s^2}{kg^{12}}</math> The Rydberg constant ''R<sub>{{math|∞|size=150%}}</sub>''. [[w:Vacuum_permeability | Vacuum permeability]] <math>\mu_0 = \frac{\pi^2 \alpha Q^8}{32 l_p c^5} = \frac{4 \pi}{10^7},\; units = \frac{kg \;m}{s^2 A^2} = \frac{kg^6}{q^4 s}</math> :<math>R_\infty = \frac{m_e e^4 \mu_0^2 c^3}{8 h^3} = \frac{2^5 c^5 \mu_0^3}{3^3 \pi \alpha^8 Q^{15}},\; units = \frac{1}{m} = \color{red}\frac{kg^{13}}{q^{17} s^3}\color{black} </math> This however now gives us 2 solutions for length ''m'', if we conjecture that they are both valid, then there must be a ratio whereby the units ''q, s, kg'' overlap and cancel; :<math>m = \frac{q^2 s}{kg}.\frac{q^{15} s^2}{kg^{12}} = \frac{q^{17} s^3}{kg^{13}};\; thus\; \color{red}\frac{q^{15} s^2}{kg^{12}}\color{black} = 1</math> Which in terms of kg, m, s becomes :<math>q^2 = \frac{kg m}{s};\; q^{30} = (\frac{kg m}{s})^{15}</math> :<math>(\frac{q^{15} s^2}{kg^{12}})^2 = \frac{kg^{9} s^{11}}{m^{15}} = 1</math> === External links === * [[v:Planck_units_(geometrical) | Programming Planck units as geometrical objects]] * [[v:Relativity_(Planck) | Programming relativity at the Planck scale]] * [[v:Quantum_gravity_(Planck) | Programming gravity at the Planck level]] * [[v:Black-hole_(Planck) | Programming the cosmic microwave background at the Planck level]] * [[v:Sqrt_Planck_momentum | The sqrt of Planck momentum]] * [[v:God_(programmer) | The Programmer God]] * [[w:Simulation_hypothesis | The Simulation hypothesis]] * [https://codingthecosmos.com/physical-constants-evidence-of-a-simulation-universe.html Do the physical constants embed evidence that we are in a simulation?] * [https://codingthecosmos.com/planck-scale.html Programming at the Planck scale using geometrical objects] -Malcolm Macleod's website * [http://www.simulation-argument.com/ Simulation Argument] -Nick Bostrom's website * [https://www.amazon.com/Our-Mathematical-Universe-Ultimate-Reality/dp/0307599809 Our Mathematical Universe: My Quest for the Ultimate Nature of Reality] -Max Tegmark === References === {{Reflist}} [[Category: Physics]] [[Category: Philosophy of science]] r149605tcsn8atbp89tg5nm09dkogyf 0 250643 2415728 2026424 2022-08-17T06:15:29Z Marshallsumter 311529 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Comet-Hale-Bopp-29-03-1997 hires adj.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The comet Hale–Bopp in the night sky. Credit: [http://salzgeber.at Philipp Salzgeber].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''[[Radiation astronomy/Comets|Cometary radiation astronomy]]''' is a lecture studying the astronomical objects referred to as comets both as radiation and with radiation astronomy. You are free to take this quiz based on the lecture [[Radiation astronomy/Comets|comets]] at any time. To improve your score, read and study the lecture, the links contained within, listed under [[Radiation astronomy/Comets/Quiz#See also|'''See also''']], [[Radiation astronomy/Comets/Quiz#External links|'''External links''']], and in the {{tlx|radiation astronomy resources}} template. This should give you adequate background to get 100 %. As a "learning by doing" resource, this quiz helps you to assess your knowledge and understanding of the information, and it is a quiz you may take over and over as a learning resource to improve your knowledge, understanding, test-taking skills, and your score. '''Suggestion:''' Have the lecture available in a separate window. To master the information and use only your memory while taking the quiz, try rewriting the information from more familiar points of view, or be creative with association. Enjoy learning by doing! {{clear}} ==Quiz== <quiz> {Yes or No, A comet is a small solar system body that has a solid icy nucleus. |type="()"} + Yes - No {Which of the following is not a radiation phenomenon associated with a comet? |type="()"} - airglow - elongated dust particles - high albedo - olivine - Rayleighs + coronal mass ejection {True or False, An hypothesized Oort cloud or protoplanetary disc has been observed around other stars. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Which of the following are radiation astronomy phenomena associated with comets? |type="[]"} - low albedo - relatively featureless + cyanogen detected - neutron emission + rotationally asymmetric + meteor emission + changes in its tail {Yes or No, When near the Sun a comet can also have an extremely tenuous atmosphere called a coma which can grow into a large and bright tail. |type="()"} + Yes - No {Observations of comets have benefited greatly from what phenomenon of cyan astronomy? |type="()"} - Cherenkov radiation - the electric blue glow of lightning - gas-expansion velocity decreases with increasing heliocentric distance - methane possesses prominent absorption bands in the visible - adaptive optics + the light of the neutral CN-radical {True or False, Comet West of 1976 is now settled into an orbit around Mars. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Sun-grazing { comets (i) } almost never re-emerge, but their { sublimative (i) } destruction near the { sun (i) } has only recently been observed directly, while { chromospheric (i) } impacts have not yet been seen, nor impact theory developed. {Yes or No, Nuclei are destroyed by ablation or explosion in the chromosphere, producing flare-like events with cometary abundance spectra. |type="()"} + Yes - No {On 19 May 1910, the Earth actually passed through the tail of what comet. |type="{}"} { Halley's (i) } {Yes or No, The death of a comet at r ~ R<sub>⨀</sub> has been seen directly only very recently using the SDO AIA XUV instrument. |type="()"} + Yes - No {Complete the text: |type="{}"} The phenomenon of { flare (i) } induced sunquakes - waves in the { photosphere (i) } - discovered by Kosovichev and Zharkova (1998) and now widely studied (e.g. Kosovichev 2006) has only recently been { observed (i) } should also result from the { momentum (i) } impulse delivered by a cometary impact. {Yes or No, A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04. |type="()"} + Yes - No {True or False, Olivine is a silicate mineral that may be detected in cometary coma dust with green astronomy. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Yes or No, A cometary orbit about the Sun is a radiation astronomy phenomenon. |type="()"} + Yes - No </quiz> ==Hypotheses== {{main|Hypotheses}} # Some comets originated with the apparent breakup of the former sky-god Ouranus. ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=12em}} * [[Astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Ceres/Quiz]] * [[Planetary science/Quiz]] * [[Radiation chemistry/Quiz|Radiation astrochemistry/Quiz]] * [[Radiation geography/Quiz|Radiation astrogeography/Quiz]] * [[Radiation history/Quiz|Radiation astrohistory/Quiz]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Theoretical radiation astronomy/Quiz]] {{Div col end}} ==External links== * [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union] * [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center] * [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System] * [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database] * [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA] * [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter] <!-- footer templates --> {{Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Comets}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Astrophysics quizzes]] [[Category:Atmospheric sciences quizzes]] [[Category:Radiation astronomy quizzes]] reraj37mag81o5jn53lg7u3mqt21odh 2415732 2415728 2022-08-17T06:17:48Z Marshallsumter 311529 /* See also */ wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:Comet-Hale-Bopp-29-03-1997 hires adj.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The comet Hale–Bopp in the night sky. Credit: [http://salzgeber.at Philipp Salzgeber].{{tlx|free media}}]] '''[[Radiation astronomy/Comets|Cometary radiation astronomy]]''' is a lecture studying the astronomical objects referred to as comets both as radiation and with radiation astronomy. You are free to take this quiz based on the lecture [[Radiation astronomy/Comets|comets]] at any time. To improve your score, read and study the lecture, the links contained within, listed under [[Radiation astronomy/Comets/Quiz#See also|'''See also''']], [[Radiation astronomy/Comets/Quiz#External links|'''External links''']], and in the {{tlx|radiation astronomy resources}} template. This should give you adequate background to get 100 %. As a "learning by doing" resource, this quiz helps you to assess your knowledge and understanding of the information, and it is a quiz you may take over and over as a learning resource to improve your knowledge, understanding, test-taking skills, and your score. '''Suggestion:''' Have the lecture available in a separate window. To master the information and use only your memory while taking the quiz, try rewriting the information from more familiar points of view, or be creative with association. Enjoy learning by doing! {{clear}} ==Quiz== <quiz> {Yes or No, A comet is a small solar system body that has a solid icy nucleus. |type="()"} + Yes - No {Which of the following is not a radiation phenomenon associated with a comet? |type="()"} - airglow - elongated dust particles - high albedo - olivine - Rayleighs + coronal mass ejection {True or False, An hypothesized Oort cloud or protoplanetary disc has been observed around other stars. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Which of the following are radiation astronomy phenomena associated with comets? |type="[]"} - low albedo - relatively featureless + cyanogen detected - neutron emission + rotationally asymmetric + meteor emission + changes in its tail {Yes or No, When near the Sun a comet can also have an extremely tenuous atmosphere called a coma which can grow into a large and bright tail. |type="()"} + Yes - No {Observations of comets have benefited greatly from what phenomenon of cyan astronomy? |type="()"} - Cherenkov radiation - the electric blue glow of lightning - gas-expansion velocity decreases with increasing heliocentric distance - methane possesses prominent absorption bands in the visible - adaptive optics + the light of the neutral CN-radical {True or False, Comet West of 1976 is now settled into an orbit around Mars. |type="()"} - TRUE + FALSE {Complete the text: |type="{}"} Sun-grazing { comets (i) } almost never re-emerge, but their { sublimative (i) } destruction near the { sun (i) } has only recently been observed directly, while { chromospheric (i) } impacts have not yet been seen, nor impact theory developed. {Yes or No, Nuclei are destroyed by ablation or explosion in the chromosphere, producing flare-like events with cometary abundance spectra. |type="()"} + Yes - No {On 19 May 1910, the Earth actually passed through the tail of what comet. |type="{}"} { Halley's (i) } {Yes or No, The death of a comet at r ~ R<sub>⨀</sub> has been seen directly only very recently using the SDO AIA XUV instrument. |type="()"} + Yes - No {Complete the text: |type="{}"} The phenomenon of { flare (i) } induced sunquakes - waves in the { photosphere (i) } - discovered by Kosovichev and Zharkova (1998) and now widely studied (e.g. Kosovichev 2006) has only recently been { observed (i) } should also result from the { momentum (i) } impulse delivered by a cometary impact. {Yes or No, A typical comet nucleus has an albedo of 0.04. |type="()"} + Yes - No {True or False, Olivine is a silicate mineral that may be detected in cometary coma dust with green astronomy. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Yes or No, A cometary orbit about the Sun is a radiation astronomy phenomenon. |type="()"} + Yes - No </quiz> ==Hypotheses== {{main|Hypotheses}} # Some comets originated with the apparent breakup of the former sky-god Ouranus. ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Radiation astronomy/Astronomy/Quiz|Astronomy quiz]] * [[Planetary science/Quiz]] * [[Radiation chemistry/Quiz|Radiation astrochemistry/Quiz]] * [[Radiation geography/Quiz|Radiation astrogeography/Quiz]] * [[Radiation history/Quiz|Radiation astrohistory/Quiz]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Theoretical radiation astronomy/Quiz]] {{Div col end}} ==External links== * [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union] * [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center] * [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System] * [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database] * [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA] * [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter] <!-- footer templates --> {{Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Comets}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Astrophysics quizzes]] [[Category:Atmospheric sciences quizzes]] [[Category:Radiation astronomy quizzes]] 7h87tb4o4qc8j9fd2lt6b1gji5lvcq3 0 250644 2415730 2026426 2022-08-17T06:16:44Z Marshallsumter 311529 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Image:High pressure Area Sep 08 2012.jpg|thumb|250px|right|True color satellite image of an unusual anticyclone off southern Australia in the Southern Hemisphere, on September 8, 2012, showing a counter-clockwise rotation around an oval area of clear skies. Credit: NASA, MODIS Rapid Response System.{{tlx|free media}}]] '''[[Radiation astronomy/Aerometeors|Aerometeor radiation astronomy]]''' is a lecture for the [[Portal:Radiation astronomy|radiation astronomy department]] course on the [[principles of radiation astronomy]]. You are free to take this quiz based on [[Radiation astronomy/Aerometeors|aerometeor radiation astronomy]] at any time. To improve your score, read and study the lecture, the links contained within, listed under [[Radiation astronomy/Aerometeors/Quiz#See also|'''See also''']], [[Radiation astronomy/Aerometeors/Quiz#External links|'''External links''']], and in the {{tlx|principles of radiation astronomy}} template. This should give you adequate background to get 100 %. As a "learning by doing" resource, this quiz helps you to assess your knowledge and understanding of the information, and it is a quiz you may take over and over as a learning resource to improve your knowledge, understanding, test-taking skills, and your score. '''Suggestion:''' Have the lecture available in a separate window. To master the information and use only your memory while taking the quiz, try rewriting the information from more familiar points of view, or be creative with association. Enjoy learning by doing! {{clear}} ==Quiz== <quiz> {Usually associated with clouds filling the sky, thunder and lightning, wind and what water based meteorites |type="{}"} { rain (i) } {True or False, Atmospheric rivers flow through the sky about a mile above the ocean surface. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Complete the text: |type="{}"} The 0.6m Tortugas Mountain Observatory is used to monitor the temporal changes in the { Jovian|Jupiter (i) } cloud deck and equatorial activity on { Saturn (i) }. {Which of the following are theoretical X-ray astronomy phenomena associated with astrophysics? |type="[]"} + a thermal plasma mechanism + idea of a close binary + synchrotron radiation + high-density wind extinction - a polar diameter that exceeds ever so slightly the equatorial diameter at solar cycle minimum - super soft X-rays - hot active regions with temperatures hot enough to fuse hydrogen - sunspots at the feet of coronal loops {Complete the text: |type="{}"} An aerometeor is a { discrete (i) } unit of air traveling or { falling (i) } through an atmosphere. {Which weather phenomena are most likely to interfere with observing stars? |type="[]"} + a late-summer rainstorm - a clear sky + an approaching dust storm - below normal temperatures + a typhoon + a snow fall + fog {Any natural object radiating through a portion or all of a natural object's atmosphere may be called a what? |type="{}"} { meteor (i) } {Yes or No, Without a scale, we really had no way to objectively communicate what would be a strong storm or a weak one. |type="()"} + yes - no {True or False, Pineapple Express storms are the most commonly represented and recognized type of atmospheric rivers. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {On 19 May 1910, the Earth actually passed through the tail of what comet. |type="{}"} { Halley's (i) } {True or False, The Great Red Spot on Jupiter is, in fact, the inverse phenomenon, an anticyclone. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {A system of winds that spiral out from a centre of high pressure is called an |type="{}"} { anticyclone (i) } {True or False, Cyclogenesis is the process of cyclone formation and intensification.. |type="()"} + TRUE - FALSE {Which of the following are radiation astronomy phenomena associated with the gaseous-object Neptune? |type="[]"} - Voyager 2 + blue rays + clouds - neutron emission - polar coronal holes + meteor emission - rotation </quiz> ==Hypotheses== {{main|Hypotheses}} # Meteors range in size from galaxy clusters to dust grains and molecular clusters. ==See also== {{div col|colwidth=20em}} * [[Astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Green astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Planetary science/Quiz]] * [[Radiation chemistry/Quiz|Radiation astrochemistry/Quiz]] * [[Radiation geography/Quiz|Radiation astrogeography/Quiz]] * [[Radiation history/Quiz|Radiation astrohistory/Quiz]] * [[Radiation astronomy/Quiz]] * [[Theoretical radiation astronomy/Quiz]] {{Div col end}} ==External links== * [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union] * [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center] * [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System] * [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer] * [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database] * [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate] * [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA] * [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter] <!-- footer templates --> {{tlx|Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{Sisterlinks|Meteor astronomy}} <!-- categories --> [[Category:Astrophysics quizzes]] [[Category:Meteorology quizzes]] [[Category:Meteors quizzes]] [[Category:Radiation astronomy quizzes]] p2rkpblixxlu9jh1ce7zt62wfmxuqny 0 250742 2415569 2394979 2022-08-16T13:08:13Z Sophivorus 85690 Normalize wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikidebate}} '''Polygamy''' is the practice of marrying multiple spouses. Worldwide, different societies variously encourage, accept or outlaw polygamy. == Polygamy should be legal == === Arguments for === * {{Argument for}} Everyone should be free to do anything that doesn't harm others. Marrying multiple people is a free choice between the parties involved and doesn't harm others, so it should be allowed. === Arguments against === * {{Argument against}} When polygamy is allowed, polygyny (one man, many women) becomes more common than polyandry (one woman, many men), so in practice a polygamous society leads to a polygynous society, which violates the dignity of women. ** {{Objection}} Polyandry could also violate the dignity of women through the mechanism of spousal abuse. Monogamy has been shown to violate the dignity of women in some circumstances.{{Citation needed}} Therefore this is an argument against certain kinds of society independent of the parity of unions, not against polygamy in the most general sense. * {{Argument against}} Polygamy leads to some people having no spouses, which generates resentment and destabilizes society. ** {{Objection}} There's also some people with a lot of money and others with none, which generates resentment and destabilizes society, but we don't forbid people from having a lot of money just because other people can't handle it. *** {{Objection}} There are proposals to do just that, some implemented, so it is an inapt analogy. ** {{Objection}} In a monogamous society, there's some people with a spouse and others without, and that doesn't cause particular resentment or social instability. * {{Argument against}} Polygamy implies that each spouse gets only a fraction of the time, attention, resources and love of their partner. ** {{Objection}} This is true for all relationships. People have multiple family members, multiple friends, coworkers, etc. that they split time with. In these cases, having more members within a group is typically seen as a positive because it creates diversity. == See also == * [[Should same-sex marriage be legal?]] == External links == * [[Wikipedia:Polygamy]] op63y2iy611nz9vtwmx7cwuh0ct5n7u 0 253027 2415699 2344866 2022-08-17T04:19:47Z Jtneill 10242 /* What is cognitive evaluation theory? */ Fixed grammar wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Cognitive evaluation theory and motivation:<br>What is CET and how can it be applied to improving motivation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://youtu.be/BOI942Ia3Es}} __TOC__ ==Overview== Cognitive evaluation theory ([[wikipedia:Cognitive_evaluation_theory|CET]]) is a sub-theory of [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Self-determination theory|self determination theory]] (SDT), see figure 1 (Deci & Ryan, 2008; Gagni & Deci, 2005). It is hypothesized by SDT that there are three universal needs for all humans; competence, autonomy, and relatedness (Deci & Ryan, 2008; Drylund & Wininger, 2006). CET focuses on two in particular, competence and autonomy. The three propositions of CET are (Mandigo & Holt, 2013): # External events that promote internal locus of causality (attribution of events) promote autonomy and intrinsic motivation while external events that promote an external locus of causality have the opposite effect. #External events that increase competence will raise intrinsic motivation and events that decrease competence undermine intrinsic motivation. #Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are affected by whether an event is controlling or informational. These propositions assist individuals in determining if the external event will increase intrinsic motivation (enjoyment and desire to participate of their own accord) or decrease it. In order to increase intrinsic motivation external events should not be controlling and need to be informational, see [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Cognitive evaluation theory and motivation#How does CET relate to motivation?|How does CET relate to motivation?]] (Mandigo & Holt, 2013; Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2009). [[File:SDT macrotheory.png|thumb|560x560px|''Figure 1.'' Cognitive evaluation theory as a sub theory to self-determination theory.]] This theory was developed to explain and identify the factors involved in social contexts and the outcomes these factors produce on [[intrinsic motivation|intrinsic motivation]] (Drylund & Wininger, 2006; Gagni & Deci, 2005). There are two main types of motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic; CET examines the effect of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Intrinsically motivated individuals choose to do a task because they are interested in it, enjoy the task or enjoy the challenge it presents (Drylund & Wininger, 2006; Gagni & Deci, 2005). It is essential that the needs of an individual are supported and informed and not thwarted in order to increase intrinsic motivation (Bartholomew et al., 2011; Deci & Ryan, 2008; Gagne & Deci, 2005). {{RoundBoxTop}} Focus questions: * What is cognitive evaluation theory? * Why is cognitive evaluation theory important in motivation study? * What is intrinsic motivation and what does it affect? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is cognitive evaluation theory? == Cognitive evaluation theory (CET) was first examined by Deci and Ryan (1985) (Riley, 2016; Deco & Ryan, 2008; Drylund & Wininger, 2006), is a [[psychology|psychological]] theory designed to examine and explain the effects of external consequences on internal motivation (Drylund & Wininger, 2006; Gagni & Deci, 2005). It is a sub-theory of SDT, focused on competence and autonomy, examining how motivation is affected by external forces while investigating the social and environmental factors influencing intrinsic motivation (Chae et al., 2017; Riley., 2016; Deci & Ryan, 2008; Drylund & Wininger, 2006). === Competence === * Competence is the need to experience mastery (of skills, hobbies, techniques etc), and to produce desired outcomes. Essentially, our need is to be good at the things we are interested in (Wang, et al., 2019; Riley., 2016). *When an individual feels responsible for their success and improvement of a task their competence levels and intrinsic motivation increase (Gagne & Deci, 2005). * An element of competence is optimal challenge; optimal challenge is the alignment of an individual's skill level (competence) with the difficulty of the task (see figure 2). If a task is overly challenging, for example giving a Rubik's cube to a preschooler, it will result in frustration of needs instead of competence. A wooden puzzle with a few big, easy to connect pieces is still engaging for the child but the task set is more age appropriate, resulting in optimal challenge and high levels of competence (Riley; 2016; Bartholomew et al., 20011; Mandigo, et al., 2008; Gagne & Deci, 2005). [[File:Optimal challenge flickr.jpg|thumb|278x278px|''Figure 2.'' Optimal challenge example]] *Competence is a reflection of an individual's beliefs about their abilities and it is negatively affected by perceived tension, pressure or control (Wang, et al., 2019; Riley., 2016; Bartholomew et al., 2011; Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2009). *A study by Drylund and Wininger (2006) on exercise attendance found participant's{{gr}} attendance {{where}} was most heavily influenced by perceived competence. Attendance levels were high when an individual perceived their abilities and competence as high (Bartholomew et al., 2011). This demonstrates that your level of competence influences how motivated you are to participate. We tend to enjoy things we are good at or find challenging and avoid things we perceive as overly difficult or things we are not skilled in. *Intrinsic motivation and perceived competence levels are enhanced when we receive constructive and informative feedback. Competence levels are more likely to rise when we are supported but also informed on ways we can improve. For example a coach saying "Good job!" or alternatively "You aren't scoring many goals today." is not informative. If instead a coach were to say "You aren't scoring many goals today, I can give you some practice drills to improve your aim and agility", the coach is providing the individual with some informative advice. Now the individual can go and work on these skills and improve their level of competence (Riley., 2016; Mandigo & Holt, 2013; Bartholomew et al., 2011). === Autonomy === * Autonomy is the need to feel ownership over one's behaviours and choices. Autonomous behaviour occurs when our decisions are being guided by our own beliefs and interests as opposed to being pressured or influenced into a decision (Wang, et al., 2019; Drylund & Wininger, 2006). * If you have been taking ballet lessons, guitar lessons or swimming lessons since you were a child and your parents signed you up, are you taking them because you want to, or because you feel you have to? Autonomy affects your enjoyment and motivation to do well in an activity; low levels of autonomy occur when you are pressured to participate. If you yourself chose to start ballet lessons or to learn an instrument you were exercising high levels of autonomy, and chances are you enjoy this activity much more than the one your parents or peers pushed you towards (Bartholomew et al., 2011; Drylund & Wininger, 2006). [[File:Anxiety cloud.png|thumb|''Figure 3.'' Anxiety cloud ~ a list of emotions that can be caused by controlling motivating styles]] * Reflective endorsement, constraints and demand can influence autonomy but one can still be behaving with full autonomy if influenced. For example you stop at red lights; you are being externally influenced to do this but when reflecting on the importance of these traffic laws you can consent to this constraint and will therefore not lose autonomy (Ryan & Deci, 2006). * There are two types of autonomy motivating styles: *# Autonomy supportive *# Controlling * Autonomy supportive motivating styles result in greater engagement, higher achievements and learning, more self-regulation and improved well-being (Reeve, et al. 2013; Bartholomew et al., 2011). * Controlling motivating styles result in frustration of autonomy and negative emotions (anger and anxiety) (Reeve, et al. 2013; Bartholomew et al., 2011; Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2009). *When an individual is behaving autonomously, they will be more deeply engaged and productive because they are intrinsically motivated (Riley., 2016; Ryan & Deci, 2006). *Learning, autonomy and self-motivation all decrease if an individual is offered a reward to participate; their sense of autonomy is taken away. Providing a sense of choice, and promoting autonomy by acknowledging and listening to thoughts, questions or ideas will boost intrinsic motivation and encourage an individual to strive to do well (Riley., 2016). == How does CET relate to motivation? == CET is essentially about discovering the effects that extrinsic rewards or events can have on an individual's intrinsic motivation. Can external influences alter our internal thought and behaviour process in regards to motivation? There are two main forms of motivation; intrinsic and extrinsic and they can be thought of as internal motivators (intrinsic) and external motivators (extrinsic). This section explains the difference between the two and the effects each can have on motivation. === Intrinsic motivation === * [[Intrinsic motivation|'''Intrinsic motivation''']] is enhanced by participating in activities or tasks that an individual has an interest in, has control over (autonomy), and helps them achieve their personal goals and skill improvements (competence). Alternatively if an individual feels they are being controlled by external factors or pressures, their intrinsic motivation will decrease (Riley., 2016; Mandigo & Holt, 2013; Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2009). * Intrinsic motivation is the most autonomous form of motivation because it is completely determined by an individual's interests, beliefs and preferences (Chae et al., 2017; Drylund & Wininger, 2006). * In order to satisfy an individual's psychological needs for competence and autonomy, they will engage in an activity that is intrinsically motivated (Drylund & Wininger, 2006). * Associated with pleasure, interest or enjoyment (Wang, et al., 2019; Riley., 2016; Gagni & Deci, 2005){{gr}}. * Associated with the idea of "free-will", linking back to autonomy although these free-will theories are still highly debated topics in psychology (Ryan & Deci, 2006){{gr}}. * Using autonomy-supportive methods of motivation such as a teacher involving the class in the decision making process of what they will do in class today or minimising the pressure put on grades can positively impact intrinsic motivation (Mandigo, et al., 2008). * Enjoyment levels affect intrinsic motivation; the more enjoyment an individual gets from an activity, the higher their desire to participate in the activity again (Riley., 2016; Mandigo, et al., 2008; Gagni & Deci, 2005). [[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|thumb|''Figure 4.'' The boy on the left is playing to win (extrinsic motivation), the boy on the right is playing for fun (intrinsic motivation)]] === Extrinsic motivation === * There are four types of [[extrinsic motivation|'''extrinsic motivation''']] (Drylund & Wininger, 2006): *# External regulation: most controlling and least autonomous form of motivation, behaviour is controlled with punishments and external rewards. *# Introjected regulation: governed by internal pressures such as avoiding guilt or attaining pride. *# Identified regulation: identifies with the importance of a task and takes on regulation of the task. *# Integrated regulation: driven by values associated with an outcome, these are behaviours that are fully incorporated into one's self. *Extrinsic motivation is the least autonomous form of motivation because it is completely controlled by external factors, other people, pressure and environmental or social influences (Drylund & Wininger, 2006; Gagni & Deci, 2005). * Extrinsic motivation is often seen as a controlling motivation style as opposed to a supportive one; for example in a school setting with a very distinct hierarchy of authority, competitive nature, frequent and highly weighted tests, detentions and other forms of punishment or threats of punishment is a very controlling and extrinsic setting. This type of environment is more harmful to motivation and does not allow an individual to grow or become autonomous (Chae et al., 2017; Reeve, et al., 2013). * Extrinsic incentives such as rewards (bonus pay checks, higher grades, special treats for good behaviour) can be used to motivate individuals (Reeve, et al., 2013; Mandigo & Holt, 2013). === Effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation === * Rewards are generally associated with extrinsic motivation; however some rewards can enhance intrinsic motivation as opposed to decreasing it. Rewards like praise and feedback can enhance intrinsic motivation and feelings of competence (Mandigo & Holt, 2013; Gagni & Deci, 2005). *If an external task/stimuli can offer the individual some form of choice, autonomy levels will increase, prompting enhanced task engagement and a shift from external to internal [[wikipedia:Locus_of_control|'''locus of control''']], in turn increasing intrinsic motivation (Gagni & Deci, 2005). * If a reward is supporting an individuals{{gr}} choices and informing their feelings of competence then intrinsic motivation will remain unaffected and in some cases could improve, however, if a reward is seemingly controlling then intrinsic motivation will plummet (Riley., 2016; Gagni & Deci, 2005). *Controlling rewards such as scholarships or money decreases intrinsic motivation (Riley., 2016; Mandigo & Holt, 2013; Gagni & Deci, 2005). For example, if you were volunteering by choice because you enjoy the feeling of helping others and are not paid or physically rewarded in any way you are intrinsically motivated; the higher your level of enjoyment and optimal challenge, the higher your intrinsic motivation. On the other hand, if you go to work everyday and are being paid (an extrinsic controlling reward) your level of intrinsic motivation will decrease{{fact}}. * Monetary rewards reduce intrinsic behaviour (Gagni & Deci, 2005; Boal & Cummings, 1981). * In order to shape behaviour; many social settings will undermine intrinsic behaviour using rewards and punishments such as grades, detentions, or humiliating public praise (Riley., 2016; Ryan & Deci, 2006; Gagni & Deci, 2005). * Pressure and extrinsic control can be damaging to an individual as it reduces intrinsic motivation. This can prevent the individual from forming an interest or gaining any enjoyment so they will be less likely to succeed or retry the activity (Mandigo, et al., 2008). === Quiz === <quiz shuffleanswers="true"> {Is the following individual intrinsically motivated or extrinsically motivated? Joe was asked to clean the kitchen before his mum returned from work, if he had it clean by 5pm he would receive $5 pocket money. |type="()"} - Intrinsic + Extrinsic {Is the following individual intrinsically motivated or extrinsically motivated? Susie is going into Year 11 in high school and needs to pick her school electives; Susie's friends are picking biology and begging Susie to do the same so they can all be in the same class. Susie doesn't really like science but is eager to please her friends and so she picks biology over her preferred option. |type="()"} + Extrinsic - Intrinsic {Is the following individual intrinsically motivated or extrinsically motivated? Rupert has always wanted to travel to Italy but since the COVID pandemic he has been unable to travel. Rupert decides to join an online Italian cooking class to follow along with the recipes as this is as close to Italy as he will get for now. |type="()"} - Extrinsic + Intrinsic </quiz> ==How can CET be applied to improve motivation?== CET can be transferred into practical use to help improve motivation, by looking at external effects on intrinsic motivation to facilitate growth. When intrinsic motivation is high, psychological needs (autonomy and competence) are being met (Wang, et al., 2019). To improve intrinsic motivation external events or stimuli must be supportive of individual choice and should not be seen as a controlling measure, {{gr}} they should also inform competence in an individual and help them work towards mastery or improvement of skills (Riley., 2016; Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2009). A meta-analysis of 128 laboratory studies linked positive feedback to increased intrinsic motivation and tangible rewards to significantly reduced intrinsic motivation. However, it was found that unexpected tangible rewards or rewards independent of a task such as salaries did not affect intrinsic motivation; this study demonstrates that rewards can still be used to improve intrinsic motivation as long as they are autonomy and competence supporting (Gagne & Deci, 2005). A study by Mandigo and Holt (2013) has suggested the following ways to improve intrinsic motivation: * Optimise choice and control (increase opportunities for autonomy) * Minimise controlling external factors and influences * Find your level of optimal challenge * Enhance levels of perceived competence * Focus on personal improvement {{RoundBoxTop}} Applying intrinsic motivation boosters to real life situations: # Try attempting things you wouldn't normally try on your own. Make a decision about something independently; take up a new hobby, follow your interests, join a club or group that shares your passions. # Cut controlling people or influences out that are negatively affecting your health; for example fitness influencers. If their posts make you feel bad about your body or push you to prescribe to certain norms about the "ideal body" for your age or gender etc they are externally influencing you and undermining your intrinsic motivation. Exercise because you love doing it not because you feel pressured to. # Optimally challenge yourself; you can push yourself too far and this will only result in frustration. If you are starting a new hobby or anything you haven't attempted before it will take time to find the optimal level of difficulty; don't try knitting an advanced blanket if you don't know how to knit. # Ask for feedback on your skills to increase your competence and improve. # Try goal setting by writing them down as a list or marking your progress on a continuum so you can see your personal improvements. {{RoundBoxBottom}} == Case study == {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|6}}}|title=Case study 1: Student-teacher relationships and motivation to defend against bullying}} A study by Jungert et al., (2016) investigated the relationship between student-teacher interactions and type of motivation associated with the willingness to defend against bullying. The participants were 405 Italian students who completed a survey in the classroom. Results demonstrated that if students had a warm relationship with their teachers they demonstrated autonomous intrinsic motivation to defend victims of bullying. Alternatively, if the relationship was conflicting between student and teacher the motivation to step up was extrinsic and there was a stronger correlation in this group with passive by-standing. This study demonstrates a strong, significant relationship between teaching (and relationship) style and motivation type. Intrinsic motivation is correlated with warm and healthy student-teacher relationships where the teaching style is supportive and informational. Extrinsic motivation on the other hand was linked to conflicting relationships where autonomy was not necessarily supported. This is reflective of the CET studies and the importance of autonomy and competence support. A note should be made on some limitations of this study: * Self report measures were used leaving room for error and inaccurate answers. * The study could potentially be generalized due to the limited study sample{{huh}}. Further research should be done to support the findings of this study{{vague}}. {{Robelbox/close}} {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Case study 2: Self-determination theory and health contexts}} The meta-analysis of 184 data sets by Johan et al. (2012) provided evidence supportive of the three propositions of CET ([[#Overview|see overview]]). The research analysed the relationships between practitioner support for patient autonomy and the psychological needs of the patients. Results found strong positive relationships between the psychological need satisfaction of patients and their autonomous motivation. The analysis realised the potential benefits of these autonomy supportive approaches for several areas including health promotion, intervention and care, education and study, parenting and employment, see table 1. By introducing the principles of supporting autonomy and competence and avoiding controlling and extrinsic measures, health and well-being can be increased and the quality of life improved. {{Robelbox/close}} '''Table 1''' ''Johan et al., (2012) table of SDT health behaviour change'' {| class="wikitable" |+ ! * Autonomy supportive vs controlling health care climate * Differences in personality (autonomy levels) * Intrinsic vs extrinsic life aspirations !Need satisfaction: * Autonomy * Competence * Relatedness !Physical health behaviours: * Increased exercise * Weight loss * Healthier diet * Improved dental health * Not smoking !Mental health effects: * Reduced depression * Reduced anxiety * Improved quality of life |} ''Note.'' Supporting these psychological needs (autonomy, competence and relatedness) leads to their satisfaction; this {{which}} meta-analysis has linked this {{what}} need satisfaction to improved motivation for maintaining health behaviours long term, furthermore the need satisfaction results in improved psychological well-being. == Quiz == <quiz display=simple> {Complete the quiz on the focus questions from this article. |type="{}"} What is cognitive evaluation theory (CET)? CET is a sub theory of { Self-determination theory }. This sub theory was created to investigate the effects { external } events have on { intrinsic } motivation. { |type="{}"} What is intrinsic motivation? Intrinsic motivation is associated with the psychological { needs } of competence and autonomy. Interest and enjoyment are { intrinsic } motivators. { |type="{}"} Why is CET important in motivation studies? CET is important in motivation studies to explore how { motivation } can be improved using the psychological needs of { competence } and { autonomy }. </quiz> Need some extra help? The following words are used as answers throughout the quiz. * autonomy * motivation * Self-determination theory * competence * intrinsic * external ==Conclusion== CET is a sub-theory of SDT (Drylund & Wininger, 2006). CET examines the effects external events and influences (extrinsic motivators) on intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is guided by a person's own choices, {{gr}} they are not receiving a reward for participating in this behaviour they are simply doing it for fun (Mandigo, et al., 2008). Competence is the need for mastery of skills and the production of desired outcomes (Wang, et al., 2019). Competence levels can be increased using informative feedback (Mandigo & Holt, 2013). Autonomy is the psychological need for self-determination, control and ownership over our actions, {{gr}} this is achieved when our decisions are guided by our own beliefs, preferences and values (Wang, et al., 2019; Reeve, et al. 2013; Drylund & Wininger, 2006). CET can be applied to improve motivation using the following techniques: increasing opportunity for autonomy, minimising controlling external factors, finding levels of optimal challenge, enhancing levels of perceived competence and focusing on personal development (Bartholomew et al., 2011). In order to increase intrinsic motivation external events should not be controlling and need to be informational so the individual feels as though by participating they are improving their level of competence and are choosing to do so without feeling pressured or commanded (Ryan., 2016; Mandigo & Holt, 2013; Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2009; Gagne & Deci, 2005). ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Bartholomew, K. J., Ntoumanis, N., Ryan, R. M., Bosch, J. A., & Thøgersen-Ntoumani, C. (2011). Self-Determination Theory and Diminished Functioning. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(11), 1459–1473. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211413125 Boal, K. B., & Cummings, L. L. (1981). Cognitive evaluation theory: An experimental test of processes and outcomes. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 28(3), 289–310. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(81)90001-5 Chae, S., Choi, T. Y., & Hur, D. (2017). Buyer Power and Supplier Relationship Commitment: A Cognitive Evaluation Theory Perspective. Journal of Supply Chain Management, 53(2), 39–60. https://doi.org/10.1111/jscm.12138 Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 49(3), 182–185. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012801 Dyrlund, A. K., & Wininger, S. R. (2006). An Evaluation of Barrier Efficacy and Cognitive Evaluation Theory as Predictors of Exercise Attendance. Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research, 11(3-4), 133–146. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9861.2007.00001.x Gagné, M., & Deci, E. L. (2005). Self-determination theory and work motivation. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26(4), 331–362. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.322 Hagger, M. S., & Chatzisarantis, N. L. D. (2009). Integrating the theory of planned behaviour and self-determination theory in health behaviour: A meta-analysis. British Journal of Health Psychology, 14(2), 275–302. https://doi.org/10.1348/135910708x373959 Ng, J. Y. Y., Ntoumanis, N., Thøgersen-Ntoumani, C., Deci, E. L., Ryan, R. M., Duda, J. L., & Williams, G. C. (2012). Self-Determination Theory Applied to Health Contexts. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 7(4), 325–340. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612447309 Jungert, T., Piroddi, B., & Thornberg, R. (2016). Early adolescents’ motivations to defend victims in school bullying and their perceptions of student–teacher relationships: A self-determination theory approach. Journal of Adolescence, 53, 75–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2016.09.001 Mandigo, J. L., Holt, N. L. (2013). Putting theory into practice: How cognitive evaluation theory can help us motivate children in physical activity environments. ''Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 71''(1), 44-49. https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2000.10605984 Mandigo, J., Holt, N., Anderson, A., & Sheppard, J. (2008). Children’s motivational experiences following autonomy-supportive games lessons. European Physical Education Review, 14(3), 407–425. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336x08095673 Ntoumanis, N., & Standage, M. (2009). Motivation in physical education classes. School Field, 7(2), 194–202. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477878509104324 Reeve, J., Vansteenkiste, M., Assor, A., Ahmad, I., Cheon, S. H., Jang, H., Kaplan, H., Moss, J. D., Olaussen, B. S., & Wang, C. K. J. (2013). The beliefs that underlie autonomy-supportive and controlling teaching: A multinational investigation. Motivation and Emotion, 38(1), 93–110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-013-9367-0 Riley, G. (2016). The role of self-determination theory and cognitive evaluation theory in home education. ''Cogent education: Abingdon, 3''(1), 1-7. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2016.1163651 Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L. (2006). Self-regulation and the problem of human autonomy: Does psychology need choice, self-determination, and will? ''Journal of Personality, 74''(6), 1557-1586. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00420.x Wang, C. K. J., Liu, W. C., Kee, Y. H., Chian, L. K. (2019). Competence, autonomy, and relatedness in the classroom: understanding students' motivational processes using the self-determination theory. ''Heliyon, 5''(7), 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01983 }} ==External links== {{ic|Use alphabetical order. Add bullet points}} [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HLiasZwWTjA Extrinsic vs intrinsic motivation] (Sprouts, YouTube) [https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095622265 Cognitive-evaluation theory] (Oxford Reference) [https://www.iedunote.com/cognitive-evaluation-theory Cognitive evaluation theory simplified] (iEdu Note) [https://www.healthdirect.gov.au/motivation-how-to-get-started-and-staying-motivated How to stay motivated] (Healthdirect) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self determination theory]] bqn5eytzjj1muqzklwrlyyglzzp707d 2 257428 2415606 2413896 2022-08-16T17:33:24Z Archie97305 2915204 wikitext text/x-wiki > https://ggf333ttu.blogspot.com/ https://architecturenotes.co/redis/ 𝑓(◯) allostatis https://vim.rtorr.com/ https://github.com/rtorr/vim-cheat-sheet {| + 𝑓(◯) |- || ◯ | style="background:#000 ;" | <span style="color:#fff; font-size: 11px; "> <center>⟁ ◁ #fff ○ #000 △ ⟁ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#fff ;" | <span style="color:#000; font-size: 11px; "> <center>⟁ ◁ #000 ○ #fff △ ⟁</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:gray ;" | <span style="color:pink; font-size: 11px; "> <center>⟁ ◁ pink ○ gray △ ⟁</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#000;" | <span style="color:#fff; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#fff ;" | <span style="color:#000; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:gray;" | <span style="color:pink; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || [http://www.amp-what.com/unicode/search/triangle |- || 1 | style="background:#111;" | <span style="color:#ff0; font-size: 11px; "> <center>◁ #ff0 ○ #111△</center></span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#111;" | <span style="color:#F0f; font-size: 11px; "> <center>◁ #f0f ○ #111△</center></span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#111;" | <span style="color:#0ff; font-size: 11px; "> <center>◁ #0ff ○ #111 △</center></span> |- || 人 | style="background:#111;" | <span style="color:#ff0; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#111;" | <span style="color:#f0f; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#111;" | <span style="color:#0ff; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || |- || ⟁ | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#f00; font-size: 11px; "> <center>◁ #ff0 ○ #333 △</center></span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#0f0; font-size: 11px; "> <center>◁ #f0f ○ #333 △</center></span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#00f; font-size: 11px; "> <center>◁ #0ff ○ #333 △</center></span> |- || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#f00; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#0f0; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#00f; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || |- || ⟁ | style="background:#555;" | <span style="color:black; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ black ≡ #000 △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#555;" | <span style="color:indigo; font-size: 9px; "> ◁ indigo ≡ #4B0082△</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#555;" | <span style="color:midnightblue; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ midnightblue ≡ #191970△</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#555;" | <span style="color:black; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#555;" | <span style="color:indigo; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#555;" | <span style="color:midnightblue; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || |- || ⟁ | style="background:#777;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #fff9c4 ○ #777 △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#777;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #FFCDD2 ○ #777 △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#777;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #BBDEFB ○ #777 △ </span> |- || 人 | style="background:#777;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#777;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#777;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || |- || ⟁ | style="background:#999;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #ffe0b2 ○ #999 △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#999;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #e1bee7 ○ #999 △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#999;" | <span style="color:#C8E6C9; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #C8E6C9 ○ #999 △ </span> |- || 人 | style="background:#999;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#999;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#999;" | <span style="color:#C8E6C9; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |- || ⟁ | style="background:#aaa;" | <span style="color:#efefef; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #efefef ○ #aaa △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#aaa;" | <span style="color:#222; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #e1bee7 ○ #aaa △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#aaa;" | <span style="color:#777; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #ababab ○ #aaa △ </span> |- || 人 | style="background:#aaa;" | <span style="color:#efefef ; font-size: 33px;"><center> ⚞人⚟ </center></span> || || | style="background:#aaa;" | <span style="color:#222; font-size: 33px;"><center> ⚞人⚟ </center></span> || || | style="background:#aaa;" | <span style="color:#777; font-size: 33px;"><center> ⚞人⚟ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 25px; |- || 3 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 25px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 25px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 25px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 10px; |- || 4 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} ==WashingtonCounty.OR.US.case.22CN03334== [http://themetawiki.clu/w/index.php/WashingtonCounty.OR.US.case.22CN03334 http://themetawiki.clu/w/index.php/WashingtonCounty.OR.US.case.22CN03334] This is the case holding up plans for a physical wikiversity site in 97305-2644 Next court date is 9/8/2022 == Salem Accord == ===/əˈkôrd/=== ===アコード=== ===符合=== ===与える=== ==◯== {| + font-size: 222px; primary |- || ◯ | style="background:#000 ;" | <span style="color:#fff "> <center>◁ #fff ○ #000 △ ⟁ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#fff ;" | <span style="color:#000 "> <center>◁ #000 ○ #fff △ ⧋</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:gray ;" | <span style="color:pink "> <center>◁ pink ○ gray △ 📐</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#000;" | <span style="color:#fff; font-size: 77px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#fff ;" | <span style="color:#000; font-size: 77px;"><center> ⧋ </center></span> || || | style="background:gray;" | <span style="color:pink; font-size: 77px;"><center> 📐 </center></span> || [http://www.amp-what.com/unicode/search/triangle |- || 1 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#ff0"> <center>◁ #ff0 ○ #333 △</center></span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#F0f"> <center>◁ #f0f ○ #333 △</center></span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#0ff"> <center>◁ #0ff ○ #333 △</center></span> |- || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#ff0; font-size: 277px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#f0f; font-size: 277px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#0ff; font-size: 277px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |- || 2 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> ◁ pink ○ #808080 △</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:midnightblue"> ◁ midnightblue ○ #808080 △</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:indigo"> ◁ indigo ○ #808080 △</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink; font-size: 33px;"><center> ⚞🧿⚟ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:midnightblue; font-size: 33px;"><center> ⚞🧿⚟ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:indigo; font-size: 33px;"><center> ⚞🧿⚟ </center></span> || |} or ∨↯∧ & + 🔥 十 ⨁ ⨂ ❂ ◁ ⭕ 💮 ⚪ ⚫ 🔴 ○ ⌂ + {| + font-size: 100px; |- || ◯ | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:white"> ◁ ⭕ 💮 ⚪ ⚫ 🔴 ○</span> || 人 |- || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 46px;"><center> ∨↯∧ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 222px; primary |- || 1 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ #fff9c4 ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ #FFCDD2 ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ #BBDEFB ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 222px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 222px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 222px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 111px; secondary |- || 2 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2"> ◁ #ffe0b2 ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7"> ◁ #e1bee7 ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#C8E6C9"> ◁ #C8E6C9 ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2; font-size: 222px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7; font-size: 222px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#C8E6C9; font-size: 222px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 25px; |- || 3 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 25px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 25px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 25px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 10px; |- || 4 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 100px; |- || 5 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 10px; |- || 6 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} == 0 == {| |- || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/Sandbox ⬤] |- || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/plenary ◯] |- || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/inKind 大家] || 小 |- || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/specialdelivery ○ 人 ∘] |} meritorium . meritorious : merit .or.iou.us {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| + font-size: 100px; |- || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:white"> ◁ ⭕ 💮 ⚪ ⚫ 🔴 ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:white"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:white"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:white"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 |- || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"><center> ∨↯∧ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 100px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 100px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 100px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |- || |- || |} == or ∨↯∧ & + 🔥 十 ⨁ ⨂ ❂ ◁ ⭕ 💮 ⚪ ⚫ 🔴 ○ ⌂ + .us == ==⌂== {| + font-size: 100px; |- || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:white"> ◁ ⭕ 💮 ⚪ ⚫ 🔴 ○</span> || 人 |- || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |- || |- || |} [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/Sandbox ⬤] [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/plenary ◯] [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/inKind 大家][https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/specialdelivery ○ 人 ∘] meritorium . meritorious : merit .or.iou.us {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} ==✪⚪⬤🔥◍⚫⨁ 👀 ≡ odd → +1 [ { ( East ⚫🔴⚪○💮⭕ West ) } ] iff even ⇒ ÷2== ∨⚡\🗲↯/ϟ∧ ✮☆⚝⛤🟊✰✭▲◂◁◀◢⍟◶✪⚪⬤🔥◍⚫⨁⚉⨂❂✧✷✸✡✵ http://slither.io/ https://www.thescienceofpsychotherapy.com/behaviour-affection-and-emotional-control/ {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ⚞🧿⚟_◞◜↷◝◟_◞◜⚞🧿⚟🧿⚞🧿⚟◝◟_◞◜↶◝◟_⚞🧿⚟ |- || ✪⚪⬤🔥◍⚫⨁ || [https://www.twitch.tv/archie97305 👀] | style="background:pink;" | <span style="color:#808080"> ≡ odd → +1 </span> | style="background:pink;" | <span style="color:#808080"> [ { ( East </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> ⚫🔴⚪○💮⭕</span> | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> West ) } ] </span> | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> iff even ⇒ ÷2 </span> |- || Primary || [https://www.amnesty.org/en/ 1] || ✮☆⚝⛤🟊✰✭▲◂◁◀◢⍟◶✪ || || ○人∘🧿⚪⬤◍⚫ || || ⨁⚉⨂❂✧✷✸✡✵ |- || Secondary || [https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/31029/why-was-the-horseshoe-symbol-%E2%8A%83-selected-for-material-implication 2] |- || Tertiary || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page 3] |- || Quaternary || [http://localhost:8080/ 4] |- || Quinary || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson 5] |- || Senary || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:Archie97305 6] |- || Septenary || [https://maritimearchaeological.org/beeswax-wreck/ 7] |- || Octenary || [https://www.youtube.com/freecodecamp 8] |- || nonary || [https://www.freecodecamp.org/ 9] |- ||Base Name ||[https://wordsmith.org/board/ubbthreads.php?ubb=showflat&Number=84101 `] |- || binary || 2 |} == ya == ◯ ○ ∘ ⬤ 大 【 ヤ / や 】 (ya) 人 【 ジン、 ニン / ひと 】(jean、he toe) 大家 (ya ya) Ya (hiragana: や, katakana: ヤ) ヤフー 屋 - Wiktionaryhttps://en.wiktionary.org › wiki › 屋 Semantic compound of 尸+至. 尸 does not represent the radical for death, but is a pictogram depicting a cloth draped. 至 means "dead end". Home (家) A home, or domicile, is a space used as a permanent or semi-permanent residence for one or many humans. It is a fully or semi sheltered space and can have both interior and exterior aspects to it. Ya (や) Kana Ya is one of the Japanese kana, each of which represents one mora. The hiragana is written in three strokes, while the katakana is written in two. Both represent. Their shapes have origins in the character 也. Wikipedia hiragana origin: 也 spelling kana: 大和のヤ Yamato no "ya" transliteration: ya unicode: U+3084, U+30E4 What is the pronunciation of Ya line? In historical kana orthography, it is written as "yau", "say", and "eu", and read as "yo", "you", and "yo", respectively. Even in modern times, "saying" and "going" are sometimes pronounced as "yu" and "yuku . " From the above, it can be said that Ya line is the yoon of that line . [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/Sandbox ⬤] [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/plenary ◯] [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/inKind 大家][https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/specialdelivery ○ 人 ∘] == g == {| + |- || g || ⌂ || 時 |- || nono || ⌂ || ◁ || 前 || の || ノ || 名 || "Salmon" || #fa8072 || || || || || || rgb(250, 128, 114) || :: || hsl(6, 93%, 71%) |- || "のノ" || ⌂ || <span style="color:salmon;"><center> ∅ </center></span> | style="background:#000;"|<span style="color:salmon;"><center> #000 </center></span> | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:salmon;"><center> #808080 </center></span> | style="background:#fff;" | <span style="color:salmon;"><center> #fff </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:salmon;"><center> #333 </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa8072;"><center> #fa8072 </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa8072ff;"><center> #fa8072ff </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa8072aa;"><center> #fa8072aa </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa807280;"><center> #fa807280 </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa807233;"><center> #fa807233 </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa807200;"><center> #fa807200 </center></span> |- || know no ノノ || ⌂ || <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#000;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#fff;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa8072; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa8072ff; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa8072aa; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa807280; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa807233; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa807200; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> |} {| + |- || hsl(0-33, 93%, 71%) || <span style="color:hsl(0, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(1, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(2, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(3, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(4, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(5, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(7, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(8, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(9, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(10, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(11, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(12, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(13, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(14, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(15, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(16, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(17, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(18, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(19, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(20, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(21, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(22, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(23, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(24, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(25, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(26, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(27, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(28, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(29, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(30, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(31, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(32, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(33, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> |} {| + |- || hsl(6-606, 93%, 71%) || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(36, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(66, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(96, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(126, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(156, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(186, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(216, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(246, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(276, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(306, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(336, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(366, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(396, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(426, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(456, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(486, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(516, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(546, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(576, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(606, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> |} {| + |- || hsl(6, 93%, 0-100%) || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 0%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 10%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 20%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 30%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 40%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 50%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 60%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 70%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 80%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 90%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 100%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> |} {| + |- || hsl(6, 0-100%, 71%) || <span style="color:hsl(6, 0%, 71%);"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 10%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 20%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 30%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 40%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 50%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 60%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 70%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 80%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 90%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 100%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> |} meritorium . meritorious : merit .or.iou.us {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} ∨⚡\🗲↯/ϟ∧ ✮☆⚝⛤🟊✰✭▲◂◁◀◢⍟◶✪⚪⬤🔥◍⚫⨁⚉⨂❂✧✷✸✡✵ http://slither.io/ https://www.thescienceofpsychotherapy.com/behaviour-affection-and-emotional-control/ {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ⚞🧿⚟_◞◜↷◝◟_◞◜⚞🧿⚟🧿⚞🧿⚟◝◟_◞◜↶◝◟_⚞🧿⚟ |- || ✪⚪⬤🔥◍⚫⨁ || [https://www.twitch.tv/archie97305 👀] | style="background:pink;" | <span style="color:#808080"> ≡ odd → +1 </span> | style="background:pink;" | <span style="color:#808080"> [ { ( East </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> ⚫🔴⚪○💮⭕</span> | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> West ) } ] </span> | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> iff even ⇒ ÷2 </span> |- || Primary || [https://www.amnesty.org/en/ 1] |- || Secondary || [https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/31029/why-was-the-horseshoe-symbol-%E2%8A%83-selected-for-material-implication 2] |- || Tertiary || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page 3] |- || Quaternary || [http://localhost:8080/ 4] |- || Quinary || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson 5] |- || Senary || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:Archie97305 6] |- || Septenary || [https://maritimearchaeological.org/beeswax-wreck/ 7] |- || Octenary || [https://www.youtube.com/freecodecamp 8] |- || nonary || [https://www.freecodecamp.org/ 9] |- ||Base Name ||[https://wordsmith.org/board/ubbthreads.php?ubb=showflat&Number=84101 `] |- || binary || 2 |- ||ternary ||3 |- ||quaternary ||4 |- ||quinary ||5 |- ||senary ||6 |- ||septenary ||7 |- ||octal ||8 |- ||nonary |- ||decimal |- ||undenary |- ||duodecimal |- ||hexadecimal ||16 |- ||vigesimal ||20 |- ||sexagesimal ||60 |} How do you want your water served when you get here? https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2005/5168/pdf/sir2005-5168.pdf Robert Lee Stinson %VOX "tautology club says hi" w 11am "Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters" from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] https://www.oregonwild.org/about/blog/oregon-grizzly-country https://therevelator.org/yellowstone-grizzlies-unbearable-divides/ https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/color_value/hsl https://www.researchgate.net/about Amare, Nicole & Manning, A.. (2012). Seeing typeface personality: Emotional responses to form as tone. IEEE International Professional Communication Conference. 1-9. 10.1109/IPCC.2012.6408605. Various studies have correlated specific visual characteristics of typefaces with specific overall emotional effects: curvilinear forms and open letter shapes generally feel “friendly” but also “formal” or “informal,” depending on other factors; large contrasts in stroke widths, cap height, and aspect ratio generally feel “interesting,” but also “attractive” or “aggressive,” depending on other factors; low-variety and low-contrast forms generally feel “professional” but also “reliable” or “boring.” Although the current findings on typeface personality are useful, they have not indicated a systematic explanation for why specific physical typeface forms have the specific emotion effects that they do. This paper will report results of an empirical study in which 102 participants indicated their immediate emotional responses to each of 36 distinct typeface designs. Results support correlation between specific typeface features (variety vs. contrast vs. pattern) and specific emotional parameters (amusement vs. agitation vs. focus), explaining findings of previous studies, suggesting various classroom approaches to purpose-driven typeface selection. {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( A B E ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( [https://www.twitch.tv/archie97305 👀] ) } ]</span> |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> index.html</span> || notepad/atom (atom is deprecated) |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> vue </span> || [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer] |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> css </span> || global css @ || gg css @ || NPC css @ |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> pug </span> |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> |- || Senary || b |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox trying to create a 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 -> 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy. sun; natural light; breathe; BGs carbs; hygiene; laundry away bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out kitchen/nutritional/study social/outreach/linking worlds back porch 0 -- Computer Science, information and general works {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( T O P ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ ℳ ] </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> { ¢ } </span> | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> ( ৳ ) </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] </span> | style="background:teal;" | <span style="color:lime"> ᐪ l i p s c h i t z </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ] |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> physical</span> | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color:black"> emotional</span> | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:black"> social</span> || This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:teal"> ^ torikomu </span> ||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^] |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> occupational</span> | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:black"> intellectual</span> | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:black"> environmental</span> || This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color: teal"> | kaizen | </span> || | |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> spiritual</span> | style="background:#BFBFBF;" | <span style="color:white"> factual </span> | style="background:#F2F2F2;" | <span style="color:black"> nutritional</span> || This reflects healthy mindful every habits | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:teal"> . genkiness . .</span> || . |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> generational</span> | style="background:#E6FFFF;" | <span style="color:black"> miscellaneal</span> | style="background:#F2E0CE;" | <span style="color:black"> punctuational</span> || This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:lime"> # goblin </span> || # |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> {verb} </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [noun] </span> || This reflects deliberate professional progress | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:lime"> / tsugu /</span> || / |- || Senary || b || 〇 || x || This reflects influencing others | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:lime"> @ g @ g @ </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] |} == 100 -- Philosophy and psychology == How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication? ===named=== ==== Re⋮Beccaδ#639 ==== ===== rebeccapurple :: #663399 ===== https://meyerweb.com/eric/thoughts/2014/06/19/rebeccapurple/ ====black==== ====white==== ====græy==== ====pink==== ====indigo==== ====midnightblue==== ===hex=== ====#fff==== ====#fff==== {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ white { on black ⚞🧿⚟ #fff on #000 ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> [ pink { on 50% grey ⚞🧿⚟ #ffc0cb on #808080 ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#191970"> [ midnightblue { on 50% grey ⚞🧿⚟ #191970 on #808080 ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#4b0082"> [ indigo { on 50% grey ⚞🧿⚟ #4b0082 on #808080 ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |} ===cmyk=== https://colordesigner.io/convert/cmyktohex ====gg on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) w|materializecss.com==== https://materializecss.com/color.html {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:#ababab" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> [ gg_yellow { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #fff9c4 on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2"> [ gg_orange { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #ffe0b2 on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#ffcdd2"> [ gg_red { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #ffcdd2 on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7"> [ gg_purple { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #e1bee7 on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#bbdefb"> [ gg_blue { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #bbdefb on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#c8e6c9"> [ gg_green { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #c8e6c9 on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#efefef"> [ gg_white { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #efefef on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#111"> [ gg_black { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #111 on #ababab ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#808080"> [ gg_grey { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #808080 on #ababab ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#f8bbd0"> [ gg_pink { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #f8bbd0 on #ababab ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#b2ebf2"> [ gg_cyan { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #b2ebf2 on #ababab ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#d7ccc8"> [ gg_brown { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #d7ccc8 on #ababab )⚞🧿⚟} ] </span> |} ===rgba=== === TrumPutin-ism === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. == 200 -- Religion == Royal We "spiritual warfare" 1000 things I did 1992-2022 other than lie my way onto the supreme court to overturn Roe v Wade {| |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |} == 300 -- Social sciences == https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/ https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en == 400 -- Language == === Programming === ==== .png ==== ==== Esperanto ==== ==== HTML ==== ==== PUG ==== == 500 -- Pure Science == == 600 -- Technology == === local hosts=== [http://localhost:8080/ 8080] file:///D:/index.html === Roland SP 404MKII === https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/ https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/ @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html === VIM === https://vim-adventures.com/ == 700 -- Arts and recreation == == 800 -- Literature == == 900 -- History and geography == https://geology.com/stories/13/bear-areas/ === pre-2030 === 2022 "booked" by Hillsboro Police for sending email addressing "Christian Hate" and "Spiritual War" along with "exorcisms" and "Halloween Hysteria" in Marion County, OR where Salem Police Department abdicated from protecting some children in Salem from 2016-2021. 2021 Kaiser Permanente promised cash settlement to mitigate their abdication in Marion County. KP lawyer with intimate details about my vagina: terrence .j . loeber@kp.org 2012 "unliked" on FB by some Nazarene peers after openly questioning Alex Jones' allegation that Sandy Hook didn't happen and asking for compassion for parents who were called actors while they grieved publicly through no choice of their own. 2011 Lupron given by KP for menorrhagia as alternative to b/c pills first rxd in 86. How many women who have "mostly" been on b/c pills from 87-11 are obese? Why no menorrhagia while immersed in Japan? How close to a traditional Japanese diet can I get in the Willamette Valley and how close to no meat will my body allow? === TrumPutish War Against Humanity === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. === Ring of Fire === === Post "Roe v Wade" === Who did Roe v Wade protect? Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an "underground" network post Roe v Wade? === Our Contemporary "Underground Railroad" needs a submarine? === Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently? Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on "forever". How do we align an "underground railroad" with contemporary supports? == 10 -- A & + == == 11 -- B * x == == 12 -- C f(◯) == == 13 -- D Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 == == 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 == == 15 -- F == == 16 -- G == == 17 -- H == == 18 -- I == == 19 -- J == == 20 -- K == == 21 -- L == == 22 -- M == == 23 -- N == == 24 -- O == == 25 -- P == == 26 -- Q == == 27 -- R == == 28 -- S == == 29 -- T == == 30 -- U == == 31 -- V == == 32 -- W == == 33 -- X == == 34 -- Y == == 35 -- Z == 1pjl044h20d5z7kcd5w2cxm5rlrunzv 2415608 2415606 2022-08-16T17:33:55Z Archie97305 2915204 wikitext text/x-wiki > https://ggf333ttu.blogspot.com/ ==new habits== https://architecturenotes.co/redis/ 𝑓(◯) allostatis https://vim.rtorr.com/ https://github.com/rtorr/vim-cheat-sheet {| + 𝑓(◯) |- || ◯ | style="background:#000 ;" | <span style="color:#fff; font-size: 11px; "> <center>⟁ ◁ #fff ○ #000 △ ⟁ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#fff ;" | <span style="color:#000; font-size: 11px; "> <center>⟁ ◁ #000 ○ #fff △ ⟁</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:gray ;" | <span style="color:pink; font-size: 11px; "> <center>⟁ ◁ pink ○ gray △ ⟁</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#000;" | <span style="color:#fff; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#fff ;" | <span style="color:#000; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:gray;" | <span style="color:pink; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || [http://www.amp-what.com/unicode/search/triangle |- || 1 | style="background:#111;" | <span style="color:#ff0; font-size: 11px; "> <center>◁ #ff0 ○ #111△</center></span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#111;" | <span style="color:#F0f; font-size: 11px; "> <center>◁ #f0f ○ #111△</center></span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#111;" | <span style="color:#0ff; font-size: 11px; "> <center>◁ #0ff ○ #111 △</center></span> |- || 人 | style="background:#111;" | <span style="color:#ff0; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#111;" | <span style="color:#f0f; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#111;" | <span style="color:#0ff; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || |- || ⟁ | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#f00; font-size: 11px; "> <center>◁ #ff0 ○ #333 △</center></span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#0f0; font-size: 11px; "> <center>◁ #f0f ○ #333 △</center></span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#00f; font-size: 11px; "> <center>◁ #0ff ○ #333 △</center></span> |- || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#f00; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#0f0; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#00f; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || |- || ⟁ | style="background:#555;" | <span style="color:black; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ black ≡ #000 △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#555;" | <span style="color:indigo; font-size: 9px; "> ◁ indigo ≡ #4B0082△</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#555;" | <span style="color:midnightblue; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ midnightblue ≡ #191970△</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#555;" | <span style="color:black; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#555;" | <span style="color:indigo; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#555;" | <span style="color:midnightblue; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || |- || ⟁ | style="background:#777;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #fff9c4 ○ #777 △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#777;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #FFCDD2 ○ #777 △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#777;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #BBDEFB ○ #777 △ </span> |- || 人 | style="background:#777;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#777;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#777;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || |- || ⟁ | style="background:#999;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #ffe0b2 ○ #999 △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#999;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #e1bee7 ○ #999 △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#999;" | <span style="color:#C8E6C9; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #C8E6C9 ○ #999 △ </span> |- || 人 | style="background:#999;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#999;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#999;" | <span style="color:#C8E6C9; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |- || ⟁ | style="background:#aaa;" | <span style="color:#efefef; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #efefef ○ #aaa △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#aaa;" | <span style="color:#222; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #e1bee7 ○ #aaa △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#aaa;" | <span style="color:#777; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #ababab ○ #aaa △ </span> |- || 人 | style="background:#aaa;" | <span style="color:#efefef ; font-size: 33px;"><center> ⚞人⚟ </center></span> || || | style="background:#aaa;" | <span style="color:#222; font-size: 33px;"><center> ⚞人⚟ </center></span> || || | style="background:#aaa;" | <span style="color:#777; font-size: 33px;"><center> ⚞人⚟ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 25px; |- || 3 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 25px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 25px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 25px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 10px; |- || 4 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} ==WashingtonCounty.OR.US.case.22CN03334== [http://themetawiki.clu/w/index.php/WashingtonCounty.OR.US.case.22CN03334 http://themetawiki.clu/w/index.php/WashingtonCounty.OR.US.case.22CN03334] This is the case holding up plans for a physical wikiversity site in 97305-2644 Next court date is 9/8/2022 == Salem Accord == ===/əˈkôrd/=== ===アコード=== ===符合=== ===与える=== ==◯== {| + font-size: 222px; primary |- || ◯ | style="background:#000 ;" | <span style="color:#fff "> <center>◁ #fff ○ #000 △ ⟁ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#fff ;" | <span style="color:#000 "> <center>◁ #000 ○ #fff △ ⧋</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:gray ;" | <span style="color:pink "> <center>◁ pink ○ gray △ 📐</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#000;" | <span style="color:#fff; font-size: 77px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#fff ;" | <span style="color:#000; font-size: 77px;"><center> ⧋ </center></span> || || | style="background:gray;" | <span style="color:pink; font-size: 77px;"><center> 📐 </center></span> || [http://www.amp-what.com/unicode/search/triangle |- || 1 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#ff0"> <center>◁ #ff0 ○ #333 △</center></span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#F0f"> <center>◁ #f0f ○ #333 △</center></span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#0ff"> <center>◁ #0ff ○ #333 △</center></span> |- || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#ff0; font-size: 277px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#f0f; font-size: 277px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#0ff; font-size: 277px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |- || 2 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> ◁ pink ○ #808080 △</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:midnightblue"> ◁ midnightblue ○ #808080 △</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:indigo"> ◁ indigo ○ #808080 △</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink; font-size: 33px;"><center> ⚞🧿⚟ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:midnightblue; font-size: 33px;"><center> ⚞🧿⚟ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:indigo; font-size: 33px;"><center> ⚞🧿⚟ </center></span> || |} or ∨↯∧ & + 🔥 十 ⨁ ⨂ ❂ ◁ ⭕ 💮 ⚪ ⚫ 🔴 ○ ⌂ + {| + font-size: 100px; |- || ◯ | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:white"> ◁ ⭕ 💮 ⚪ ⚫ 🔴 ○</span> || 人 |- || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 46px;"><center> ∨↯∧ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 222px; primary |- || 1 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ #fff9c4 ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ #FFCDD2 ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ #BBDEFB ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 222px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 222px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 222px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 111px; secondary |- || 2 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2"> ◁ #ffe0b2 ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7"> ◁ #e1bee7 ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#C8E6C9"> ◁ #C8E6C9 ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2; font-size: 222px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7; font-size: 222px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#C8E6C9; font-size: 222px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 25px; |- || 3 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 25px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 25px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 25px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 10px; |- || 4 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 100px; |- || 5 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 10px; |- || 6 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} == 0 == {| |- || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/Sandbox ⬤] |- || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/plenary ◯] |- || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/inKind 大家] || 小 |- || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/specialdelivery ○ 人 ∘] |} meritorium . meritorious : merit .or.iou.us {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| + font-size: 100px; |- || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:white"> ◁ ⭕ 💮 ⚪ ⚫ 🔴 ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:white"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:white"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:white"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 |- || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"><center> ∨↯∧ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 100px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 100px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 100px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |- || |- || |} == or ∨↯∧ & + 🔥 十 ⨁ ⨂ ❂ ◁ ⭕ 💮 ⚪ ⚫ 🔴 ○ ⌂ + .us == ==⌂== {| + font-size: 100px; |- || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:white"> ◁ ⭕ 💮 ⚪ ⚫ 🔴 ○</span> || 人 |- || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |- || |- || |} [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/Sandbox ⬤] [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/plenary ◯] [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/inKind 大家][https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/specialdelivery ○ 人 ∘] meritorium . meritorious : merit .or.iou.us {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} ==✪⚪⬤🔥◍⚫⨁ 👀 ≡ odd → +1 [ { ( East ⚫🔴⚪○💮⭕ West ) } ] iff even ⇒ ÷2== ∨⚡\🗲↯/ϟ∧ ✮☆⚝⛤🟊✰✭▲◂◁◀◢⍟◶✪⚪⬤🔥◍⚫⨁⚉⨂❂✧✷✸✡✵ http://slither.io/ https://www.thescienceofpsychotherapy.com/behaviour-affection-and-emotional-control/ {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ⚞🧿⚟_◞◜↷◝◟_◞◜⚞🧿⚟🧿⚞🧿⚟◝◟_◞◜↶◝◟_⚞🧿⚟ |- || ✪⚪⬤🔥◍⚫⨁ || [https://www.twitch.tv/archie97305 👀] | style="background:pink;" | <span style="color:#808080"> ≡ odd → +1 </span> | style="background:pink;" | <span style="color:#808080"> [ { ( East </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> ⚫🔴⚪○💮⭕</span> | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> West ) } ] </span> | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> iff even ⇒ ÷2 </span> |- || Primary || [https://www.amnesty.org/en/ 1] || ✮☆⚝⛤🟊✰✭▲◂◁◀◢⍟◶✪ || || ○人∘🧿⚪⬤◍⚫ || || ⨁⚉⨂❂✧✷✸✡✵ |- || Secondary || [https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/31029/why-was-the-horseshoe-symbol-%E2%8A%83-selected-for-material-implication 2] |- || Tertiary || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page 3] |- || Quaternary || [http://localhost:8080/ 4] |- || Quinary || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson 5] |- || Senary || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:Archie97305 6] |- || Septenary || [https://maritimearchaeological.org/beeswax-wreck/ 7] |- || Octenary || [https://www.youtube.com/freecodecamp 8] |- || nonary || [https://www.freecodecamp.org/ 9] |- ||Base Name ||[https://wordsmith.org/board/ubbthreads.php?ubb=showflat&Number=84101 `] |- || binary || 2 |} == ya == ◯ ○ ∘ ⬤ 大 【 ヤ / や 】 (ya) 人 【 ジン、 ニン / ひと 】(jean、he toe) 大家 (ya ya) Ya (hiragana: や, katakana: ヤ) ヤフー 屋 - Wiktionaryhttps://en.wiktionary.org › wiki › 屋 Semantic compound of 尸+至. 尸 does not represent the radical for death, but is a pictogram depicting a cloth draped. 至 means "dead end". Home (家) A home, or domicile, is a space used as a permanent or semi-permanent residence for one or many humans. It is a fully or semi sheltered space and can have both interior and exterior aspects to it. Ya (や) Kana Ya is one of the Japanese kana, each of which represents one mora. The hiragana is written in three strokes, while the katakana is written in two. Both represent. Their shapes have origins in the character 也. Wikipedia hiragana origin: 也 spelling kana: 大和のヤ Yamato no "ya" transliteration: ya unicode: U+3084, U+30E4 What is the pronunciation of Ya line? In historical kana orthography, it is written as "yau", "say", and "eu", and read as "yo", "you", and "yo", respectively. Even in modern times, "saying" and "going" are sometimes pronounced as "yu" and "yuku . " From the above, it can be said that Ya line is the yoon of that line . [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/Sandbox ⬤] [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/plenary ◯] [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/inKind 大家][https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/specialdelivery ○ 人 ∘] == g == {| + |- || g || ⌂ || 時 |- || nono || ⌂ || ◁ || 前 || の || ノ || 名 || "Salmon" || #fa8072 || || || || || || rgb(250, 128, 114) || :: || hsl(6, 93%, 71%) |- || "のノ" || ⌂ || <span style="color:salmon;"><center> ∅ </center></span> | style="background:#000;"|<span style="color:salmon;"><center> #000 </center></span> | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:salmon;"><center> #808080 </center></span> | style="background:#fff;" | <span style="color:salmon;"><center> #fff </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:salmon;"><center> #333 </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa8072;"><center> #fa8072 </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa8072ff;"><center> #fa8072ff </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa8072aa;"><center> #fa8072aa </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa807280;"><center> #fa807280 </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa807233;"><center> #fa807233 </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa807200;"><center> #fa807200 </center></span> |- || know no ノノ || ⌂ || <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#000;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#fff;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa8072; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa8072ff; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa8072aa; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa807280; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa807233; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa807200; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> |} {| + |- || hsl(0-33, 93%, 71%) || <span style="color:hsl(0, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(1, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(2, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(3, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(4, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(5, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(7, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(8, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(9, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(10, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(11, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(12, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(13, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(14, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(15, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(16, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(17, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(18, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(19, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(20, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(21, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(22, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(23, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(24, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(25, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(26, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(27, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(28, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(29, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(30, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(31, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(32, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(33, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> |} {| + |- || hsl(6-606, 93%, 71%) || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(36, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(66, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(96, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(126, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(156, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(186, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(216, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(246, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(276, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(306, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(336, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(366, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(396, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(426, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(456, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(486, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(516, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(546, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(576, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(606, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> |} {| + |- || hsl(6, 93%, 0-100%) || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 0%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 10%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 20%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 30%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 40%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 50%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 60%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 70%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 80%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 90%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 100%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> |} {| + |- || hsl(6, 0-100%, 71%) || <span style="color:hsl(6, 0%, 71%);"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 10%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 20%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 30%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 40%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 50%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 60%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 70%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 80%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 90%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 100%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> |} meritorium . meritorious : merit .or.iou.us {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} ∨⚡\🗲↯/ϟ∧ ✮☆⚝⛤🟊✰✭▲◂◁◀◢⍟◶✪⚪⬤🔥◍⚫⨁⚉⨂❂✧✷✸✡✵ http://slither.io/ https://www.thescienceofpsychotherapy.com/behaviour-affection-and-emotional-control/ {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ⚞🧿⚟_◞◜↷◝◟_◞◜⚞🧿⚟🧿⚞🧿⚟◝◟_◞◜↶◝◟_⚞🧿⚟ |- || ✪⚪⬤🔥◍⚫⨁ || [https://www.twitch.tv/archie97305 👀] | style="background:pink;" | <span style="color:#808080"> ≡ odd → +1 </span> | style="background:pink;" | <span style="color:#808080"> [ { ( East </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> ⚫🔴⚪○💮⭕</span> | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> West ) } ] </span> | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> iff even ⇒ ÷2 </span> |- || Primary || [https://www.amnesty.org/en/ 1] |- || Secondary || [https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/31029/why-was-the-horseshoe-symbol-%E2%8A%83-selected-for-material-implication 2] |- || Tertiary || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page 3] |- || Quaternary || [http://localhost:8080/ 4] |- || Quinary || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson 5] |- || Senary || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:Archie97305 6] |- || Septenary || [https://maritimearchaeological.org/beeswax-wreck/ 7] |- || Octenary || [https://www.youtube.com/freecodecamp 8] |- || nonary || [https://www.freecodecamp.org/ 9] |- ||Base Name ||[https://wordsmith.org/board/ubbthreads.php?ubb=showflat&Number=84101 `] |- || binary || 2 |- ||ternary ||3 |- ||quaternary ||4 |- ||quinary ||5 |- ||senary ||6 |- ||septenary ||7 |- ||octal ||8 |- ||nonary |- ||decimal |- ||undenary |- ||duodecimal |- ||hexadecimal ||16 |- ||vigesimal ||20 |- ||sexagesimal ||60 |} How do you want your water served when you get here? https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2005/5168/pdf/sir2005-5168.pdf Robert Lee Stinson %VOX "tautology club says hi" w 11am "Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters" from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] https://www.oregonwild.org/about/blog/oregon-grizzly-country https://therevelator.org/yellowstone-grizzlies-unbearable-divides/ https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/color_value/hsl https://www.researchgate.net/about Amare, Nicole & Manning, A.. (2012). Seeing typeface personality: Emotional responses to form as tone. IEEE International Professional Communication Conference. 1-9. 10.1109/IPCC.2012.6408605. Various studies have correlated specific visual characteristics of typefaces with specific overall emotional effects: curvilinear forms and open letter shapes generally feel “friendly” but also “formal” or “informal,” depending on other factors; large contrasts in stroke widths, cap height, and aspect ratio generally feel “interesting,” but also “attractive” or “aggressive,” depending on other factors; low-variety and low-contrast forms generally feel “professional” but also “reliable” or “boring.” Although the current findings on typeface personality are useful, they have not indicated a systematic explanation for why specific physical typeface forms have the specific emotion effects that they do. This paper will report results of an empirical study in which 102 participants indicated their immediate emotional responses to each of 36 distinct typeface designs. Results support correlation between specific typeface features (variety vs. contrast vs. pattern) and specific emotional parameters (amusement vs. agitation vs. focus), explaining findings of previous studies, suggesting various classroom approaches to purpose-driven typeface selection. {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( A B E ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( [https://www.twitch.tv/archie97305 👀] ) } ]</span> |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> index.html</span> || notepad/atom (atom is deprecated) |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> vue </span> || [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer] |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> css </span> || global css @ || gg css @ || NPC css @ |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> pug </span> |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> |- || Senary || b |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox trying to create a 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 -> 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy. sun; natural light; breathe; BGs carbs; hygiene; laundry away bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out kitchen/nutritional/study social/outreach/linking worlds back porch 0 -- Computer Science, information and general works {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( T O P ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ ℳ ] </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> { ¢ } </span> | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> ( ৳ ) </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] </span> | style="background:teal;" | <span style="color:lime"> ᐪ l i p s c h i t z </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ] |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> physical</span> | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color:black"> emotional</span> | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:black"> social</span> || This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:teal"> ^ torikomu </span> ||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^] |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> occupational</span> | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:black"> intellectual</span> | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:black"> environmental</span> || This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color: teal"> | kaizen | </span> || | |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> spiritual</span> | style="background:#BFBFBF;" | <span style="color:white"> factual </span> | style="background:#F2F2F2;" | <span style="color:black"> nutritional</span> || This reflects healthy mindful every habits | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:teal"> . genkiness . .</span> || . |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> generational</span> | style="background:#E6FFFF;" | <span style="color:black"> miscellaneal</span> | style="background:#F2E0CE;" | <span style="color:black"> punctuational</span> || This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:lime"> # goblin </span> || # |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> {verb} </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [noun] </span> || This reflects deliberate professional progress | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:lime"> / tsugu /</span> || / |- || Senary || b || 〇 || x || This reflects influencing others | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:lime"> @ g @ g @ </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] |} == 100 -- Philosophy and psychology == How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication? ===named=== ==== Re⋮Beccaδ#639 ==== ===== rebeccapurple :: #663399 ===== https://meyerweb.com/eric/thoughts/2014/06/19/rebeccapurple/ ====black==== ====white==== ====græy==== ====pink==== ====indigo==== ====midnightblue==== ===hex=== ====#fff==== ====#fff==== {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ white { on black ⚞🧿⚟ #fff on #000 ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> [ pink { on 50% grey ⚞🧿⚟ #ffc0cb on #808080 ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#191970"> [ midnightblue { on 50% grey ⚞🧿⚟ #191970 on #808080 ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#4b0082"> [ indigo { on 50% grey ⚞🧿⚟ #4b0082 on #808080 ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |} ===cmyk=== https://colordesigner.io/convert/cmyktohex ====gg on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) w|materializecss.com==== https://materializecss.com/color.html {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:#ababab" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> [ gg_yellow { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #fff9c4 on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2"> [ gg_orange { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #ffe0b2 on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#ffcdd2"> [ gg_red { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #ffcdd2 on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7"> [ gg_purple { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #e1bee7 on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#bbdefb"> [ gg_blue { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #bbdefb on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#c8e6c9"> [ gg_green { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #c8e6c9 on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#efefef"> [ gg_white { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #efefef on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#111"> [ gg_black { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #111 on #ababab ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#808080"> [ gg_grey { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #808080 on #ababab ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#f8bbd0"> [ gg_pink { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #f8bbd0 on #ababab ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#b2ebf2"> [ gg_cyan { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #b2ebf2 on #ababab ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#d7ccc8"> [ gg_brown { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #d7ccc8 on #ababab )⚞🧿⚟} ] </span> |} ===rgba=== === TrumPutin-ism === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. == 200 -- Religion == Royal We "spiritual warfare" 1000 things I did 1992-2022 other than lie my way onto the supreme court to overturn Roe v Wade {| |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |} == 300 -- Social sciences == https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/ https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en == 400 -- Language == === Programming === ==== .png ==== ==== Esperanto ==== ==== HTML ==== ==== PUG ==== == 500 -- Pure Science == == 600 -- Technology == === local hosts=== [http://localhost:8080/ 8080] file:///D:/index.html === Roland SP 404MKII === https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/ https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/ @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html === VIM === https://vim-adventures.com/ == 700 -- Arts and recreation == == 800 -- Literature == == 900 -- History and geography == https://geology.com/stories/13/bear-areas/ === pre-2030 === 2022 "booked" by Hillsboro Police for sending email addressing "Christian Hate" and "Spiritual War" along with "exorcisms" and "Halloween Hysteria" in Marion County, OR where Salem Police Department abdicated from protecting some children in Salem from 2016-2021. 2021 Kaiser Permanente promised cash settlement to mitigate their abdication in Marion County. KP lawyer with intimate details about my vagina: terrence .j . loeber@kp.org 2012 "unliked" on FB by some Nazarene peers after openly questioning Alex Jones' allegation that Sandy Hook didn't happen and asking for compassion for parents who were called actors while they grieved publicly through no choice of their own. 2011 Lupron given by KP for menorrhagia as alternative to b/c pills first rxd in 86. How many women who have "mostly" been on b/c pills from 87-11 are obese? Why no menorrhagia while immersed in Japan? How close to a traditional Japanese diet can I get in the Willamette Valley and how close to no meat will my body allow? === TrumPutish War Against Humanity === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. === Ring of Fire === === Post "Roe v Wade" === Who did Roe v Wade protect? Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an "underground" network post Roe v Wade? === Our Contemporary "Underground Railroad" needs a submarine? === Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently? Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on "forever". How do we align an "underground railroad" with contemporary supports? == 10 -- A & + == == 11 -- B * x == == 12 -- C f(◯) == == 13 -- D Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 == == 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 == == 15 -- F == == 16 -- G == == 17 -- H == == 18 -- I == == 19 -- J == == 20 -- K == == 21 -- L == == 22 -- M == == 23 -- N == == 24 -- O == == 25 -- P == == 26 -- Q == == 27 -- R == == 28 -- S == == 29 -- T == == 30 -- U == == 31 -- V == == 32 -- W == == 33 -- X == == 34 -- Y == == 35 -- Z == i8bywpx82oult6s2oierve4x3zltrnw 2415610 2415608 2022-08-16T17:35:20Z Archie97305 2915204 /* Salem Accord */ wikitext text/x-wiki > https://ggf333ttu.blogspot.com/ ==new habits== https://architecturenotes.co/redis/ 𝑓(◯) allostatis https://vim.rtorr.com/ https://github.com/rtorr/vim-cheat-sheet {| + 𝑓(◯) |- || ◯ | style="background:#000 ;" | <span style="color:#fff; font-size: 11px; "> <center>⟁ ◁ #fff ○ #000 △ ⟁ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#fff ;" | <span style="color:#000; font-size: 11px; "> <center>⟁ ◁ #000 ○ #fff △ ⟁</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:gray ;" | <span style="color:pink; font-size: 11px; "> <center>⟁ ◁ pink ○ gray △ ⟁</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#000;" | <span style="color:#fff; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#fff ;" | <span style="color:#000; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:gray;" | <span style="color:pink; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || [http://www.amp-what.com/unicode/search/triangle |- || 1 | style="background:#111;" | <span style="color:#ff0; font-size: 11px; "> <center>◁ #ff0 ○ #111△</center></span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#111;" | <span style="color:#F0f; font-size: 11px; "> <center>◁ #f0f ○ #111△</center></span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#111;" | <span style="color:#0ff; font-size: 11px; "> <center>◁ #0ff ○ #111 △</center></span> |- || 人 | style="background:#111;" | <span style="color:#ff0; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#111;" | <span style="color:#f0f; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#111;" | <span style="color:#0ff; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || |- || ⟁ | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#f00; font-size: 11px; "> <center>◁ #ff0 ○ #333 △</center></span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#0f0; font-size: 11px; "> <center>◁ #f0f ○ #333 △</center></span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#00f; font-size: 11px; "> <center>◁ #0ff ○ #333 △</center></span> |- || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#f00; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#0f0; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#00f; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || |- || ⟁ | style="background:#555;" | <span style="color:black; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ black ≡ #000 △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#555;" | <span style="color:indigo; font-size: 9px; "> ◁ indigo ≡ #4B0082△</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#555;" | <span style="color:midnightblue; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ midnightblue ≡ #191970△</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#555;" | <span style="color:black; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#555;" | <span style="color:indigo; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#555;" | <span style="color:midnightblue; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || |- || ⟁ | style="background:#777;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #fff9c4 ○ #777 △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#777;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #FFCDD2 ○ #777 △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#777;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #BBDEFB ○ #777 △ </span> |- || 人 | style="background:#777;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#777;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#777;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || |- || ⟁ | style="background:#999;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #ffe0b2 ○ #999 △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#999;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #e1bee7 ○ #999 △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#999;" | <span style="color:#C8E6C9; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #C8E6C9 ○ #999 △ </span> |- || 人 | style="background:#999;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#999;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#999;" | <span style="color:#C8E6C9; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |- || ⟁ | style="background:#aaa;" | <span style="color:#efefef; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #efefef ○ #aaa △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#aaa;" | <span style="color:#222; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #e1bee7 ○ #aaa △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#aaa;" | <span style="color:#777; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #ababab ○ #aaa △ </span> |- || 人 | style="background:#aaa;" | <span style="color:#efefef ; font-size: 33px;"><center> ⚞人⚟ </center></span> || || | style="background:#aaa;" | <span style="color:#222; font-size: 33px;"><center> ⚞人⚟ </center></span> || || | style="background:#aaa;" | <span style="color:#777; font-size: 33px;"><center> ⚞人⚟ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 25px; |- || 3 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 25px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 25px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 25px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 10px; |- || 4 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} ==WashingtonCounty.OR.US.case.22CN03334== [http://themetawiki.clu/w/index.php/WashingtonCounty.OR.US.case.22CN03334 http://themetawiki.clu/w/index.php/WashingtonCounty.OR.US.case.22CN03334] This is the case holding up plans for a physical wikiversity site in 97305-2644 Next court date is 9/8/2022 == Salem Accord == ===/əˈkôrd/ {phoenetic w _ } === ===アコード {phoenetic w kana} === ===符合 {kanji} === ===与える {"one's own"? "tribal"? hiragana} === ==◯== {| + font-size: 222px; primary |- || ◯ | style="background:#000 ;" | <span style="color:#fff "> <center>◁ #fff ○ #000 △ ⟁ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#fff ;" | <span style="color:#000 "> <center>◁ #000 ○ #fff △ ⧋</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:gray ;" | <span style="color:pink "> <center>◁ pink ○ gray △ 📐</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#000;" | <span style="color:#fff; font-size: 77px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#fff ;" | <span style="color:#000; font-size: 77px;"><center> ⧋ </center></span> || || | style="background:gray;" | <span style="color:pink; font-size: 77px;"><center> 📐 </center></span> || [http://www.amp-what.com/unicode/search/triangle |- || 1 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#ff0"> <center>◁ #ff0 ○ #333 △</center></span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#F0f"> <center>◁ #f0f ○ #333 △</center></span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#0ff"> <center>◁ #0ff ○ #333 △</center></span> |- || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#ff0; font-size: 277px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#f0f; font-size: 277px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#0ff; font-size: 277px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |- || 2 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> ◁ pink ○ #808080 △</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:midnightblue"> ◁ midnightblue ○ #808080 △</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:indigo"> ◁ indigo ○ #808080 △</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink; font-size: 33px;"><center> ⚞🧿⚟ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:midnightblue; font-size: 33px;"><center> ⚞🧿⚟ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:indigo; font-size: 33px;"><center> ⚞🧿⚟ </center></span> || |} or ∨↯∧ & + 🔥 十 ⨁ ⨂ ❂ ◁ ⭕ 💮 ⚪ ⚫ 🔴 ○ ⌂ + {| + font-size: 100px; |- || ◯ | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:white"> ◁ ⭕ 💮 ⚪ ⚫ 🔴 ○</span> || 人 |- || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 46px;"><center> ∨↯∧ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 222px; primary |- || 1 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ #fff9c4 ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ #FFCDD2 ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ #BBDEFB ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 222px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 222px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 222px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 111px; secondary |- || 2 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2"> ◁ #ffe0b2 ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7"> ◁ #e1bee7 ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#C8E6C9"> ◁ #C8E6C9 ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2; font-size: 222px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7; font-size: 222px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#C8E6C9; font-size: 222px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 25px; |- || 3 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 25px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 25px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 25px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 10px; |- || 4 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 100px; |- || 5 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 10px; |- || 6 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} == 0 == {| |- || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/Sandbox ⬤] |- || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/plenary ◯] |- || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/inKind 大家] || 小 |- || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/specialdelivery ○ 人 ∘] |} meritorium . meritorious : merit .or.iou.us {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| + font-size: 100px; |- || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:white"> ◁ ⭕ 💮 ⚪ ⚫ 🔴 ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:white"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:white"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:white"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 |- || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"><center> ∨↯∧ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 100px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 100px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 100px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |- || |- || |} == or ∨↯∧ & + 🔥 十 ⨁ ⨂ ❂ ◁ ⭕ 💮 ⚪ ⚫ 🔴 ○ ⌂ + .us == ==⌂== {| + font-size: 100px; |- || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:white"> ◁ ⭕ 💮 ⚪ ⚫ 🔴 ○</span> || 人 |- || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |- || |- || |} [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/Sandbox ⬤] [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/plenary ◯] [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/inKind 大家][https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/specialdelivery ○ 人 ∘] meritorium . meritorious : merit .or.iou.us {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} ==✪⚪⬤🔥◍⚫⨁ 👀 ≡ odd → +1 [ { ( East ⚫🔴⚪○💮⭕ West ) } ] iff even ⇒ ÷2== ∨⚡\🗲↯/ϟ∧ ✮☆⚝⛤🟊✰✭▲◂◁◀◢⍟◶✪⚪⬤🔥◍⚫⨁⚉⨂❂✧✷✸✡✵ http://slither.io/ https://www.thescienceofpsychotherapy.com/behaviour-affection-and-emotional-control/ {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ⚞🧿⚟_◞◜↷◝◟_◞◜⚞🧿⚟🧿⚞🧿⚟◝◟_◞◜↶◝◟_⚞🧿⚟ |- || ✪⚪⬤🔥◍⚫⨁ || [https://www.twitch.tv/archie97305 👀] | style="background:pink;" | <span style="color:#808080"> ≡ odd → +1 </span> | style="background:pink;" | <span style="color:#808080"> [ { ( East </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> ⚫🔴⚪○💮⭕</span> | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> West ) } ] </span> | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> iff even ⇒ ÷2 </span> |- || Primary || [https://www.amnesty.org/en/ 1] || ✮☆⚝⛤🟊✰✭▲◂◁◀◢⍟◶✪ || || ○人∘🧿⚪⬤◍⚫ || || ⨁⚉⨂❂✧✷✸✡✵ |- || Secondary || [https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/31029/why-was-the-horseshoe-symbol-%E2%8A%83-selected-for-material-implication 2] |- || Tertiary || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page 3] |- || Quaternary || [http://localhost:8080/ 4] |- || Quinary || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson 5] |- || Senary || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:Archie97305 6] |- || Septenary || [https://maritimearchaeological.org/beeswax-wreck/ 7] |- || Octenary || [https://www.youtube.com/freecodecamp 8] |- || nonary || [https://www.freecodecamp.org/ 9] |- ||Base Name ||[https://wordsmith.org/board/ubbthreads.php?ubb=showflat&Number=84101 `] |- || binary || 2 |} == ya == ◯ ○ ∘ ⬤ 大 【 ヤ / や 】 (ya) 人 【 ジン、 ニン / ひと 】(jean、he toe) 大家 (ya ya) Ya (hiragana: や, katakana: ヤ) ヤフー 屋 - Wiktionaryhttps://en.wiktionary.org › wiki › 屋 Semantic compound of 尸+至. 尸 does not represent the radical for death, but is a pictogram depicting a cloth draped. 至 means "dead end". Home (家) A home, or domicile, is a space used as a permanent or semi-permanent residence for one or many humans. It is a fully or semi sheltered space and can have both interior and exterior aspects to it. Ya (や) Kana Ya is one of the Japanese kana, each of which represents one mora. The hiragana is written in three strokes, while the katakana is written in two. Both represent. Their shapes have origins in the character 也. Wikipedia hiragana origin: 也 spelling kana: 大和のヤ Yamato no "ya" transliteration: ya unicode: U+3084, U+30E4 What is the pronunciation of Ya line? In historical kana orthography, it is written as "yau", "say", and "eu", and read as "yo", "you", and "yo", respectively. Even in modern times, "saying" and "going" are sometimes pronounced as "yu" and "yuku . " From the above, it can be said that Ya line is the yoon of that line . [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/Sandbox ⬤] [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/plenary ◯] [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/inKind 大家][https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/specialdelivery ○ 人 ∘] == g == {| + |- || g || ⌂ || 時 |- || nono || ⌂ || ◁ || 前 || の || ノ || 名 || "Salmon" || #fa8072 || || || || || || rgb(250, 128, 114) || :: || hsl(6, 93%, 71%) |- || "のノ" || ⌂ || <span style="color:salmon;"><center> ∅ </center></span> | style="background:#000;"|<span style="color:salmon;"><center> #000 </center></span> | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:salmon;"><center> #808080 </center></span> | style="background:#fff;" | <span style="color:salmon;"><center> #fff </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:salmon;"><center> #333 </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa8072;"><center> #fa8072 </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa8072ff;"><center> #fa8072ff </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa8072aa;"><center> #fa8072aa </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa807280;"><center> #fa807280 </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa807233;"><center> #fa807233 </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa807200;"><center> #fa807200 </center></span> |- || know no ノノ || ⌂ || <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#000;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#fff;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa8072; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa8072ff; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa8072aa; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa807280; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa807233; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa807200; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> |} {| + |- || hsl(0-33, 93%, 71%) || <span style="color:hsl(0, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(1, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(2, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(3, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(4, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(5, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(7, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(8, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(9, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(10, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(11, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(12, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(13, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(14, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(15, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(16, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(17, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(18, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(19, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(20, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(21, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(22, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(23, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(24, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(25, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(26, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(27, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(28, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(29, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(30, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(31, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(32, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(33, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> |} {| + |- || hsl(6-606, 93%, 71%) || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(36, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(66, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(96, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(126, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(156, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(186, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(216, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(246, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(276, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(306, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(336, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(366, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(396, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(426, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(456, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(486, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(516, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(546, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(576, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(606, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> |} {| + |- || hsl(6, 93%, 0-100%) || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 0%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 10%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 20%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 30%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 40%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 50%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 60%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 70%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 80%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 90%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 100%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> |} {| + |- || hsl(6, 0-100%, 71%) || <span style="color:hsl(6, 0%, 71%);"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 10%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 20%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 30%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 40%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 50%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 60%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 70%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 80%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 90%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 100%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> |} meritorium . meritorious : merit .or.iou.us {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} ∨⚡\🗲↯/ϟ∧ ✮☆⚝⛤🟊✰✭▲◂◁◀◢⍟◶✪⚪⬤🔥◍⚫⨁⚉⨂❂✧✷✸✡✵ http://slither.io/ https://www.thescienceofpsychotherapy.com/behaviour-affection-and-emotional-control/ {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ⚞🧿⚟_◞◜↷◝◟_◞◜⚞🧿⚟🧿⚞🧿⚟◝◟_◞◜↶◝◟_⚞🧿⚟ |- || ✪⚪⬤🔥◍⚫⨁ || [https://www.twitch.tv/archie97305 👀] | style="background:pink;" | <span style="color:#808080"> ≡ odd → +1 </span> | style="background:pink;" | <span style="color:#808080"> [ { ( East </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> ⚫🔴⚪○💮⭕</span> | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> West ) } ] </span> | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> iff even ⇒ ÷2 </span> |- || Primary || [https://www.amnesty.org/en/ 1] |- || Secondary || [https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/31029/why-was-the-horseshoe-symbol-%E2%8A%83-selected-for-material-implication 2] |- || Tertiary || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page 3] |- || Quaternary || [http://localhost:8080/ 4] |- || Quinary || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson 5] |- || Senary || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:Archie97305 6] |- || Septenary || [https://maritimearchaeological.org/beeswax-wreck/ 7] |- || Octenary || [https://www.youtube.com/freecodecamp 8] |- || nonary || [https://www.freecodecamp.org/ 9] |- ||Base Name ||[https://wordsmith.org/board/ubbthreads.php?ubb=showflat&Number=84101 `] |- || binary || 2 |- ||ternary ||3 |- ||quaternary ||4 |- ||quinary ||5 |- ||senary ||6 |- ||septenary ||7 |- ||octal ||8 |- ||nonary |- ||decimal |- ||undenary |- ||duodecimal |- ||hexadecimal ||16 |- ||vigesimal ||20 |- ||sexagesimal ||60 |} How do you want your water served when you get here? https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2005/5168/pdf/sir2005-5168.pdf Robert Lee Stinson %VOX "tautology club says hi" w 11am "Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters" from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] https://www.oregonwild.org/about/blog/oregon-grizzly-country https://therevelator.org/yellowstone-grizzlies-unbearable-divides/ https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/color_value/hsl https://www.researchgate.net/about Amare, Nicole & Manning, A.. (2012). Seeing typeface personality: Emotional responses to form as tone. IEEE International Professional Communication Conference. 1-9. 10.1109/IPCC.2012.6408605. Various studies have correlated specific visual characteristics of typefaces with specific overall emotional effects: curvilinear forms and open letter shapes generally feel “friendly” but also “formal” or “informal,” depending on other factors; large contrasts in stroke widths, cap height, and aspect ratio generally feel “interesting,” but also “attractive” or “aggressive,” depending on other factors; low-variety and low-contrast forms generally feel “professional” but also “reliable” or “boring.” Although the current findings on typeface personality are useful, they have not indicated a systematic explanation for why specific physical typeface forms have the specific emotion effects that they do. This paper will report results of an empirical study in which 102 participants indicated their immediate emotional responses to each of 36 distinct typeface designs. Results support correlation between specific typeface features (variety vs. contrast vs. pattern) and specific emotional parameters (amusement vs. agitation vs. focus), explaining findings of previous studies, suggesting various classroom approaches to purpose-driven typeface selection. {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( A B E ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( [https://www.twitch.tv/archie97305 👀] ) } ]</span> |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> index.html</span> || notepad/atom (atom is deprecated) |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> vue </span> || [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer] |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> css </span> || global css @ || gg css @ || NPC css @ |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> pug </span> |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> |- || Senary || b |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox trying to create a 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 -> 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy. sun; natural light; breathe; BGs carbs; hygiene; laundry away bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out kitchen/nutritional/study social/outreach/linking worlds back porch 0 -- Computer Science, information and general works {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( T O P ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ ℳ ] </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> { ¢ } </span> | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> ( ৳ ) </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] </span> | style="background:teal;" | <span style="color:lime"> ᐪ l i p s c h i t z </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ] |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> physical</span> | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color:black"> emotional</span> | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:black"> social</span> || This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:teal"> ^ torikomu </span> ||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^] |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> occupational</span> | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:black"> intellectual</span> | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:black"> environmental</span> || This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color: teal"> | kaizen | </span> || | |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> spiritual</span> | style="background:#BFBFBF;" | <span style="color:white"> factual </span> | style="background:#F2F2F2;" | <span style="color:black"> nutritional</span> || This reflects healthy mindful every habits | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:teal"> . genkiness . .</span> || . |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> generational</span> | style="background:#E6FFFF;" | <span style="color:black"> miscellaneal</span> | style="background:#F2E0CE;" | <span style="color:black"> punctuational</span> || This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:lime"> # goblin </span> || # |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> {verb} </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [noun] </span> || This reflects deliberate professional progress | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:lime"> / tsugu /</span> || / |- || Senary || b || 〇 || x || This reflects influencing others | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:lime"> @ g @ g @ </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] |} == 100 -- Philosophy and psychology == How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication? ===named=== ==== Re⋮Beccaδ#639 ==== ===== rebeccapurple :: #663399 ===== https://meyerweb.com/eric/thoughts/2014/06/19/rebeccapurple/ ====black==== ====white==== ====græy==== ====pink==== ====indigo==== ====midnightblue==== ===hex=== ====#fff==== ====#fff==== {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ white { on black ⚞🧿⚟ #fff on #000 ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> [ pink { on 50% grey ⚞🧿⚟ #ffc0cb on #808080 ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#191970"> [ midnightblue { on 50% grey ⚞🧿⚟ #191970 on #808080 ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#4b0082"> [ indigo { on 50% grey ⚞🧿⚟ #4b0082 on #808080 ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |} ===cmyk=== https://colordesigner.io/convert/cmyktohex ====gg on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) w|materializecss.com==== https://materializecss.com/color.html {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:#ababab" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> [ gg_yellow { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #fff9c4 on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2"> [ gg_orange { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #ffe0b2 on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#ffcdd2"> [ gg_red { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #ffcdd2 on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7"> [ gg_purple { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #e1bee7 on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#bbdefb"> [ gg_blue { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #bbdefb on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#c8e6c9"> [ gg_green { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #c8e6c9 on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#efefef"> [ gg_white { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #efefef on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#111"> [ gg_black { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #111 on #ababab ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#808080"> [ gg_grey { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #808080 on #ababab ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#f8bbd0"> [ gg_pink { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #f8bbd0 on #ababab ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#b2ebf2"> [ gg_cyan { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #b2ebf2 on #ababab ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#d7ccc8"> [ gg_brown { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #d7ccc8 on #ababab )⚞🧿⚟} ] </span> |} ===rgba=== === TrumPutin-ism === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. == 200 -- Religion == Royal We "spiritual warfare" 1000 things I did 1992-2022 other than lie my way onto the supreme court to overturn Roe v Wade {| |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |} == 300 -- Social sciences == https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/ https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en == 400 -- Language == === Programming === ==== .png ==== ==== Esperanto ==== ==== HTML ==== ==== PUG ==== == 500 -- Pure Science == == 600 -- Technology == === local hosts=== [http://localhost:8080/ 8080] file:///D:/index.html === Roland SP 404MKII === https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/ https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/ @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html === VIM === https://vim-adventures.com/ == 700 -- Arts and recreation == == 800 -- Literature == == 900 -- History and geography == https://geology.com/stories/13/bear-areas/ === pre-2030 === 2022 "booked" by Hillsboro Police for sending email addressing "Christian Hate" and "Spiritual War" along with "exorcisms" and "Halloween Hysteria" in Marion County, OR where Salem Police Department abdicated from protecting some children in Salem from 2016-2021. 2021 Kaiser Permanente promised cash settlement to mitigate their abdication in Marion County. KP lawyer with intimate details about my vagina: terrence .j . loeber@kp.org 2012 "unliked" on FB by some Nazarene peers after openly questioning Alex Jones' allegation that Sandy Hook didn't happen and asking for compassion for parents who were called actors while they grieved publicly through no choice of their own. 2011 Lupron given by KP for menorrhagia as alternative to b/c pills first rxd in 86. How many women who have "mostly" been on b/c pills from 87-11 are obese? Why no menorrhagia while immersed in Japan? How close to a traditional Japanese diet can I get in the Willamette Valley and how close to no meat will my body allow? === TrumPutish War Against Humanity === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. === Ring of Fire === === Post "Roe v Wade" === Who did Roe v Wade protect? Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an "underground" network post Roe v Wade? === Our Contemporary "Underground Railroad" needs a submarine? === Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently? Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on "forever". How do we align an "underground railroad" with contemporary supports? == 10 -- A & + == == 11 -- B * x == == 12 -- C f(◯) == == 13 -- D Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 == == 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 == == 15 -- F == == 16 -- G == == 17 -- H == == 18 -- I == == 19 -- J == == 20 -- K == == 21 -- L == == 22 -- M == == 23 -- N == == 24 -- O == == 25 -- P == == 26 -- Q == == 27 -- R == == 28 -- S == == 29 -- T == == 30 -- U == == 31 -- V == == 32 -- W == == 33 -- X == == 34 -- Y == == 35 -- Z == 1puzx7wqiiqe5akrswnp7rx4l4wcdpk 2415611 2415610 2022-08-16T17:35:45Z Archie97305 2915204 /* 与える {"one's own"? "tribal"? hiragana} */ wikitext text/x-wiki > https://ggf333ttu.blogspot.com/ ==new habits== https://architecturenotes.co/redis/ 𝑓(◯) allostatis https://vim.rtorr.com/ https://github.com/rtorr/vim-cheat-sheet {| + 𝑓(◯) |- || ◯ | style="background:#000 ;" | <span style="color:#fff; font-size: 11px; "> <center>⟁ ◁ #fff ○ #000 △ ⟁ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#fff ;" | <span style="color:#000; font-size: 11px; "> <center>⟁ ◁ #000 ○ #fff △ ⟁</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:gray ;" | <span style="color:pink; font-size: 11px; "> <center>⟁ ◁ pink ○ gray △ ⟁</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#000;" | <span style="color:#fff; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#fff ;" | <span style="color:#000; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:gray;" | <span style="color:pink; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || [http://www.amp-what.com/unicode/search/triangle |- || 1 | style="background:#111;" | <span style="color:#ff0; font-size: 11px; "> <center>◁ #ff0 ○ #111△</center></span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#111;" | <span style="color:#F0f; font-size: 11px; "> <center>◁ #f0f ○ #111△</center></span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#111;" | <span style="color:#0ff; font-size: 11px; "> <center>◁ #0ff ○ #111 △</center></span> |- || 人 | style="background:#111;" | <span style="color:#ff0; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#111;" | <span style="color:#f0f; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#111;" | <span style="color:#0ff; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || |- || ⟁ | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#f00; font-size: 11px; "> <center>◁ #ff0 ○ #333 △</center></span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#0f0; font-size: 11px; "> <center>◁ #f0f ○ #333 △</center></span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#00f; font-size: 11px; "> <center>◁ #0ff ○ #333 △</center></span> |- || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#f00; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#0f0; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#00f; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || |- || ⟁ | style="background:#555;" | <span style="color:black; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ black ≡ #000 △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#555;" | <span style="color:indigo; font-size: 9px; "> ◁ indigo ≡ #4B0082△</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#555;" | <span style="color:midnightblue; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ midnightblue ≡ #191970△</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#555;" | <span style="color:black; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#555;" | <span style="color:indigo; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#555;" | <span style="color:midnightblue; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || |- || ⟁ | style="background:#777;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #fff9c4 ○ #777 △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#777;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #FFCDD2 ○ #777 △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#777;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #BBDEFB ○ #777 △ </span> |- || 人 | style="background:#777;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#777;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#777;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || |- || ⟁ | style="background:#999;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #ffe0b2 ○ #999 △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#999;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #e1bee7 ○ #999 △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#999;" | <span style="color:#C8E6C9; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #C8E6C9 ○ #999 △ </span> |- || 人 | style="background:#999;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#999;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#999;" | <span style="color:#C8E6C9; font-size: 11px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |- || ⟁ | style="background:#aaa;" | <span style="color:#efefef; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #efefef ○ #aaa △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#aaa;" | <span style="color:#222; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #e1bee7 ○ #aaa △ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#aaa;" | <span style="color:#777; font-size: 11px; "> ◁ #ababab ○ #aaa △ </span> |- || 人 | style="background:#aaa;" | <span style="color:#efefef ; font-size: 33px;"><center> ⚞人⚟ </center></span> || || | style="background:#aaa;" | <span style="color:#222; font-size: 33px;"><center> ⚞人⚟ </center></span> || || | style="background:#aaa;" | <span style="color:#777; font-size: 33px;"><center> ⚞人⚟ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 25px; |- || 3 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 25px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 25px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 25px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 10px; |- || 4 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} ==WashingtonCounty.OR.US.case.22CN03334== [http://themetawiki.clu/w/index.php/WashingtonCounty.OR.US.case.22CN03334 http://themetawiki.clu/w/index.php/WashingtonCounty.OR.US.case.22CN03334] This is the case holding up plans for a physical wikiversity site in 97305-2644 Next court date is 9/8/2022 == Salem Accord == ===/əˈkôrd/ {phoenetic w _ } === ===アコード {phoenetic w kana} === ===符合 {kanji} === ===与える { hiragana | "one's own"? "tribal"? } === ==◯== {| + font-size: 222px; primary |- || ◯ | style="background:#000 ;" | <span style="color:#fff "> <center>◁ #fff ○ #000 △ ⟁ </span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#fff ;" | <span style="color:#000 "> <center>◁ #000 ○ #fff △ ⧋</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:gray ;" | <span style="color:pink "> <center>◁ pink ○ gray △ 📐</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#000;" | <span style="color:#fff; font-size: 77px;"><center> ⟁ </center></span> || || | style="background:#fff ;" | <span style="color:#000; font-size: 77px;"><center> ⧋ </center></span> || || | style="background:gray;" | <span style="color:pink; font-size: 77px;"><center> 📐 </center></span> || [http://www.amp-what.com/unicode/search/triangle |- || 1 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#ff0"> <center>◁ #ff0 ○ #333 △</center></span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#F0f"> <center>◁ #f0f ○ #333 △</center></span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#0ff"> <center>◁ #0ff ○ #333 △</center></span> |- || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#ff0; font-size: 277px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#f0f; font-size: 277px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#0ff; font-size: 277px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |- || 2 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> ◁ pink ○ #808080 △</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:midnightblue"> ◁ midnightblue ○ #808080 △</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:indigo"> ◁ indigo ○ #808080 △</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink; font-size: 33px;"><center> ⚞🧿⚟ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:midnightblue; font-size: 33px;"><center> ⚞🧿⚟ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:indigo; font-size: 33px;"><center> ⚞🧿⚟ </center></span> || |} or ∨↯∧ & + 🔥 十 ⨁ ⨂ ❂ ◁ ⭕ 💮 ⚪ ⚫ 🔴 ○ ⌂ + {| + font-size: 100px; |- || ◯ | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:white"> ◁ ⭕ 💮 ⚪ ⚫ 🔴 ○</span> || 人 |- || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 46px;"><center> ∨↯∧ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 222px; primary |- || 1 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ #fff9c4 ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ #FFCDD2 ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ #BBDEFB ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 222px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 222px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 222px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 111px; secondary |- || 2 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2"> ◁ #ffe0b2 ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7"> ◁ #e1bee7 ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#C8E6C9"> ◁ #C8E6C9 ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2; font-size: 222px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7; font-size: 222px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#C8E6C9; font-size: 222px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 25px; |- || 3 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 25px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 25px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 25px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 10px; |- || 4 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 100px; |- || 5 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} {| + font-size: 10px; |- || 6 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB"> ◁ ○</span> |- || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 10px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |} == 0 == {| |- || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/Sandbox ⬤] |- || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/plenary ◯] |- || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/inKind 大家] || 小 |- || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/specialdelivery ○ 人 ∘] |} meritorium . meritorious : merit .or.iou.us {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| + font-size: 100px; |- || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:white"> ◁ ⭕ 💮 ⚪ ⚫ 🔴 ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:white"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:white"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 || 人 | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:white"> ◁ ○</span> || 人 |- || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"><center> ∨↯∧ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#fff9c4; font-size: 100px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#FFCDD2; font-size: 100px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || || | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#BBDEFB; font-size: 100px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |- || |- || |} == or ∨↯∧ & + 🔥 十 ⨁ ⨂ ❂ ◁ ⭕ 💮 ⚪ ⚫ 🔴 ○ ⌂ + .us == ==⌂== {| + font-size: 100px; |- || 人 | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:white"> ◁ ⭕ 💮 ⚪ ⚫ 🔴 ○</span> || 人 |- || | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || |- || |- || |} [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/Sandbox ⬤] [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/plenary ◯] [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/inKind 大家][https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/specialdelivery ○ 人 ∘] meritorium . meritorious : merit .or.iou.us {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} ==✪⚪⬤🔥◍⚫⨁ 👀 ≡ odd → +1 [ { ( East ⚫🔴⚪○💮⭕ West ) } ] iff even ⇒ ÷2== ∨⚡\🗲↯/ϟ∧ ✮☆⚝⛤🟊✰✭▲◂◁◀◢⍟◶✪⚪⬤🔥◍⚫⨁⚉⨂❂✧✷✸✡✵ http://slither.io/ https://www.thescienceofpsychotherapy.com/behaviour-affection-and-emotional-control/ {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ⚞🧿⚟_◞◜↷◝◟_◞◜⚞🧿⚟🧿⚞🧿⚟◝◟_◞◜↶◝◟_⚞🧿⚟ |- || ✪⚪⬤🔥◍⚫⨁ || [https://www.twitch.tv/archie97305 👀] | style="background:pink;" | <span style="color:#808080"> ≡ odd → +1 </span> | style="background:pink;" | <span style="color:#808080"> [ { ( East </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> ⚫🔴⚪○💮⭕</span> | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> West ) } ] </span> | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> iff even ⇒ ÷2 </span> |- || Primary || [https://www.amnesty.org/en/ 1] || ✮☆⚝⛤🟊✰✭▲◂◁◀◢⍟◶✪ || || ○人∘🧿⚪⬤◍⚫ || || ⨁⚉⨂❂✧✷✸✡✵ |- || Secondary || [https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/31029/why-was-the-horseshoe-symbol-%E2%8A%83-selected-for-material-implication 2] |- || Tertiary || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page 3] |- || Quaternary || [http://localhost:8080/ 4] |- || Quinary || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson 5] |- || Senary || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:Archie97305 6] |- || Septenary || [https://maritimearchaeological.org/beeswax-wreck/ 7] |- || Octenary || [https://www.youtube.com/freecodecamp 8] |- || nonary || [https://www.freecodecamp.org/ 9] |- ||Base Name ||[https://wordsmith.org/board/ubbthreads.php?ubb=showflat&Number=84101 `] |- || binary || 2 |} == ya == ◯ ○ ∘ ⬤ 大 【 ヤ / や 】 (ya) 人 【 ジン、 ニン / ひと 】(jean、he toe) 大家 (ya ya) Ya (hiragana: や, katakana: ヤ) ヤフー 屋 - Wiktionaryhttps://en.wiktionary.org › wiki › 屋 Semantic compound of 尸+至. 尸 does not represent the radical for death, but is a pictogram depicting a cloth draped. 至 means "dead end". Home (家) A home, or domicile, is a space used as a permanent or semi-permanent residence for one or many humans. It is a fully or semi sheltered space and can have both interior and exterior aspects to it. Ya (や) Kana Ya is one of the Japanese kana, each of which represents one mora. The hiragana is written in three strokes, while the katakana is written in two. Both represent. Their shapes have origins in the character 也. Wikipedia hiragana origin: 也 spelling kana: 大和のヤ Yamato no "ya" transliteration: ya unicode: U+3084, U+30E4 What is the pronunciation of Ya line? In historical kana orthography, it is written as "yau", "say", and "eu", and read as "yo", "you", and "yo", respectively. Even in modern times, "saying" and "going" are sometimes pronounced as "yu" and "yuku . " From the above, it can be said that Ya line is the yoon of that line . [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/Sandbox ⬤] [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/plenary ◯] [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/inKind 大家][https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/specialdelivery ○ 人 ∘] == g == {| + |- || g || ⌂ || 時 |- || nono || ⌂ || ◁ || 前 || の || ノ || 名 || "Salmon" || #fa8072 || || || || || || rgb(250, 128, 114) || :: || hsl(6, 93%, 71%) |- || "のノ" || ⌂ || <span style="color:salmon;"><center> ∅ </center></span> | style="background:#000;"|<span style="color:salmon;"><center> #000 </center></span> | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:salmon;"><center> #808080 </center></span> | style="background:#fff;" | <span style="color:salmon;"><center> #fff </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:salmon;"><center> #333 </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa8072;"><center> #fa8072 </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa8072ff;"><center> #fa8072ff </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa8072aa;"><center> #fa8072aa </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa807280;"><center> #fa807280 </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa807233;"><center> #fa807233 </center></span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa807200;"><center> #fa807200 </center></span> |- || know no ノノ || ⌂ || <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#000;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#fff;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:salmon; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa8072; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa8072ff; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa8072aa; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa807280; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa807233; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> | style="background:#333;" | <span style="color:#fa807200; font-size: 100px;"> ☂ </span> |} {| + |- || hsl(0-33, 93%, 71%) || <span style="color:hsl(0, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(1, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(2, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(3, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(4, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(5, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(7, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(8, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(9, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(10, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(11, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(12, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(13, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(14, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(15, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(16, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(17, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(18, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(19, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(20, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(21, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(22, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(23, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(24, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(25, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(26, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(27, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(28, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(29, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(30, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(31, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(32, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(33, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> |} {| + |- || hsl(6-606, 93%, 71%) || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(36, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(66, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(96, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(126, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(156, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(186, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(216, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(246, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(276, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(306, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(336, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(366, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(396, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(426, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(456, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(486, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(516, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(546, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(576, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(606, 93%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> |} {| + |- || hsl(6, 93%, 0-100%) || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 0%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 10%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 20%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 30%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 40%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 50%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 60%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 70%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 80%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 90%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 93%, 100%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> |} {| + |- || hsl(6, 0-100%, 71%) || <span style="color:hsl(6, 0%, 71%);"><center> ⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 10%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 20%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 30%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 40%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 50%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 60%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 70%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 80%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 90%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> || <span style="color:hsl(6, 100%, 71%);"><center>⌂ </center></span> |} meritorium . meritorious : merit .or.iou.us {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} ∨⚡\🗲↯/ϟ∧ ✮☆⚝⛤🟊✰✭▲◂◁◀◢⍟◶✪⚪⬤🔥◍⚫⨁⚉⨂❂✧✷✸✡✵ http://slither.io/ https://www.thescienceofpsychotherapy.com/behaviour-affection-and-emotional-control/ {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ⚞🧿⚟_◞◜↷◝◟_◞◜⚞🧿⚟🧿⚞🧿⚟◝◟_◞◜↶◝◟_⚞🧿⚟ |- || ✪⚪⬤🔥◍⚫⨁ || [https://www.twitch.tv/archie97305 👀] | style="background:pink;" | <span style="color:#808080"> ≡ odd → +1 </span> | style="background:pink;" | <span style="color:#808080"> [ { ( East </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> ⚫🔴⚪○💮⭕</span> | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> West ) } ] </span> | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> iff even ⇒ ÷2 </span> |- || Primary || [https://www.amnesty.org/en/ 1] |- || Secondary || [https://philosophy.stackexchange.com/questions/31029/why-was-the-horseshoe-symbol-%E2%8A%83-selected-for-material-implication 2] |- || Tertiary || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Main_Page 3] |- || Quaternary || [http://localhost:8080/ 4] |- || Quinary || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson 5] |- || Senary || [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:Archie97305 6] |- || Septenary || [https://maritimearchaeological.org/beeswax-wreck/ 7] |- || Octenary || [https://www.youtube.com/freecodecamp 8] |- || nonary || [https://www.freecodecamp.org/ 9] |- ||Base Name ||[https://wordsmith.org/board/ubbthreads.php?ubb=showflat&Number=84101 `] |- || binary || 2 |- ||ternary ||3 |- ||quaternary ||4 |- ||quinary ||5 |- ||senary ||6 |- ||septenary ||7 |- ||octal ||8 |- ||nonary |- ||decimal |- ||undenary |- ||duodecimal |- ||hexadecimal ||16 |- ||vigesimal ||20 |- ||sexagesimal ||60 |} How do you want your water served when you get here? https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2005/5168/pdf/sir2005-5168.pdf Robert Lee Stinson %VOX "tautology club says hi" w 11am "Naturalist Society for the Humane Treatment of Monsters" from dnd game on twitter [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n7uNA5fO1iI rice ex in CA] https://www.oregonwild.org/about/blog/oregon-grizzly-country https://therevelator.org/yellowstone-grizzlies-unbearable-divides/ https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/CSS/color_value/hsl https://www.researchgate.net/about Amare, Nicole & Manning, A.. (2012). Seeing typeface personality: Emotional responses to form as tone. IEEE International Professional Communication Conference. 1-9. 10.1109/IPCC.2012.6408605. Various studies have correlated specific visual characteristics of typefaces with specific overall emotional effects: curvilinear forms and open letter shapes generally feel “friendly” but also “formal” or “informal,” depending on other factors; large contrasts in stroke widths, cap height, and aspect ratio generally feel “interesting,” but also “attractive” or “aggressive,” depending on other factors; low-variety and low-contrast forms generally feel “professional” but also “reliable” or “boring.” Although the current findings on typeface personality are useful, they have not indicated a systematic explanation for why specific physical typeface forms have the specific emotion effects that they do. This paper will report results of an empirical study in which 102 participants indicated their immediate emotional responses to each of 36 distinct typeface designs. Results support correlation between specific typeface features (variety vs. contrast vs. pattern) and specific emotional parameters (amusement vs. agitation vs. focus), explaining findings of previous studies, suggesting various classroom approaches to purpose-driven typeface selection. {{User alternative account|VeronicaJeanAnderson}} {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( A B E ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( [https://www.twitch.tv/archie97305 👀] ) } ]</span> |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> index.html</span> || notepad/atom (atom is deprecated) |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> vue </span> || [https://www.vim.org/ vim] [https://github.com/vim/vim-win32-installer/releases installer] |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> css </span> || global css @ || gg css @ || NPC css @ |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> pug </span> |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> |- || Senary || b |} https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/User:VeronicaJeanAnderson/sandbox trying to create a 1 -> 2 -> 3 -> 4 -> 5 -> 6 system in the apartment here that can be copied from site to site using artistic threads to help a Nice And Proper NAP-er navigate between properties with ease while maintaining adequate supportive care that we all require to enable us to focus on whatever catches our fancy. sun; natural light; breathe; BGs carbs; hygiene; laundry away bedroom; needles; blood; garbage out kitchen/nutritional/study social/outreach/linking worlds back porch 0 -- Computer Science, information and general works {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ ᐪgenki-ness; +, -tachi . . . |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( T O P ) } ] </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ ℳ ] </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> { ¢ } </span> | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> ( ৳ ) </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ { ( I.n C.ase of E.mergency ) } ] </span> | style="background:teal;" | <span style="color:lime"> ᐪ l i p s c h i t z </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qrrz54UtkCc ᐪ] |- || Primary | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:black"> physical</span> | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color:black"> emotional</span> | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:black"> social</span> || This reflects health enough to communicate with people intimately enough to address real immediate issues | style="background:#FFFFE6;" | <span style="color:teal"> ^ torikomu </span> ||[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YxvBPH4sArQ ^] |- || Secondary | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:black"> occupational</span> | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:black"> intellectual</span> | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:black"> environmental</span> || This reflects living somewhere promoting healthy reasoning | style="background:#FFE6E6;" | <span style="color: teal"> | kaizen | </span> || | |- || Tertiary | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> spiritual</span> | style="background:#BFBFBF;" | <span style="color:white"> factual </span> | style="background:#F2F2F2;" | <span style="color:black"> nutritional</span> || This reflects healthy mindful every habits | style="background:#E6EAFF;" | <span style="color:teal"> . genkiness . .</span> || . |- || Quaternary | style="background:#FFE6FB;" | <span style="color:black"> generational</span> | style="background:#E6FFFF;" | <span style="color:black"> miscellaneal</span> | style="background:#F2E0CE;" | <span style="color:black"> punctuational</span> || This reflects having it all together enough to enjoy the holidays | style="background:#FFF2E6;" | <span style="color:lime"> # goblin </span> || # |- || Quinary | style="background:#F9F9F9;" | <span style="color:pink"> (direct object) </span> | style="background:white;" | <span style="color:black"> {verb} </span> | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [noun] </span> || This reflects deliberate professional progress | style="background:#F2E6FF;" | <span style="color:lime"> / tsugu /</span> || / |- || Senary || b || 〇 || x || This reflects influencing others | style="background:#E6FFEA;" | <span style="color:lime"> @ g @ g @ </span> || [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYnVYJDxu2Q @] |} == 100 -- Philosophy and psychology == How can I use color to manipulate behavior and improve communication? ===named=== ==== Re⋮Beccaδ#639 ==== ===== rebeccapurple :: #663399 ===== https://meyerweb.com/eric/thoughts/2014/06/19/rebeccapurple/ ====black==== ====white==== ====græy==== ====pink==== ====indigo==== ====midnightblue==== ===hex=== ====#fff==== ====#fff==== {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:black;" | <span style="color:white"> [ white { on black ⚞🧿⚟ #fff on #000 ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:pink"> [ pink { on 50% grey ⚞🧿⚟ #ffc0cb on #808080 ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#191970"> [ midnightblue { on 50% grey ⚞🧿⚟ #191970 on #808080 ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#808080;" | <span style="color:#4b0082"> [ indigo { on 50% grey ⚞🧿⚟ #4b0082 on #808080 ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |} ===cmyk=== https://colordesigner.io/convert/cmyktohex ====gg on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) w|materializecss.com==== https://materializecss.com/color.html {| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |+ |- | style="background:#ababab" | <span style="color:#fff9c4"> [ gg_yellow { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #fff9c4 on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#ffe0b2"> [ gg_orange { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #ffe0b2 on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#ffcdd2"> [ gg_red { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #ffcdd2 on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#e1bee7"> [ gg_purple { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #e1bee7 on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#bbdefb"> [ gg_blue { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #bbdefb on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#c8e6c9"> [ gg_green { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #c8e6c9 on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#efefef"> [ gg_white { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #efefef on #ababab⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#111"> [ gg_black { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #111 on #ababab ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#808080"> [ gg_grey { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #808080 on #ababab ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#f8bbd0"> [ gg_pink { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #f8bbd0 on #ababab ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#b2ebf2"> [ gg_cyan { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #b2ebf2 on #ababab ⚞🧿⚟ } ] </span> |- | style="background:#ababab;" | <span style="color:#d7ccc8"> [ gg_brown { on cmyk(0,0,0,33.3) ⚞🧿⚟ #d7ccc8 on #ababab )⚞🧿⚟} ] </span> |} ===rgba=== === TrumPutin-ism === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. == 200 -- Religion == Royal We "spiritual warfare" 1000 things I did 1992-2022 other than lie my way onto the supreme court to overturn Roe v Wade {| |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |- || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ || ɸ |} == 300 -- Social sciences == https://wattention.com/traditional-rice-harvesting-in-japan/ https://www.wwoofjapan.com/home/index.php?lang=en == 400 -- Language == === Programming === ==== .png ==== ==== Esperanto ==== ==== HTML ==== ==== PUG ==== == 500 -- Pure Science == == 600 -- Technology == === local hosts=== [http://localhost:8080/ 8080] file:///D:/index.html === Roland SP 404MKII === https://www.roland.com/global/products/sp-404mk2/ https://www.roland.com/global/support/by_product/sp-404mk2/owners_manuals/ @https://static.roland.com/manuals/sp-404mk2_app/eng/19610757.html === VIM === https://vim-adventures.com/ == 700 -- Arts and recreation == == 800 -- Literature == == 900 -- History and geography == https://geology.com/stories/13/bear-areas/ === pre-2030 === 2022 "booked" by Hillsboro Police for sending email addressing "Christian Hate" and "Spiritual War" along with "exorcisms" and "Halloween Hysteria" in Marion County, OR where Salem Police Department abdicated from protecting some children in Salem from 2016-2021. 2021 Kaiser Permanente promised cash settlement to mitigate their abdication in Marion County. KP lawyer with intimate details about my vagina: terrence .j . loeber@kp.org 2012 "unliked" on FB by some Nazarene peers after openly questioning Alex Jones' allegation that Sandy Hook didn't happen and asking for compassion for parents who were called actors while they grieved publicly through no choice of their own. 2011 Lupron given by KP for menorrhagia as alternative to b/c pills first rxd in 86. How many women who have "mostly" been on b/c pills from 87-11 are obese? Why no menorrhagia while immersed in Japan? How close to a traditional Japanese diet can I get in the Willamette Valley and how close to no meat will my body allow? === TrumPutish War Against Humanity === Trump has demonstrably alienated the USA from allies both foreign and domestic. While Oregon's AG works on Epstein and Weinstein, contemporaneous crimes go unabated and have created a new problem where otherwise law abiding folk find themselves on the wrong side of the law. Oregon doesn't have enough public defenders to fight violent crime, yet children are alienated from their church and families to hide atrocities they don't even know about. === Ring of Fire === === Post "Roe v Wade" === Who did Roe v Wade protect? Why would a Nazarene raised pro-life support an "underground" network post Roe v Wade? === Our Contemporary "Underground Railroad" needs a submarine? === Why did Portland, OR close the Shanghai Tunnels recently? Human Trafficking through Astoria, OR has been going on "forever". How do we align an "underground railroad" with contemporary supports? == 10 -- A & + == == 11 -- B * x == == 12 -- C f(◯) == == 13 -- D Δ δ ƍ ≜ 𝜟 𝝳 == == 14 -- E 🐘 𓃰 == == 15 -- F == == 16 -- G == == 17 -- H == == 18 -- I == == 19 -- J == == 20 -- K == == 21 -- L == == 22 -- M == == 23 -- N == == 24 -- O == == 25 -- P == == 26 -- Q == == 27 -- R == == 28 -- S == == 29 -- T == == 30 -- U == == 31 -- V == == 32 -- W == == 33 -- X == == 34 -- Y == == 35 -- Z == tm5ost923b9orhd7up6w1i77et442um 0 261965 2415667 2408246 2022-08-17T01:27:27Z LinzCarey 2848224 Added Photo wikitext text/x-wiki == Speech-Language Pathology in Palliative Care – Special Interest Group == __TOC__ == Introduction == Speech-Language Pathology (SLP) in Palliative Care (PalCare) is a new and developing area of specialty which aims to provide appropriate SLP practice within palliative and end-of-life care services. While the profession of [[:w:Speech-language pathology|speech-language pathology/speech therapy]] has been in existence since the turn of the 20th Century, and [[:w:Palliative care|palliative care]] has been practiced for centuries (in one form or another), nevertheless, the combination of the two disciplinary areas intersecting has often been intermittent and highly dependent upon a specific institutional context, rather than being systematically endorsed by any government regulations or professional association clinical practice guidelines (CPGs). == SLP-PalCare Focus == Speech-Language Pathology in Palliative Care Special Interest Group has a primary focus upon ten major areas in order to support SLPs in Palliative Care and redress the lack of SLP CPGs in Palliative Care:[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17549507.2020.1730966 Chahda et al (2020)] # Encouraging, developing and/or conducting ongoing research and creating resources for SLPs working in Palliative Care. # Educating health professions about the role of SLPs in PalCare. # Establishing referral procedures for SLP intervention within PalCare. # Integrating PalCare within SLP tertiary education. # Promoting the education, consultation, supervision and mentoring of SLPs new to PalCare. # Incorporating SLP observations and interventions into the overall multi-disciplinary/palliative care team goals. # Focussing PalCare assessment and therapy to include both cognitive-communication and swallowing interventions. # Integration of SLPs as a part of a practical, consultative and holistic PalCare approach. # Encouraging professional self-care consideration for SLPs working in PalCare. # The development of uniform SLP-PalCare CPGs == Research and Future Development == Based upon the findings of an increasing number of researchers [for example see the reviews of [https://doi.org/10.1080/17549507.2016.1241301 Chahda et al (2017)] and [https://doi.org/10.1080/17549507.2017.1337225 Krikheli et al (2018)] there is clearly a need for further research and increased scope of practice accompanied by the development of SLP clinical practice guidelines so as to enhance the multidisciplinary and holistic collaboration of SLPs within Palliative Care contexts. ==== CURRENT RESEARCH (2022) ==== '''"Identifing facilitators and barriers to successful speech pathology student placements in the palliative care setting"''' '''Time frame:'''  May to August 2022 '''Survey:''' Completed. '''Focus Groups''': Completed. '''Interviews:''' Planning This project is being completed by researchers from The University of Melbourne and Deakin University. * Dr Laura Chahda (Email: laura.chahda@unimelb.edu.au) * Dr Megan Keage (Email: megan.keage@unimelb.edu.au) * Ms Hayley Dell’Oro (Email: hayley.delloro@unimelb.edu) * Dr Jemma Skeat (Email: jemma.skeat@deakin.edu.au) '''"The PCC4U (Palliative Care Curriculum for Undergraduates"''': https://pcc4u.org.au/) assists in providing resources for the trainng of undergradutes in palliative care and provides a number of resources incuding vdieo case studies: (access via: https://www.youtube.com/user/PCC4UProject/playlists) one of which mentions SLPs: (https://pcc4u.org.au/learning/modules/module4/m4_section3/m4_activity8/). == SLP-PalCare-SIG Representatives & Membership == To achieve the objective foci of SLPs within Palliative Care (as noted above) the formation of the 'Speech-Language Pathology and Palliative Care Special Interest Group' (SLP-PalCare-SIG) has been listed by [https://www.speechpathologyaustralia.org.au/SPAweb/Resources_For_Speech_Pathologists/Non_SPA_Resources/Special_Interest_Groups/SPAweb/Resources_for_Speech_Pathologists/Non_SPA_Resources/Special_Interest_Groups.aspx?hkey=c1a0adee-4577-45e1-9c1e-31ee203f2789 '''Speech Pathology Australia'''] (SPA) and currently involves representatives from a number of universities and clinical practices. There is no fee to be a member of the SLP-PalCare-SIG. Please email the secretary if you are interested in joining. ''SLP-PalCare-SIG Members (Alphabetical by Surname):'' * [Chairperson] Professor. Bernice Mathisen (University of Southern Queensland, AU: Bernice.Mathisen@usq.edu.au) * [Secretary] Associate Professor (Adj) Lindsay Carey (Palliative Care Unit: La Trobe University, AU: Lindsay.Carey@latrobe.edu.au) *Dr. Valerie Adams (Food Solutions Diet Consultants, Queensland, AU: valerie@foodsolutions.com.au). * Ms. Emily Austin (Plena Healthcare, AU: Emily.Austin@plenahealthcare.com.au) *Ms. Stephanie Bates (Eastern Health, Wantirna, Victoria, AU) *Ms. Rachael Brailey (Southport Health Precinct, Southport QLD: Rachael.Brailey@health.qld.gov.au) * Dr. Christa Carey-Sargeant (Victoria Department of Education and Training, Melbourne, AU) * Ms Danielle Carey (Alexandra Hospital, Alexandra, Victoria, AU: Danielle.Carey@adh.org.au) * Ms. Alexandra Carey (Montefiore Aged Care Services, Sydney, AU: ACarey@montefiore.org.au) *Ms. Chloe Carter (West Gippsland Healthcare Group, Warragu, Victorial, AU: chloe.carter@wghg.com.au) * Ms. Beth Causa (Wollongong Speech Pathology, NSW, AU: Beth@wollongongspeech.com.au). * Dr. Laura Chahda (University of Melbourne, Victoria, AU: Laura.Chahda@unimelb.edu.au) * Ms. Sarah Chou (University of Sydney / Health NSW, AU: Sarah.Chou@health.nsw.gov.au) * Dr. Naomi Cocks (Curtin University, Western Australia, AU: Naomi.Cocks@curtin.edu.au) *Ms. Annabelle Dargeant (St. Vincent's Hospital, Victoria, AU: Annabelle.Dargeant@svha.org.au). * Ms. Lidia Davies (McKellar Centre, Barwon Health, Victoria, AU: Lidia.Davies@barwonhealth.org.au) * Ms. Brittany Fong (University of Melbourne, Victoria, AU: brit.a.fong@gmail.com) *Ms. Philippa Friary (Auckland University, Auckland, NZ: philippa.friary@auckland.ac.nz) *Ms. Asta Fung (Orange Health Service, NSW, AU: Asta.Fung@health.nsw.gov.au) * Ms. Vanessa Greenberg (Broadmeadows Hospital, Victoria, AU: Vanessa.Greenberg@nh.org.au) *Ms. Sophie Griffin (St. Vincent's Hospital, Victoria, AU: Sophie.Griffin@svha.org.au). * Ms. Sarah Hammond (Mona Vale Hospital, Northern Sydney Local Health District, AU: Sarah.Hammond@health.nsw.gov.au) * Ms. Annabel Harding (Lemongrove Community Health Centre, Penrith NSW, AU: Annabel.Harding@health.nsw.gov.au) *Ms. Bec Healy (Speech Pathology, Bunderberg Hospital Queensland, AU: Rebecca.Healy3@health.qld.gov.au). * Ms. Renee Heard (Motor Neuron Disease Clinic, Barwon Health, Geelong, Victoria, AU: Renee.Heard@barwonhealth.org.au). *Ms. Nicky Jackson (Calvary Health Care Bethlehem, Parkdale, Vic: Nicole.Jackson@calvarycare.org.au). *Ms. Ed. Jessop (Bairnsdale Regional Health Service, Victoria: ejessop24@gmail.com) * Dr. Katherine Kelly (South Western Sydney Local Health District, NSW, AU: Katherine.Kelly2@health.nsw.gov.au) * Dr. Lillian Krikheli (La Trobe University, Melbourne, AU: L.Krikheli@latrobe.edu.au) * Ms. Rebecca Lamont (Western Health, Sunshine Victoria, AU: Rebecca.Lamont@wh.org.au) *Ms. Anna Marchant (Plena Healthcare, AU: Anna.Marchant@plenahealthcare.com.au) *Mr. Yris Simon Mendoza (Calvary Health Care Kogarah, NSW, AU: Yris.Simonmendoza@health.nsw.gov.au) *Ms. Bonnie Nichols (St. Vincent's Hospital, Victoria, AU: bonnie.nichols@svha.org.au). *Ms. Morgan Perry (Ballarat Base Hospital, Ballarat, Victoria: AU). *Ms. Jennifer Petry (Neurological Rehabilitation Center, Wiesbaden, Germany, DE: Jennifer.Petry@stud.hawk.de) *Ms. Claire Radford (Children's Health, Queensland Hospital & Health Service, Queensland, AU: Claire.Radford@health.qld.gov.au) *Ms. Shanalee Perera (East Wimmera Health Service, Victoria, AU: Shanaleeperera@icloud.com) * Ass't Prof. Robin Pollens (Western Michigan University, Michigan, USA: Robin.Pollens@wmich.edu) *Ms. Oliva Purvis (Barossa Hills Fleurieu Local Health Network, South Australia: Olivia.Purvis@sa.gov.au) *Ms. Tanya Ramadan (Canterbury Hospital, New South Wales, Australia: tanya.ramadan@health.nsw.gov.au) *Ms. Amy Rosenfeld (Southern District Health Board, New Zealand: Amy.Rosenfeld@southerndhb.govt.nz) * Mr. Andy Smidt (Speech Pathology, University of Sydney, NSW, AU: Andy.Smidt@sydney.edu.au) * Ms. Rebecca Smith (Speech Pathology Department, Townsville Hospital and Health Service, AU: Rebecca.Smith@health.qld.gov.au) *Dr. Amanda Stead (School of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Pacific University, US: Amanda.Stead@pacific.edu) *Ms. Valerie Tait (Lake Macquarie Private Hospital, NSW, AU: taitv@ramsayhealth.com.au) *Ms. Esther Telfer (Flinders and Upper North Local Health Network SA Health,Government of South Australia: Esther.Telfer@sa.gov.au) *Ms. Amber Tester (Speech Pathology, Orbost Regional Health, Victoria, AU: Amber.Tester@orh.com.au) *Ms. Hanna Thompson (Casey Hospital - Monash Health, AU: Hannah.Thompson@monashhealth.org) * Prof. Travis Threats (St. Louis University, US: Travis.Threats@health.slu.edu) *Ms. Melissa Trinca (Hall and Prior Aged Care, Western Australia: mtrinca@hallprior.com.au) *Ms. Kelly Verheyen (Plena Healthcare, AU: Kelly.Verheyen@plenahealthcare.com.au) * Ms. Ashleigh Vidovich (Health, Western Australia, AU: Ashleigh.Vidovich@health.wa.gov.au) *Ms. Samantha White (Queensland Children’s Hospital, South Brisbane, AU: Samantha.White2@health.qld.gov.au). * Ms. Catherin Wilton (Yooralla, Allied Services and Wellbeing – North and East, Melbourne, AU: Catherine.Wilton@yooralla.com.au). *Ms. Ciara Winstanley (Tablelands Allied Health, Cairns, Queensland, AU: Ciara.Winstanley@health.qld.gov.au) *Ms. Rachel Wong (Latrobe Regional Hospital, Victoria, AU: RWong@lrh.com.au). * [Palliative Care Advisor: Professor Bruce Rumbold,OAM: (Adjunct: Palliative Care Unit, La Trobe University] == SLP-PalCare-SIG Activities == [[File:Dr. Laura Chahda.jpg|thumb|'''Dr. Laura Chahda'''. Publicatons Award for Research into SLPs and Adult Palliative Care in Australia]] === ''(1) Annual Meeting: SPA Conference 2022 (refer 3. below)'' === See below for recommended workshop pre-reading: === ''(2)'' ''National'' ''SPA Conference 2022: 'Beyond Borders' 22 - 25'' MAY 2022 (Melbourne) === '''SPA-PalCareSIG 2022: Congratulations to Dr. Laura Chahda who was presented with the Taylor & Francis / International Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Best Publication Award for her research into Adult Palliative Care and SLPs in Australia. If you would like to read the article please see the link below:''' Chahda, L., Carey, L. B., Mathisen, B. A., & Threats, T. (2021). Speech-language pathologists and adult palliative care in Australia. ''International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology'', ''23''(1), 57-69. https://doi.org/10.1080/17549507.2020.1730966 === (3'')'' ''National'' ''SPA Conference 2023: 21 - 24'' MAY 2023 (Hobart) === https://www.emedevents.com/c/medical-conferences-2023/speech-pathology-australia-spa-national-conference-2023 Hotel Grand Chancellor, Hobart Tasmania, Australia: https://www.grandchancellorhotels.com/hotel-grand-chancellor-hobart === ''(4)'' ''ASHA Upcoming Events:'' https://www.asha.org/slp/slp-calendar/ === === ''(5'') 7th International Public Health Palliative Care Conference (2022): Bruges, Belgium. === ====== ''"End of Life Research, Public Health and Palliative Care''' Further details to be provided. [http://phpci.info/7th-international-conference <nowiki>[2]</nowiki>] ====== === (6) Congratulations to SLP-PalCare-SIG member: Professor Travis Threats - Recipient of "ASHA Honors" === [[File:Travis Threats.jpg|thumb|Prof. Travis Threats (ASHA Honors)]] https://m.slu.edu/default/news/detail?feed=rss_newslink&id=883ef154-0029-5f59-acfe-1758acca21a4 == SLP-PalCare-SIG Communications / Twitter == For regular updates, please join 'follow' our Twitter Account: https://twitter.com/SigSlp == SLP-PalCare-SIG Book and Chapter == * Mathisen, B.A. & Carey, L.B. (2023: <u>In press</u>). ''Speech-Language Pathology and Palliative Care''. London: SAGE Publishers. * Mathisen, B.A. & Threats, T. (2018). Speech-Language Pathology and Spiritual Care. In Carey, L.B. & Mathisen, B.A. (2020). ''Spiritual Care for Allied Health Practice: A person-centered approach''. London: Jessica Kingsley Press. https://www.jkp.com/aus/spiritual-care-for-allied-health-practice.html<nowiki/> Carey, L.B. & Mathisen, B.A. (2018). ''Spiritual Care for Allied Health Practice: A person-centered approach''. London: Jessica Kingsley Press. [https://www.jkp.com/aus/spiritual-care-for-allied-health-practice.html https://www.jkp.com/aus/spiritual-care-for-allied-health-practice.htm] ''['''This book is free to all SPA-PalCare-SIG members; please contact the Secretary for your free copy]''''' == Recommended References == The following sources (in alphabetical order) are recommended reading regarding the role of SLPs in Palliative Care: * Chahda, L., Carey, L. B., Mathisen, B. A., & Threats, T. (2020). Speech-language pathologists and adult palliative care in Australia. [[doi:10.1080/17549507.2020.1730966|''International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology'']], 23 (1), 57-69. * Chahda, L., Dell’Oro, H., Skeat, J. & Keage, M. (2022). Learning at end of Life Preparedness of speech language pathology graduates to work in palliative care. ''Journal of Clinical Practice in Speech-Language Pathology''. 24 (2), 77-79. [JCPSLP article available via SPA or author] * Chahda, L., Mathisen, B. A., & Carey, L. B. (2017). The role of speech-language pathologists in adult palliative care. [[doi:10.1080/17549507.2016.1241301|''International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology'']], 19(1), 58-68. *Collins, C.A. (2022). There’s this big fear around palliative care because it’s connected to death and dying’: A qualitative exploration of the perspectives of undergraduate students on the role of the speech and language therapist in palliative care. ''Palliative Medicine''. 36(1), 171 –180. https://doi.org/10.1177/02692163211050818 * DeZeeuw, K., & Lalonde Myers, E. (2020). The Role of Speech-Language Pathologists in Medical Assistance in Dying: Canadian Experience to Inform Clinical Practice. ''Canadian Journal of Speech-Language Pathology & Audiology'', ''44''(2).https://cjslpa.ca/detail.php?ID=1259&lang=en *Fong, R., Tsai, C., Wong, H., Yiu, O., & Luk, J. K. H. (2019). Speech therapy in palliative care and comfort feeding: Current practice and way ahead. ''Asian Journal of Gerontolology and Geriatrics'', ''142'', 61-68. https://doi.org/10.12809/ajgg-2018-330-oa *Hanna, E., & Joel, A. (2005). End-of-Life Decision Making, Quality of Life, Enteral Feeding, and the Speech-Language Pathologist. ''Perspectives on Swallowing and Swallowing Disorders (Dysphagia)'', ''14''(3), 13-18. https://pubs.asha.org/doi/full/10.1044/sasd14.3.13 * Hawksley, R., Ludlow, F., Buttimer, H., & Bloch, S. (2017). Communication disorders in palliative care: Investigating the views, attitudes and beliefs of speech and language therapists. ''International Journal of Palliative Nursing'', 23, 543–551. doi: 10.12968/ijpn.2017.23.11.543. * Gravier, S. (2019). Palliative care and how evidence supports speech pathologists who care people at end of life. ''Speech Pathology Australia'' ''Speak Out''. June, p. 20-21. * Kelly, K., Cumming, S., Corry, A., Gilsenan, K., Tamone, C., Vella, K., & Bogaardt, H. (2016). The role of speech-language pathologists in palliative care: Where are we now? A review of the literature. ''Progress in Palliative Care'', 24(6), 315-323. * Kelly, K., Cumming, S., Kenny, B., Smith-Merry, J., & Bogaardt, H. (2018). Getting comfortable with “comfort feeding”: An exploration of legal and ethical aspects of the Australian speech-language pathologist’s role in palliative dysphagia care. [https://doi.org/10.1080/17549507.2018.1448895 ''International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology''], 20(3), 371-379. * Krikheli, L., Mathisen, B. A., & Carey, L. B. (2018). Speech–language pathology in paediatric palliative care: A scoping review of role and practice. [[doi:10.1080/17549507.2017.1337225|''International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology'']], 20(5), 541-553. * Krikheli, L., Carey, L. B., Mathisen, B. A., Erickson, S., & Carey-Sargeant, C. (2018). Recommendations for Speech-Language Pathologists in Paediatric Palliative Care Teams (ReSP3CT):  A modified Delphi study protocol. ''BMJ Supportive & Palliative Care'', ''Online First'', 1-7. doi:[https://spcare.bmj.com/content/early/2018/12/04/bmjspcare-2018-001667 10.1136/bmjspcare-2018-001667] * Krikheli, L., Carey, L. B., Erickson, S., Carey‐Sargeant, C. L., & Mathisen, B. A. (2020). Recommendations for Speech-Language Pathologists in Paediatric Palliative Care (ReSP3CT): An International Modified Delphi Study. ''International Journal of Speech Language Pathology, Online: : https://doi.org/10.1080/17549507.2020.1866073'' * Krikheli, L., Erickson, S., Carey, L. B., Carey‐Sargeant, C. L., & Mathisen, B. A. (2020). Perspectives of speech and language therapists in paediatric palliative care: An international exploratory study. ''International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders''. Online:https://doi.org/10.1111/1460-6984.12539 * Krikheli, L., Erickson, S., Carey, L. B., Carey‐Sargeant, C. L., & Mathisen, B. A. (2020). Speech-Language Pathologists in Pediatric Palliative Care: An International Study of Perceptions and Experiences. ''American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 30(1), 150-168:'' https://doi.org/10.1044/2020_AJSLP-20-00090 *Mahendra, N., & Alonso, M. (2020). Knowledge of palliative care and advance directives among speech–language pathology students. ''Topics in Language Disorders'', ''40''(3), 248-263. doi: [https://journals.lww.com/topicsinlanguagedisorders/Fulltext/2020/07000/Knowledge_of_Palliative_Care_and_Advance.4.aspx?context=LatestArticles&casa_token=ShEWF4FPHaYAAAAA:GonKQr-DILgbKQ-X_j7r-nWZ15vUBTHWLjiumoxF9gpCErnQB_JlMyfmBo8AQwNDWYp30IHCdvuaW5ppDi11OFsqkTQMFBHl 10.1097/TLD.0000000000000224] * Mathisen, B., Carey, L. B., Carey-Sargeant, C. L., Webb, G., Millar, C., & Krikheli, L. (2015). Religion, spirituality and speech-language pathology: A viewpoint for ensuring patient-centred holistic care. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10943-015-0001-1 ''Journal of Religion and Health''], 54(6), 2309–2323. * Mathisen, B.A. & Threats, T. (2018). Speech-Language Pathology and Spiritual Care. In Carey, L.B. & Mathisen, B.A. (2020). ''Spiritual Care for Allied Health Practice: A person-centered approach''. London: Jessica Kingsley Press. https://www.jkp.com/aus/spiritual-care-for-allied-health-practice.html *Mathisen, B.A., Yates, P., Crofts, P. (2010). Palliative care curriculum for speech-language pathology students. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders. 46 (3), 273–285. https://doi.org/10.3109/13682822.2010.495739 * Martins, S., & Castro Alves, S. (2017). Speech Therapy in Palliative Care—Portuguese Perspective. ''Journal of Palliative Medicine'', ''20''(1), 7-7. https://doi.org/10.1089/jpm.2016.0407 * O'Reilly, A.C. & Walshe, M. (2015). Perspectives on the role of the speech and language therapist in palliative care: An international survey. ''Palliative Medicine'', 29(8), 756-761. https://doi.org/10.1177/0269216315575678 *Pascoe, A., Breen, L.J., & Cocks, N. (2018). What is needed to prepare speech pathologists to work in palliative care?. ''International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders'', 53(3), 542-549. https://doi.org/10.1111/1460-6984.12367 *Pollens, R., Chahda, L., Freeman-Sanderson, A., Lalonde Myers, E., & Mathison, B. (2021). Supporting Crucial Conversations: Speech–Language Pathology Intervention in Palliative End-of-Life Care. ''Journal of Palliative Medicine'', ''24''(7), 969-970. https://doi.org/10.1089/jpm.2021.0134 * Pollens, R. (2020). Facilitating Client Ability to Communicate in Palliative End-of-Life Care: Impact of Speech-Language Pathologists. ''Topics in Language Disorders'', ''40 (3)'' , 264-277. https://doi.org/10.1097/TLD.0000000000000220 * Pollens, R. (2012). Integrating speech-language pathology services in palliative end-of-life care. ''Topics in Language Disorders'', 32, 137–148. doi:10.1097/TLD.0b013e3182543533. * Pollens, R. (2004). Role of the speech-language pathologist in palliative hospice care. ''Journal of Palliative Medicine'', 7, 694–702. doi:10.1089/jpm.2004.7.694. *Stead, A., Dirks, K., Fryer, M., & Wong, S. (2020). Training Future Speech–Language Pathologists for Work in End-of-Life and Palliative Care. ''Topics in Language Disorders'', ''40''(3), 233-247. [https://journals.lww.com/topicsinlanguagedisorders/Fulltext/2020/07000/Training_Future_Speech_Language_Pathologists_for.3.aspx?context=LatestArticles&casa_token=xhOJ4QNeOYAAAAAA:dlnCDcLnUIlV5NHlSvnUFlQHlVs-M04yLcMme_t0-wlerM-NuTYUH23RYeDejfn-zLa17zoU-ri-BbVxoZ9aq07oTtmzhQ69 doi: 10.1097/TLD.0000000000000219] bk4w97r1ecinxwghad3ttmbm3tag32z 0 263444 2415617 2414987 2022-08-16T18:01:55Z Scogdill 1331941 wikitext text/x-wiki == Overview == * Louise, Duchess of Devonshire was the subject of much comment and gossip in her life, arising in part from her prominence in society and in part from her conduct, which was not particularly controlled by middle-class notions of "respectability." * "Louise Alten, for her part, exemplifies another vanished feature [of Victorian England], the role of the political hostess. The part she played in Hartington's career even while she was his mistress gives a special twist to this function, and her more conventional ascendancy as Duchess of Devonshire, when she was said to be the most powerful person outside the government, shows the influence that could be wielded by women in a political system from which they were formally excluded."<ref name=":20">Vane, Henry. ''Affair of State: A Biography of the 8th Duke and Duchess of Devonshire''. Peter Owen, 2004.</ref>{{rp|12}} == Also Known As == *Louise, Duchess of Devonshire (15 January 1832 – 15 November 1911) *Louisa, Duchess of Manchester *Luise Friederike August Gräfin von Alten *Louisa Montagu *Louise Cavendish *The Double Duchess == Acquaintances, Friends and Enemies == === Friends === *[[Social Victorians/People/Albert Edward, Prince of Wales | Albert Edward, Prince of Wales]] (beginning about 1852) *[[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish|Spencer Compton Cavendish]], Lord Hartington (later 8th Duke of Devonshire) *Daisy, Lady Warwick *Lady Mayoress, Mrs. Benjamin Samuel Faudel-Phillips, 2nd Baronet,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-08-25|title=Faudel-Phillips baronets|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Faudel-Phillips_baronets&oldid=974879290|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> presented to Victoria by Louisa Cavendish at a Queen's Drawing-room on Wednesday, 24 February 1897 at Buckingham Palace.<ref name=":4">"The Queen's Drawing Room" ''Morning Post'' 25 February 1897 Thursday: 5 [of 10], Col. 5a–7b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970225/047/0005.</ref>{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6c}} *Mrs. J. E. Mellor, presented to Victoria by Louisa Cavendish at a Queen's Drawing-room on Wednesday, 24 February 1897 at Buckingham Palace.<ref name=":4" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6c}} === Enemies === * Consuelo, Duchess of Marlborough (at least, in 1901)<ref name=":1">Murphy, Sophia. ''The Duchess of Devonshire's Ball''. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1984.</ref>{{rp|pp. 31–32}} == Organizations == == Timeline == '''1852 July 22''', Luise Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten and William Drogo Montagu married.<ref name=":2">"Luise Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10947.htm#i109469|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-09-25}}</ref> '''1859''': "As for Louise, a glimpse of her unconventional ways is given by Lady Eleanor Stanley, describing a paper-chase at Kimbolton in 1859: 'The Duchess of Manchester, in getting too hastily over a stile, caught a hoop of her cage in it, and went head over heels, alighting on her feet with her cage and whole petticoats remaining above her head. they say there was never such a thing seen — and the other ladies hardly knew whether to be thankful or not that a part of her underclothing consisted of a pair of scarlet tartan knickerbockers (the things Charles shoots in) — which were revealed to all the world in general and the Duc de Malakoff in particular.' Lady Eleanor says that the other ladies hardly knew whether to be thankful because at this date a lady's normal wear under her petticoats was only a pair of leggings laced up to the waistband, an arrangement that could be unduly revealing in combination with a crinoline. ... But some of the more active ladies were beginning to adopt / Louise's expedient of donning a hidden pair of breeches for rambles in the country."<ref name=":20" />{{rp|25–26}} '''1863, early, or late 1862''', Louise and Spencer Compton Cavendish began a relationship.<ref name=":1" />{{rp|p. 26}} '''1873 December 10''', Mary Louise Elizabeth Montagu (daughter) and William Douglas-Hamilton married. '''1876 May 22''', Consuelo Iznaga y Clement and George Victor Drogo Montagu (son) married in Grace Church, New York City.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-08-24|title=George Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Montagu,_8th_Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=974659520|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-27|title=Consuelo Montagu, Duchess of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Consuelo_Montagu,_Duchess_of_Manchester&oldid=969888488|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> '''1876 August 10''', Louisa Augusta Beatrice Montagu (daughter) and Archibald Acheson married. '''1889 January 5''', Alice Maude Olivia Montagu (daughter) and Edward Stanley married. '''1890 March 22''', William Drogo Montagu (7th Duke) died.<ref name=":3">"William Drogo Montagu, 7th Duke of Manchester." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10128.htm#i101274|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-09-25}}</ref> '''1890 November 14''', William Angus Drogo Montagu (grandson) and Helena Zimmerman married secretly, in London.<ref>"Helena Zimmerman." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p34555.htm#i345545|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-09-25}}</ref> '''1892 August 16''', Louise Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten Montagu and Spencer Compton Cavendish, her second husband, married.<ref name=":2" /> '''1897 July 2, Friday''', Louise Cavendish (#18 on the list of attendees) hosted her famous [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball| fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House in London. '''1897 July 20''', Mary Louise Elizabeth Montagu Douglas-Hamilton and Robert Carnaby Foster married. '''1900 November 14''', William Angus Drogo Montagu and Helena Zimmerman married.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-17|title=Helena, Countess of Kintore|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helena,_Countess_of_Kintore&oldid=968067371|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> '''1901 Spring''', Paris, Consuelo Spencer-Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough, describes a meeting with Louise Cavendish in the spring following Queen Victoria's death at the horse racetrack, Longchamps:<blockquote>A renowned character and virtually dictator of what was known as the fast set as opposed to the Victorian, Her Grace was a German aristocrat by birth. She had first been married to the impoverished Duke of Manchester, and when he died had improved her status by marriage to the rich Duke of Devonshire, who waged an undisputed influence in politics. Rumour had her beautiful, but when I knew her she was a raddled old woman, covering her wrinkles with paint and her pate with a brown wig. Her mouth was a red gash and from it, when she saw me, issued a stream of abuse. How could I, she complained, pointing to my white gloves, show so little respect to the memory of a great Queen? What a carefree world we must have lived in, that etiquette even in such small matters could assume so much importance?<ref>Balsan, Consuelo Vanderbilt. ''The Glitter and the Gold: The American Duchess — In Her Own Words''. New York: St. Martin's, 1953.</ref>{{rp|p. 115}}</blockquote> === Annual Events === Every year, as Duchess of Devonshire, Louise held a dance on the night after the Derby at Epsom Downs, which at this point was held on Wednesdays after Easter. == The Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball == Louise, Duchess of Devonshire and Spencer Compton, 8th Duke of Devonshire hosted the famous [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Fancy-dress ball|fancy-dress ball]], which took place on Friday night. According to ''House Style: Five Centuries of Fashion at Chatsworth'',<blockquote>Such an event required extensive planning and attention to detail. The housekeeper aided by two secretaries was in charge of organisation inside the house with precise instructions from the Duchess on menus and all arrangements.<ref name=":18" />{{rp|137}}</blockquote> === The Devonshire House Staff at the Ball === The Dukes of Devonshire did not keep employment records of the staff working at their various properties. The Servants and Staff Database managed by Chatsworth House has a list of everyone ever named in any documents as a servant or staff member, and by 1891 census records included employment at places like the properties owned by the Duke of Devonshire.<ref name=":19" /> === Questions === # Who was housekeeper? Who were the secretaries? # Where did this info about the "precise instructions" come from? == The Duchess of Devonshire's Costume == [[File:Louise Frederica Augusta Cavendish (née von Alten), Duchess of Devonshire (formerly Duchess of Manchester) as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra.jpg|thumb|Louise, Duchess of Devonshire as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra|alt=Louise, Duchess of Devonshire in costume as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra]] At their fancy-dress ball, Louisa, Duchess of Devonshire sat at Table 1 during the first seating for supper, escorted in to the table by the Prince of Wales.<ref name=":7">"Fancy Dress Ball at Devonshire House." ''Morning Post'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 7 [of 12], Col. 4a–8 Col. 2b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970703/054/0007.</ref>{{rp|p. 7, Col. 4c}} Her costume was designed by M. Comelli (Attillo Giuseppe Comelli, 1858–1925, artist and costumier for opera, ballet and theatre in London as well as Europe and the U.S.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SZh2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT207&lpg=PT207&dq=Attilio+Comelli&source=bl&ots=lFB0If7CwV&sig=ACfU3U1_Ost_lhmMvzMMs6NvuhK5SlRhJw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjKlsTw2sH3AhXYAp0JHVIxDWA4KBDoAXoECBAQAw#v=onepage&q=Attilio%20Comelli&f=false|title=Forgotten Designers Costume Designers of American Broadway Revues and Musicals From 1900-1930|last=Unruh|first=Delbert|date=2018-11-06|publisher=Page Publishing Inc|isbn=978-1-64082-758-5|language=en}} N.P.</ref>)<ref name=":5">“The Devonshire House Ball.” The ''Man of Ross'' 10 July 1897, Saturday: 2 [of 8], Col. 4b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001463/18970710/033/0002.</ref> <ref name=":8">"The Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy Dress Ball. Special Telegram." ''Belfast News-Letter'' Saturday 03 July 1897: 5 [of 8], Col. 9 [of 9]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000038/18970703/015/0005.</ref>{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} <ref name=":9">"By One Who Was There." “The Duchess’s Costume Ball.” ''Westminster Gazette'' 03 July 1897 Saturday: 5 [of 8], Cols. 1a–3b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002947/18970703/035/0005.</ref> and constructed by the House of Worth. Comelli seems to have designed [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#The Duchess and Her Entourage|the costumes of her retinue as well]]. According to Russell Harris,<blockquote>For her costume, the Duchess commissioned Monsieur Comelli (1858-1925), a well-known designer of opera costumes for the London theatre and opera stage, and then had the design made up by Worth of Paris. ''Munsey’s Magazine'' noted “it is safe to say that the Queen of Palmyra never owned such a sumptuous costume in her lifetime.”<ref>Harris, Russell. {{Cite web|url=http://www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk/incalmprose/devonshiredss.html|title=Louise, Duchess of Devonshire, née Countess von Alten of Hanover (1832-1911), as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra|website=www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk|access-date=2022-05-05}} ''Narrated in Calm Prose: Photographs from the V&A's Lafayette Archive of Guests in Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's Diamond Jubilee Ball, July 1897''. http://www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk/incalmprose/devonshiredss.html.</ref></blockquote>Lafayette's portrait of "Louise Frederica Augusta Cavendish (née von Alten), Duchess of Devonshire (formerly Duchess of Manchester)" in costume is photogravure #5 in the album presented to the Duchess of Devonshire and now in the National Portrait Gallery.<ref>"Devonshire House Fancy Dress Ball (1897): photogravures by Walker & Boutall after various photographers." 1899. National Portrait Gallery https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait-list.php?set=515.</ref> The printing on the portrait says, "The Duchess of Devonshire as Zenobia Queen of Palmyra," with a Long S in ''Duchess''.<ref>"Louise Frederica Augusta Cavendish (née von Alten), Duchess of Devonshire (formerly Duchess of Manchester) as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra." Devonshire House Fancy Dress Ball Album. National Portrait Gallery https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw158357/Louise-Frederica-Augusta-Cavendish-ne-von-Alten-Duchess-of-Devonshire-formerly-Duchess-of-Manchester-as-Zenobia-Queen-of-Palmyra.</ref> Often, the V&A Lafayette Archive contains more than one portrait of a sitter for this ball, but the uncropped portrait (above right), which shows the unfinished end of the balustrade in front of the Duchess and the edge of the painted drop behind it, seems to have been the only portrait taken by Lafayette of the Duchess in costume. The copy owned by the National Portrait Gallery in London and the copy included in the album are cropped so that those unfinished edges do not show, but they appear to be from the same photograph. That is, there is one source for our information about this portrait: this single photograph. === Newspaper Descriptions of the Duchess's Costume === Newspaper articles about the Duchess's presence at the ball focused on her hosting, her costume, [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#The Duchess's Jewelry|her jewelry]], and [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#The Duchess's Entourage|her entourage]], often in the same story. These almost exactly identical descriptions suggest [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball/anthology#Scissors-and-Paste Journalism|scissors-and-paste journalism]] or a shared primary source: * The London ''Evening Standard'', ''Morning Post'' and ''Times'' published almost identical descriptions, varying only by the occasional punctuation mark or short phrase ("supplied by Worth, of Paris"). The fullest version is this one: "The Duchess of Devonshire, as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, wore a magnificent costume, supplied by Worth, of Paris. The skirt of gold tissue was embroidered all over in a star-like design in emeralds, sapphires, diamonds, and other jewels, outlined with gold, the corners where it opened in front being elaborately wrought in the same jewels and gold to represent peacocks' outspread tails. This opened to show an under-dress of cream crêpe de chine, delicately embroidered in silver, gold, and pearls, and sprinkled all over with diamonds. The train was attached to the shoulders by two slender points, and was fastened at the waist with a large diamond ornament. It was of green velvet of a lovely shade, and was superbly embroidered in Oriental designs, introducing the lotus flower in rubies, sapphires, amethysts, emeralds, and diamonds, in four borderings on contrasting grounds, separated with gold cord. The train was lined with turquoise satin. The bodice was composed of gold tissue to match the skirt, and the front was of crêpe de chine, hidden with a [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Stomacher|stomacher]] of real diamonds, rubies, and emeralds, and there was a jewelled belt."<ref name=":16">“The Ball at Devonshire House. Magnificent Spectacle. Description of the Dresses.” London ''Evening Standard'' 3 July 1897 Saturday: 3 [of 12], Cols. 1a–5b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000183/18970703/015/0004.</ref>{{rp|p. 3, Col. 2b}} <ref name=":7" />{{rp|p. 7, Col. 7a}} <ref name=":6">"Ball at Devonshire House." The ''Times'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 12, Cols. 1A–4C ''The Times Digital Archive''. Web. 28 Nov. 2015.</ref>{{rp|p. 12, Col. 3b}} *"The Duchess of Devonshire was a dazzling vision, dressed as 'Zenobia,' in a glistening gold gauze gown, elaborately ornamented with suns and discs, wrought in purple and green gems outlined with gold, and having a large diamond as centre. The space between was fluted with fine silver spangles. This robe was open in front over an under dress of white crépe de chine, delicately worked in crystals, and at each side of the opening on the gold robe were large fan-shaped groups of peacock feathers, worked in multicoloured jewels. The [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Corsage|corsage]] was to correspond, and had a magnificent [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Girdle|girdle]] of jewels, the train of bright green velvet, hung like a fan, without folds, being fastened at each side of the shoulders by diamond brooches, and caught at the waist with a similar ornament. It was a mass of gorgeous embroidery, carried out in heliotrope velvet, lotus flowers studded with tinted gems, and other devices in terra-cotta and electric blue velvet — all enriched with gold, diamond, and jewelled embroidery — and lined with pale blue satin. ... Attending the hostess were four children, four fan-bearers, and four trumpeters, all magnificently arrayed in artistically embroidered Assyrian robes, helmets, and other accessories, correct in every detail."<ref name=":15">"Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy Ball. A Brilliant Spectacle. Some of the Dresses." London ''Daily News'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 5 [of 10], Col. 6a–6, Col. 1b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000051/18970703/024/0005 and http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000051/18970703/024/0006.</ref>{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6a}} * According to the article in ''The Graphic'' written by [[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Lady Violet Greville]], though this caption to the Lafayette photograph may not be hers, the Duchess of Devonshire wore a "Skirt of gold tissue, embroidered all over with emeralds, sapphires, diamonds, and other jewels outlined with gold. This opened to show an underdress of crème crêpe de chine, embroidered in silver, gold, and pearls, and sprinkled all over with diamonds. The train was green velvet, superbly embroidered in Oriental designs. The bodice was composed of gold tissue, and the front was of crêpe de chine hidden with a stomacher of diamonds, rubies, and emeralds."<ref name=":10">Greville, Violet, Lady. "Devonshire House Ball." The ''Graphic'' Saturday 10 July 1897: 15 [of 24]: Col. 1a–16, Col. 1c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000057/18970710/019/0015.</ref>{{rp|p. 15, Col. 3b}} Because it is in black and white, the photograph of the Duchess taken by Lafayette in her costume (above right) can tell us almost nothing about the colors of the costume. Fortunately, this costume has survived and is held in Archives of the Duke of Devonshire (Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth). ''House Style: Five Centuries of Fashion at Chatsworth'', the volume about an exhibition mounted 25 March to 22 October 2017, has beautiful photographs from several perspective of the costume, including the train, and accessories. Published photographs of it '''show X'''.<ref name=":18">Burlington, Julia, and Hamish Bowles. ''House Style: Five Centuries of Fashion at Chatsworth''. Skira Rizzoli, 2017. Based on an exhibition 25 March to 22 October 2017.</ref> It has been worn by '''Deborah, 11th Duchess of Devonshire when the Dowager Duchess at some point for some reason'''. Some accounts of her costume suggest that the reporter thought that all the jewels sewn onto the dress were actual precious or semiprecious stones, but the London ''Daily News'' says some of them were crystals.<ref name=":15" />(p. 5, Col. 6a) According to ''House Style: Five Centuries of Fashion at Chatsworth'',<blockquote>The skirt of gold gauze, appliquéd with tinsel medallions and peacock plumes worked in bright foils, wire coils and spangled with sequins, was worn over an ivory satin underskirt wrought over with silver thread and diamonds. Attached to the shoulders was a long graduated train in the most vivid emerald-green velvet, appliquéd with velvet and gold work in an eastern design and studied with jewels.<ref name=":18" />(128)</blockquote> === Observations on the Duchess's Costume === In the photograph of her in costume, the Duchess is standing in a three-quarter front pose. That static position in a two-dimensional image makes it difficult to see how the fabric draped, how tight the bodice was, what the stomacher looked like, what pearls she is wearing and exactly what is going on with her headdress. Is her hair down or up? Do the horns on [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#Zenobia's Crown|her crown]] go toward the back from the apex that rises from the jewel-encrusted band or do they stick straight out to the sides? Does the headdress include the traditional three white plumes? * The exhibitions of the dress show a different fit than what is shown in the Lafayette photograph. Louise, the 8th Duchess's bodice is draped loosely over the stomacher, but the bodice in recent photographs of Deborah, 11th Duchess or the mannequin in the 2017 exhibition shows a bodice fitted to the stomacher. * Recent photographs of the costume show that it may have been altered or adjusted to make the waist more defined and the line looks more Elizabethan (the wide, square neckline; the A-line, the split skirt with the petticoat in the middle). * The dress seems to have been designed to flatter the 8th Duchess's statuesque figure, especially her waist: the belt falls down to the hips, the A-line; the way what we can see of the under-dress is narrow at the top and widens toward the bottom. * The drape of the skirt is straighter on the 8th Duchess as well as the Dowager Duchess than on the mannequins. * The sleeve treatment on the 1897 photograph is caught up at the shoulder. On the Dowager Duchess and the mannequins, the sleeves are released. * The 1897 reports use different terminology for the parts of the dress than we would now: skirt, under-dress, bodice, stomacher as opposed to skirt, underskirt. under dress, robe, and train, corsage, girdle. * The train: very Victorian * There appears to be silver sequins, which appear to have tarnished, which is why they are dark now. * There appears to be silver and gold thread in the embroidery. The gold thread has not tarnished, silver thread has. it would have been sparklier at the ball than what we can see now. * The newspaper accounts of the Duchess's costume do not agree on several particulars, including the color of the train and its lining. * The reporter's description of the Duchess's costume in the London ''Daily News'' is confusing: it says the train is "bright green velvet" and "It was a mass of gorgeous embroidery, carried out in heliotrope velvet." Embroidery is not "carried out" in velvet. Heliotrope is not green, it's pinkish purple. Furthermore, heliotrope appears to have been a new word for a color, introduced perhaps in 1882 in A. Maerz and M. Rea Paul ''A Dictionary of Colour'', New York: 1930 McGraw-Hill Page 196; Color Sample of Heliotrope: Page 131 Plate 54 Colour Sample C10 ("Heliotrope," Wikipedia [[wikipedia:Heliotrope_(color)#cite_note-2|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliotrope_(color)#c]]<nowiki/>[[wikipedia:Heliotrope_(color)#cite_note-2|ite_note-2]]). The ''OED'' lists 3 periodical sources for the 1880s, The ''World'' (1882), ''Truth'' (1886), and the ''Daily News'' (1887) ("heliotrope" 1.d. Retrieved 6 August 2022). The ''Daily News'' describes it well: "that peculiar mauve known as heliotrope." The word itself has existed in English for many centuries, both for the flower (which turns to follow the sun) as well as for instruments that reflect or measure sunlight and for a variety of quartz (also called bloodstone). * Can't tell how many strands of pearls are around Louise's neck in the Lafayette photo. * Color of green velvet on the train: the colors differ, depending on the photograph. One photograph shows a very vivid green, and the rest show a lighter green. We're not sure what's up with that. === The Historical Zenobia === Zenobia (240 – c. 274) was queen of the Syrian Palmyrene Empire, ruling as regent for her son after her husband's assassination.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2022-05-03|title=Zenobia|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&oldid=1086005949|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia.</ref> She was the subject of much art in the 19th century, including literature, opera, sculpture, and paintings. Middle-eastern traveller Lady Hester Stanhope (1776–1839) discussed Zenobia in her memoirs, published in 1847.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2022-03-07|title=Lady Hester Stanhope|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lady_Hester_Stanhope&oldid=1075838273|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Hester_Stanhope.</ref> The article on Zenobia in the 11th edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, published in 1911, written by G.A.C., is quite extensive, about '''XX''' words. The prior edition, the 9th edition, does not have an article on Zenobia, but she has an entry that is a cross reference to the Palmyra article (in Volume XVIII, published in 1888). == The Duchess's Jewelry == The Duchess was known fo<nowiki/>r her jewelry, and as she aged and after her marriage to the 8th Duke in 1892, the jewelry she wore only increased in scale and notability. It is not surprising that her jewelry would make up copy for the newspapers. Newspaper reports before the ball gossiped about the jewelry associated with the costumes being developed. For example, according to the Edinburgh ''Evening News'' on 21 June 1897, less than two weeks before the party, "The ball being a fancy dress one, men as well as women will be able in certain characters to wear jewels. The Duchess of Devonshire, who is to appear as Zenobia, is getting her jewels reset after the antique style."<ref>“The Duchess of Devonshire’s Ball.” Edinburgh ''Evening News'' 21 June 1897, Monday: 4 [of 6], Col. 5c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000452/18970621/079/0004.</ref> While almost all descriptions of her mention her jewels because they were so much a topic of conversation and because they were sewn onto the costume itself, these emphasize her jewelry and most are very similar to each other: * "The Duchess was attired with great Oriental magnificence as Zenobia. Her dress was a tissue of silver, embroidered with gold and jewels, an overmantle of cloth of gold embroidered in the same manner hung from the shoulders, and she wore a bandeau of gold studded with gems, and surrounded by hanging chains of pearls over her elaborate headdress; strings and ropes of jewels and pearls were worn round the neck, and hung down almost to the knees."<ref>“The Duchess of Devonshire’s Ball.” The ''Gentlewoman'' 10 July 1897 Saturday: 32–42 [of 76], Cols. 1a–3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18970710/155/0032. </ref>{{rp|p. 32, Cols. 1c–2a}} <ref name=":17">"Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy-Dress Ball. Brilliant Spectacle." The [Guernsey] ''Star'' 6 July 1897, Tuesday: 1 [of 4], Col. 1a–2b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000184/18970706/003/0001.</ref>{{rp|p. 1, Col. 2a}} * "A wonderfully beautiful dress was that which was worn by the Duchess of Devonshire as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra. It was of golden tissue, sewn with silver paillettes, and jewelled with diamonds and other precious stones. In front there were silk embroideries, in many vivid shades of colour, and here the golden draperies opened to show a petticoat of white crêpe de chine, embroidered with pearls and gold. The short train was of brilliant green velvet, exquisitely embroidered. One of the Duchess of Devonshire’s beautiful diamond and emerald tiaras had been taken to pieces to form a stomacher, the effect of which was dazzling in its brilliancy. Long chains of pearls and other wonderful jewels were worn with this beautiful dress."<ref>“The Devonshire House Ball. A Brilliant Gathering.” The ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 3 July 1897, Saturday: 7 [of 10], Col. 2a–3a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000098/18970703/019/0007.</ref>{{rp|p. 7, Col. 2b}} * In the article about the ball in the ''Graphic'', [[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Lady Violet Greville]] says, "The Ducal hostess herself elected to appear as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, with lavish magnificence, and wearing a corruscation of jewels which must have eclipsed the state of even the all-subduing majesty the Duchess impersonated."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|p. 16, Col. 1a}} *The Duchess was dressed "as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, her dress a marvel of soft tissues and exquisite ornament, and her tiara a still greater marvel of the jeweller's art."<ref name=":6" />{{rp|p. 12, Col. 2a}} <ref>"The Duchess of Devonshire’s Historic Ball. Some of the Fancy Costumes." Supplement. The ''Leicester Chronicle and Leicestershire Mercury'' 10 July 1897, Saturday: 11 [of 12], Cols. 4a–b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000173/18970710/141/0011.</ref>{{rp|p. 11, 4a}} As with the colors, Lafayette's photograph of the Duchess in costume does not show the jewels very clearly. We cannot see the stomacher or the "long chains of pearls and other wonderful jewels" or the pearls that "hung down almost to the knees" (although, of course, any newspaper account can be wrong because reporters were not present at the ball). === Zenobia's Crown<ref name=":10" /> === The crown that the Duchess wore as Zenobia is difficult to see clearly in the Lafayette photograph (above right), and no other images of the crown exist. It was lavish, "encrusted" with jewels and featuring pearls: * London ''Daily News'' says, "The crown worn with this was high, and of filigree gold, surmounted with two horns, each tipped with a large diamond. It was encrusted with large diamonds, rubies, and emeralds, and long chains of pearls fell under the chin and about the head — one magnificent pear-shaped pearl resting on the forehead."<ref name=":15" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6a}} * These descriptions are all identical except for the addition or subtraction of an occasional comma: The London ''Evening Standard'' says, "A gold crown encrusted with emeralds, diamonds, and rubies, with a diamond drop at each curved end, and two upstanding white ostrich feathers in the centre, and round the front were festoons of pearls, with a large pear-shaped pearl in the centre falling on the forehead."<ref name=":16" />{{rp|p. 3, Col. 2b}} <ref name=":7" />{{rp|p. 7, Col. 7a}} <ref name=":6" />{{rp|p. 12, Col. 3b}} <ref name=":10" />{{rp|p. 15, Col. 3b}} * The Guernsey ''Star'' says, "Her Grace wore a bandeau of gold round her head, studded with diamonds, turquoise, and emeralds, and surrounded by hanging chains of superb pearls."<ref name=":17" />{{rp|p. 1, Col. 2a}} This crown was recreated from the single Lafayette photograph of the Duchess in costume for the ''House Style: Five Centuries of Fashion at Chatsworth'', the exhibition mounted in 2017 and exhibited on the mannequin wearing the Duchess's costume. A photograph of this recreation separate from the costume, but with the pearls and the white plumes, can be seen on [https://www.sothebys.com/en/articles/how-c-w-sellors-transformed-five-centuries-of-fashion-into-modern-jewellery this Sotheby's page] about C. W Sellor's, the jewelry firm that did the recreation as well as a number of other recreations for the exhibit.<ref>Sotheby's. "How C. W. Sellors Transformed Five Centuries of Fashion Into Modern Jewellery." ''Sotheby's'' 9 May 2017. Retrieved 11 August 2022. https://www.sothebys.com/en/articles/how-c-w-sellors-transformed-five-centuries-of-fashion-into-modern-jewellery.</ref> Although Lafayette's photograph is not conclusive, in Sellor's recreation the horns on the crown point toward back of the head rather than out to the sides. === Goldsmith, Pearl & Diamond Merchant, & Silversmith === The Duchess's pearls, which were an important feature of her costume, occasioned a great deal of direct commentary in the newspaper accounts. The Duchess's jewelry occasioned a great deal of reportage in the articles about the ball. '''It was reported that she had her jewels restrung to be used in the costume. stomacher and review of jewelry in more general articles''' An invoice and receipt in the Archives of the Duke of Devonshire (Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth) is from a concern whose preprinted stationery has a crown in the upper-left corner, suggesting that they had a royal warrant, and no name other than Goldsmith, Pearl & Diamond Merchant, & Silversmith. This document offers a unique view into the evolution of one necklace, at least, over the years. It lists what are apparently three restringing of some pearls of Louise, Duchess of Devonshire. The three restringings appear to be dated: The first necklace is a "Pearl Necklet in original 4 rows." The invoice is dated 20 October 1892 (but the stationery was printed to assume the invoice would be used in the 1880s, so the 9 is written over the second 8, and the 2 has been added).<ref name=":14">Invoice and receipt. Goldsmith, Pearl & Diamond Merchant & Silversmith. Date of itemized invoices for restringing pearls: 20 October 1892, 1 March 1897, 1909. The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number FIS/4/1/2.</ref>(p. 1) The necklet she brought in to be restrung contained a "Total [of] Total 224 large pearls": # 1st [row] 51 large pearls # 2nd 53 large pearls # 3rd 57 large pearls # 4th 63 large pearls The second necklace is a "Necklet as re-strung on October 15th 1892, with addition of small pearls supplied, now consists of 5 rows, containing" a total of "224 large pearls & 227 small"<ref name=":14" />(p. 1): # 1st 41 large pearls & 40 small # 2nd 42 large pearls & 42 small # 3rd 44 large pearls & 45 small # 4th 47 large pearls & 48 small # 5th 50 large pearls & 51 small The third necklace is a "Pearl Necklet as again re-strung with additional pearls supplied 1 March 1897, now consisting of 5 Rows containing" a total of "262 Large Pearls & 267 Small"<ref name=":14" />(p. 2): # 1st Row 45 Large Pearls & 44 Small # 2nd Row 48 large Pearls & 49 Small # 3rd Row 51 Large Pearls & 52 Small # 4th Row 56 Large Pearls & 65 small Possibly these pearls may have been restrung in 1909 into a coronet, but the handwriting is not clear enough to read.<ref name=":14" />(p. 2) If the Duchess wore one of these stringings of her pearls for the ball, then it must have been the second necklet, strung in 1892, a 5-strand necklace. None of the newspaper accounts refer to a 5-strand pearl necklace, although her pearls are often mentioned. == The Duchess's Entourage == Besides the Duke of Devonshire, the retinue of Louise, Duchess of Devonshire as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, included her grandson, [[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drago Montagu, 9th Duke of Manchester]], dressed as a Georgian courtier. Four newspapers say that the Duchess's entourage included three groups, all in costume: children, trumpeters and fan-bearers. The ''Westminster Gazette'' and the ''Man of Ross'' list the groups but do not mention the number of members of the groups. According to two sources, probably in error, the London ''Daily News''<ref name=":15" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6a}} and the Belfast ''News-Letter,''<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} these groups each had four members. The London ''Daily News'' is likely the source (because it was published at 5:00 a.m.<ref>Mitchell, Charles. ''Newspaper Press Directory'', 1895. [Hathi Trust via U Wisconsin Madison.] http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015085486150.</ref>{{rp|55}}) for the Belfast ''News-Letter'', which took part in [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball/anthology#Scissors-and-Paste Journalism|scissors-and-paste journalism]], like so many other newspapers of the 19th century. ['''check this: which one was published earlier in the day, and on which day?'''] These four sources describe the Duchess's retinue and how the people in it were dressed: *"The Duchess of Devonshire was dazzingly [sic] magnificent as 'Zenobia,' arrayed in the glistening fabrics and massive jewels in which artists have delighted to depict the Warrior Queen, the costume in this case being specially designed by the clever French artist, M. Comelli, who was also responsible for the splendid attire of the Queen's suite. This was composed of four children in white Assyrian robes, draped with pink shawls; four trumpeters in white cloth robes, embroidered in subdued tones of silks, with a purple shawl draped over, beautifully ornamented with embroidery, and wearing fringed steel helmets and leather cuirasses embossed in steel; and four fan-bearers attired in pale blue robes, with crimson shawls, enriched with gold and jewelled embroidery, adorned with jewelled diadems, and holding long-handled fans of white feathers, mounted in blue and gold — a gloriously magnificent pageant."<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} *"Attending the hostess were four children, four fan-bearers, and four trumpeters, all magnificently arrayed in artistically embroidered Assyrian robes, helmets, and other accessories, correct in every detail."<ref name=":15" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6a}} *"The duchess was dressed as Zenobia, in gold cloth, gorgeously embroidered in gold, brilliants, and coloured stones, and opening over an under dress of white crêpe de Chine, worked finely in brilliants. The train of light green velvet was lined with blue, and sumptuously embroidered in jewels and gold, the colouring being particularly artistic. With this dress were worn splendid jewels, and a large horn crown, encrusted with diamonds, emeralds, and rubies. The duchess was attended by a suite of children, trumpeters, and fan-bearers, all picturesquely attired in Assyian [sic] costumes — the whole group being specially designed by M. Comelli."<ref name=":5" /> *"The host was dressed as Charles V. of Germany, in black velvet, satin, and fur; and the Duchess made the most gorgeous of Zenobias, in a gown of gold gauze, and a green velvet train — both a mass of exquisite oriental embroidery. The crown and hanging ropes of pearls, the jewelled girdle, and the train of children, fan-bearers, and trumpeters — all in Babylonish garb — as designed by M. Comelli, made a gloriously imposing and picturesque group."<ref name=":9" /> === Details of the Costumes in the Entourage === The Archives of the Duke of Devonshire (Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth) has "receipts" or invoices that functioned as receipts for several commercial concerns that were involved in making costumes or accessories for costumes for this ball. They are the following: * [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#M. (Attillo Giuseppe) Comelli|M. (Attillo Giuseppe) Comelli]] * [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#B. Burnet & Co.|B. Burnet & Co.]] * [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller|Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller]] * [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#Liberty & Co., Ltd.|Liberty & Co., Ltd.]] * [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#Lafayette, Ltd.|Lafayette, Ltd.]] * [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#Goldsmith, Pearl & Diamond Merchant, & Silversmith|Goldsmith, Pearl & Diamond Merchant, & Silversmith]] This list of commercial concerns almost certainly cannot be the complete list of all concerns that contributed to the costumes. These are the only receipts or invoices about expenses for the ball, however, that the Chatsworth Archive contains; similar documents were likely not even kept or were destroyed with other papers not retained at some point in time. The business concerns listed above were specialized and likely used for different elements of the costumes. As a theatrical designer, Comelli would have depended on the suppliers he knew and arranged with them for the construction of these costumes. The Chatsworth Archive calls these documents ''receipts'', which indeed they are because they were returned to Devonshire House as receipts for payment. From our perspective, though, they are invoices that contain specifics about what was used to make the costumes. The analysis of these invoices has led to an understanding of what the people who attended the Duchess in her entourage wore and a clearer sense, perhaps, of how many people walked in that entourage. This analysis is based on the items listed on the invoices and their pricing, most of which is included in the section for each invoice, below. While the Belfast ''News-Letter'' says that each group contained four members,<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} the invoices and receipts suggest that the newspaper, the single source for this information, was wrong about the number of people in each group. It is theoretically possible, of course, that suppliers other than the ones in the Chatsworth Archive made some of these costumes and that other invoices and receipts must have existed at that time. But the [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#M. (Attillo Giuseppe) Comelli|Comelli memo, below]], seems definitive: he designed and seems to have overseen the construction of the costumes, which numbered six rather than twelve. '''[Collier discussion?]''' Besides providing welcome detail about the costumes of the people in the Duchess's entourage, which is available nowhere else, these invoices also raise at least as many questions as they answer. ==== M. (Attillo Giuseppe) Comelli ==== Attillo Giuseppe Comelli was a designer for opera, ballet and theatre in Europe, the UK and North America.<ref name=":13" /> The receipt in the Chatsworth Archive was sent from Covent Garden. The invoice lists £4 for "Making six costumes," 3''s'' for "Extras" and 12s for "Cab fares for men paid by the request of M. Comelli."<ref>M. Comelli, Covent Garden, to Duchess of Devonshire. Date of invoice 13 July 1897; postmarked 25 October 1897, for receipt of payment(?). The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number L/109/4(3).</ref> Three other names are on this invoice and receipt: * L. L[?] Collier [?], written under and perhaps as part of the direction to the Duchess of Devonshire * Mr. Strong ("Forwarded to Mr Strong. [sic] by the instructions of M. Comelli," written in the same hand as wrote the majority of the memo) * Floyd [?] Collier [??] ("Received with Thanks," presumably thanking for the payment, in a different hand) ==== B. Burnet & Co. ==== An invoice and receipt from B. Burnet & Co., held in the Archives of the Duke of Devonshire, has specific information about some of the fabrics, trims and accessories purchased for the costumes of the Duchess's retinue.<ref name=":11">B. Burnet & Co. to Louise, Duchess of Devonshire. Date of invoice 2 and 6 July 1897; postmarked 25 October 1897, for receipt of payment(?). The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number L/109/4(3).</ref> Besides itemizing some costume or accessory elements that seem clearly to be for the groups, the invoice also lists items not easy to associate with particular costumes, like the following: * 12 yards of White silk fringe 8in deep<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back left}} * 12 1/2 yards of "wht cloth"<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back left}} * 9 yards of "[[Social Victorians/Terminology#Selesia|Selesia]]"<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back left}} * 2 yards of Canvas<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back right}} * 4 Tan Wool Tights<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back right}} * 2 Tan Boys Tights<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back right}} At this time, we are not sure which costumes these elements were used for. Possibly the white silk fringe and the white cloth would have been used to construct the robes for the children and trumpeters in the entourage. The number of tights suggests that the six costumes on this invoice all included tights. With other elements of the trumpeters' costumes, the Burnet invoice also lists "6 prs Assyrian Buskins." Probably, to a late Victorian, buskins would have been "defensive leggings"<ref>Demmin, Auguste. An illustrated History of Arms and Armour: From the Earliest Period to the Present Time. George Bell, 1894. Google Books https://books.google.com/books?id=ArRCAAAAYAAJ: 106.</ref> laced together and covering the lower leg and often feet of a soldier. To a clothing and military historian, buskins (or greaves) were worn by people in a number of cultures over millennia and varied widely in style and construction. Buskins appear in Assyrian art held at the time by the British Museum. Listing six pairs of buskins suggests that every costume in the Duchess's entrourage included buskins, possibly worn over the tan tights. The Burnet invoice lists "4 Broad Belts," which may have held "4 Skins Fleshers."<ref name=":11" />{{rp|p. 1, front of invoice}} (A skin flesher is a kind of knife used to separate the skin from the meat in animals.) If each group included only two members, then perhaps the belts and fleshers were worn not only by the trumpeters but also by the fan-bearers. The Millward invoice (specifics in the section on the Millward invoice below) lists "8 Doz 'Plaques' for Belts'" with a drawing of an upright rectangle with a circle in the middle, which might have been a jewel. Double lines around the rectangle suggest that the plaques were not flat or the metal was not thin. The drawing does not give any ideas about how the plaques were attached to the belts, if they were. It is impossible to tell if the plaques were attached to the "4 Broad Belts" (likely for the trumpeters and fan-bearers), but unless they were quite tiny, "8 Doz 'Plaques'" would be far too many for the belts of only the two children. A different hand, probably "[L.??] L. Collier," wrote the following sentence at the end of the invoice and receipt, above the postmark:<blockquote>All the above named articles were used for the six [?] dresses made for the Devonshire Ball.<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back right}}</blockquote> This same hand, signing what is possibly "Floyd Collier," also signed the postmark of the Comelli invoice and receipt. On the Burnet document, this writer, possibly an assistant or employee of the Duchess of Devonshire, says that "six dresses" were made (if in fact, that word is ''six''). (No "Collier" is listed among the staff or servants of the Duke of Devonshire at the end of the 19th century.<ref name=":19">"Servants A-H." ''Historic Servants and Staff. Servants and Staff Database''. Retrieved 18 July 2022 https://www.chatsworth.org/media/11528/servants-a-h.pdf.</ref> The invoice appears to itemize materials used for six costumes: two children, two trumpeters and two fan-bearers. ==== Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller ==== An invoice and request for payment from Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller, held in the Archives of Chatsworth House, has more specifics about some of the fabrics, trims and accessories for the costumes of the Duchess's retinue.<ref name=":12">Memorandum. Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller, to Louise, Duchess of Devonshire. Date of itemized invoice 1 July 1897; date of request for payment(?) 27 August 1897. The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number L/109/4(?).</ref> This invoice lists the following, which could have been used in any of the costumes for the entourage: * 8 Doz 'Plaques' for Belts [discussed with the belts in the section on the Burnet invoice, above] * 4 Large Armlets * 4 Bracelets * 8 Armlets<ref name=":12" />{{rp|p. 2, back}} Because Millward was a Theatrical Jeweller, it seems likely that most (if not all) of the items listed on the invoice were made of metal and the jewels mentioned were artificial, made of glass or paste. Other items on the invoice seem to belong to the costumes of the trumpeters, which the Belfast ''News-Letter'' says included helmets: * 2 Helmets * 2 Centre pieces The Millward invoice shows tiny line drawings next to the words ''2 Helmets'' and ''2 Centre pieces''. These drawings suggest that the Centre pieces were attached to the helmets rather than being anything that would have been put on a table as decoration. Other items seem to belong to the costumes of the fan-bearers: * 2 Pearl & Gold Headdresses * 2 Fan properties with Feathers The "Pearl & Gold Headdresses" were likely the "jewelled diadems" mentioned in the Belfast ''News-Letter''. The "Fan properties with Feathers" are likely to have been the "long-handled fans of white feathers, mounted in blue and gold" mentioned in the newspaper report.<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} At the end of the Millward invoice, a "reduction as agreed with M [Mr?] Commelli [sic]" of £1 10''s'' is subtracted from a total of £22 3''s''. No reason for this reduction is given.<ref name=":12" />{{rp|p. 2, back}} ==== Liberty & Co., Ltd. ==== One invoice and receipt from the Chatsworth Archive, dated 12 July, to the Duchess of Devonshire, lists "13 yds S&W Satin[?]," 7 yards of blue and 6 of purple.<ref>Invoice and receipt. Liberty & Co. Ltd. To Her Grace, The Duchess of Devonshire. Date of itemized invoice 12 July [1897]. The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number L/109/4(?).</ref> Because the fabric is satin and from Liberty, it is possible that it was not used in the costumes of the people in the entourage but perhaps for the costume of the Duchess herself??? ==== Lafayette, Ltd. ==== The invoice and receipt from Lafayette, Ltd., the photographer that set up a temporary studio in the garden to take portraits of people at the ball in their costumes, may not be related to the ball at all.<ref>Invoice and receipt. Lafayette, Ltd. To His Grace The Duke of Devonshire. Date of itemized invoice 12 April 1897; addressed to the Duke, 18 February 1898; receipt and thanks for payment, 7 April 1898. The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number L/109/4(?).</ref> Three dates are written on the preprinted stationery: # 18/2/98 (18 February 1898), under the direction to "His Grace The Duke of Devonshire" # 4/12/97 (4 December 1897), next to the single item on the invoice for which a charge is listed: "6 [??] £1.10.0" # 7/4/98 (7 April 1898), in a different hand, with "Recd by cheque 7/4/98 Lafayette Ltd pp[?] [??] thanks" At the bottom of the page, in the hand that wrote all of the invoice except the receipt and thanks, is "With Lafayette Ltds Compliments." ==== Details for the Children in the Entourage ==== According to the ''Belfast News-Letter'', four children were "in white Assyrian robes, draped with pink shawls."<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} According to the B. Burnet invoice, the following was purchased for "White Cloth Dresses":<ref name=":11" />{{rp|p. 2, back left of invoice}} * "2 Terra Gown draperies with Stars 200 in all" * "2 Cloth fronts embroidered with Square Medallions down centre" * "2 do do [ditto ditto, that is, cloth fronts] embroidered double border down front each side and collar" * "4 Sleeves embroidered Small Medallions" The Burnet & Co. invoice lists 6 yards of "Terra" Silk Fringe, which perhaps was used to trim the "terra draperies," or shawls, made from 3 1/4 yards of "Light Terra Satinette" worn by the children? ==== Details for the Trumpeters in the Entourage ==== According to the ''Belfast News-Letter'', four trumpeters were "in white cloth robes, embroidered in subdued tones of silks, with a purple shawl draped over, beautifully ornamented with embroidery, and wearing fringed steel helmets and leather cuirasses embossed in steel."<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} The trumpeters appear to have been dressed as soldiers or military men. According to the B. Burnet invoice, the following was purchased for the trumpeters' costumes:<ref name=":11" />{{rp|p. 1, front of invoice}} * 7 '''units (yards?)''' of purple silk [probably used for shawls?] * "2 skirt fronts with border alround [sic]" * "2 sets of Leather Cuarasses [sic] Embroidered front & back" * "4 Sleeves embroidered loop stitch" The Millward invoice lists * 2 Helmets * 2 Centre Pieces [probably for helmets rather than table decorations] ==== Details for the Fan-bearers in the Entourage ==== According to the ''Belfast News-Letter'', four fan-bearers were "attired in pale blue robes, with crimson shawls, enriched with gold and jewelled embroidery, adorned with jewelled diadems, and holding long-handled fans of white feathers, mounted in blue and gold."<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} According to the B. Burnet invoice, the following was purchased for the fan bearers's costumes:<ref name=":11" />{{rp|pp. 1–2, front and left-back of invoice}} * "Embroidering 2 Crimson draperies with Stars 334 in all" * "2 Top [?] fronts embroidered & round necks" * "4 Sleeves embroidered long stitch"The Millward invoice lists * 2 Pearl & Gold Headdresses * 2 Fan properties with Feathers<ref name=":12" />{{rp|p. 2, back}} The Burnet & Co. invoice lists 12 yards of "Red Silk Fringe," which perhaps was used to trim the "crimson shawls" or "Crimson draperies," which may have been made from the 5 yards of "Red Satinette." Again, this list suggests two rather than four costumes. == Demographics == *Nationality: born in Hanover, in what is now Germany<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-27|title=Louisa Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louisa_Cavendish,_Duchess_of_Devonshire&oldid=969824214|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> === Residences === ==== As Duchess of Manchester ==== *Kimbolton Castle, Huntingdonshire *Manchester House, London ==== As Duchess of Devonshire ==== *Devonshire House, London (mid-April until mid-July, for the Season) *Compton Place, Eastbourne (mid-July until 12 August<ref name=":1" />{{rp|p. 32}}) *Bolton Abbey, Yorkshire (12 August until the middle of September<ref name=":1" />{{rp|p. 32}}) *Chatsworth, Derbyshire (middle of September until early Spring<ref name=":1" />{{rp|p. 32}}) *Lismore Castle, County Waterford (early Spring until the middle of April<ref name=":1" />{{rp|p. 32}}) == Family == *Louisa (or Luise) Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten Montagu Cavendish (15 January 1832 – 15 November 1911)<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /> *William Drogo Montagu, 7th Duke of Manchester (15 October 1823 – 22 March 1890)<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-09-07|title=William Montagu, 7th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Montagu,_7th_Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=977197445|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> #George Victor Drogo Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester (17 June 1853 – 18 August 1892) #Mary Louise [Louisa?] Elizabeth Montagu Douglas-Hamilton Forster (27 December 1854 – 10 February 1934) #Louisa Augusta Beatrice Montagu Acheson (c. 1856 – 3 March 1944) #Charles William Augustus Montagu (23 November 1860 – 10 November 1939) #Alice Maude Olivia Montagu Stanley (15 August 1862 – 23 July 1957) *[[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish|Spencer Compton Cavendish]], 8th Duke of Devonshire (23 July 1833 – 24 March 1908) == Notes and Questions == #As Duchess of Manchester Luise was not invited to the wedding between Bertie and Alix, Victoria's punishment for Luise's having gotten the Duke of Derby to promise her the position of Mistress of the Robes (and then exacting that promise).<ref>Leslie, Anita. ''The Marlborough House Set''. New York: Doubleday, 1973.</ref>{{rp|pp. 47–48}} #"As a young woman she was extremely beautiful; Princess Catherine Radziwill saw her at a reception given by the Empress of Germany and recalls on being introduced to her 'how she struck me as the loveliest creature I had ever set eyes upon. Indeed I have only met three women in my whole existence who could be compared to her.'"<ref name=":1" />{{rp|p. 21}} == Footnotes == {{reflist}} 6vyey9dm5cigkbvy3il4pekgh5415yu 2415636 2415617 2022-08-16T22:51:59Z Scogdill 1331941 wikitext text/x-wiki == Overview == * Louise, Duchess of Devonshire was the subject of much comment and gossip in her life, arising in part from her prominence in society and in part from her conduct, which was not particularly controlled by middle-class notions of "respectability." * "Louise Alten, for her part, exemplifies another vanished feature [of Victorian England], the role of the political hostess. The part she played in Hartington's career even while she was his mistress gives a special twist to this function, and her more conventional ascendancy as Duchess of Devonshire, when she was said to be the most powerful person outside the government, shows the influence that could be wielded by women in a political system from which they were formally excluded."<ref name=":20">Vane, Henry. ''Affair of State: A Biography of the 8th Duke and Duchess of Devonshire''. Peter Owen, 2004.</ref>{{rp|12}} == Also Known As == *Louise, Duchess of Devonshire (15 January 1832 – 15 November 1911) *Louisa, Duchess of Manchester *Luise Friederike August Gräfin von Alten *Louisa Montagu *Louise Cavendish *The Double Duchess == Acquaintances, Friends and Enemies == === Friends === *[[Social Victorians/People/Albert Edward, Prince of Wales | Albert Edward, Prince of Wales]] (beginning about 1852) *[[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish|Spencer Compton Cavendish]], Lord Hartington (later 8th Duke of Devonshire) *Daisy, Lady Warwick *Lady Mayoress, Mrs. Benjamin Samuel Faudel-Phillips, 2nd Baronet,<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-08-25|title=Faudel-Phillips baronets|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Faudel-Phillips_baronets&oldid=974879290|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> presented to Victoria by Louisa Cavendish at a Queen's Drawing-room on Wednesday, 24 February 1897 at Buckingham Palace.<ref name=":4">"The Queen's Drawing Room" ''Morning Post'' 25 February 1897 Thursday: 5 [of 10], Col. 5a–7b [of 8]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970225/047/0005.</ref>{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6c}} *Mrs. J. E. Mellor, presented to Victoria by Louisa Cavendish at a Queen's Drawing-room on Wednesday, 24 February 1897 at Buckingham Palace.<ref name=":4" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6c}} === Enemies === * Consuelo, Duchess of Marlborough (at least, in 1901)<ref name=":1">Murphy, Sophia. ''The Duchess of Devonshire's Ball''. London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1984.</ref>{{rp|pp. 31–32}} == Organizations == == Timeline == '''1852 July 22''', Luise Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten and William Drogo Montagu married.<ref name=":2">"Luise Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10947.htm#i109469|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-09-25}}</ref> '''1859''': "As for Louise, a glimpse of her unconventional ways is given by Lady Eleanor Stanley, describing a paper-chase at Kimbolton in 1859: 'The Duchess of Manchester, in getting too hastily over a stile, caught a hoop of her cage in it, and went head over heels, alighting on her feet with her cage and whole petticoats remaining above her head. they say there was never such a thing seen — and the other ladies hardly knew whether to be thankful or not that a part of her underclothing consisted of a pair of scarlet tartan knickerbockers (the things Charles shoots in) — which were revealed to all the world in general and the Duc de Malakoff in particular.' Lady Eleanor says that the other ladies hardly knew whether to be thankful because at this date a lady's normal wear under her petticoats was only a pair of leggings laced up to the waistband, an arrangement that could be unduly revealing in combination with a crinoline. ... But some of the more active ladies were beginning to adopt / Louise's expedient of donning a hidden pair of breeches for rambles in the country."<ref name=":20" />{{rp|25–26}} '''1863, early, or late 1862''', Louise and Spencer Compton Cavendish began a relationship.<ref name=":1" />{{rp|p. 26}} '''1873 December 10''', Mary Louise Elizabeth Montagu (daughter) and William Douglas-Hamilton married. '''1876 May 22''', Consuelo Iznaga y Clement and George Victor Drogo Montagu (son) married in Grace Church, New York City.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-08-24|title=George Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Montagu,_8th_Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=974659520|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-27|title=Consuelo Montagu, Duchess of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Consuelo_Montagu,_Duchess_of_Manchester&oldid=969888488|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> '''1876 August 10''', Louisa Augusta Beatrice Montagu (daughter) and Archibald Acheson married. '''1889 January 5''', Alice Maude Olivia Montagu (daughter) and Edward Stanley married. '''1890 March 22''', William Drogo Montagu (7th Duke) died.<ref name=":3">"William Drogo Montagu, 7th Duke of Manchester." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p10128.htm#i101274|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-09-25}}</ref> '''1890 November 14''', William Angus Drogo Montagu (grandson) and Helena Zimmerman married secretly, in London.<ref>"Helena Zimmerman." {{Cite web|url=http://www.thepeerage.com/p34555.htm#i345545|title=Person Page|website=www.thepeerage.com|access-date=2020-09-25}}</ref> '''1892 August 16''', Louise Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten Montagu and Spencer Compton Cavendish, her second husband, married.<ref name=":2" /> '''1897 July 2, Friday''', Louise Cavendish (#18 on the list of attendees) hosted her famous [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball| fancy-dress ball]] at Devonshire House in London. '''1897 July 20''', Mary Louise Elizabeth Montagu Douglas-Hamilton and Robert Carnaby Foster married. '''1900 November 14''', William Angus Drogo Montagu and Helena Zimmerman married.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-17|title=Helena, Countess of Kintore|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helena,_Countess_of_Kintore&oldid=968067371|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> '''1901 Spring''', Paris, Consuelo Spencer-Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough, describes a meeting with Louise Cavendish in the spring following Queen Victoria's death at the horse racetrack, Longchamps:<blockquote>A renowned character and virtually dictator of what was known as the fast set as opposed to the Victorian, Her Grace was a German aristocrat by birth. She had first been married to the impoverished Duke of Manchester, and when he died had improved her status by marriage to the rich Duke of Devonshire, who waged an undisputed influence in politics. Rumour had her beautiful, but when I knew her she was a raddled old woman, covering her wrinkles with paint and her pate with a brown wig. Her mouth was a red gash and from it, when she saw me, issued a stream of abuse. How could I, she complained, pointing to my white gloves, show so little respect to the memory of a great Queen? What a carefree world we must have lived in, that etiquette even in such small matters could assume so much importance?<ref>Balsan, Consuelo Vanderbilt. ''The Glitter and the Gold: The American Duchess — In Her Own Words''. New York: St. Martin's, 1953.</ref>{{rp|p. 115}}</blockquote> === Annual Events === Every year, as Duchess of Devonshire, Louise held a dance on the night after the Derby at Epsom Downs, which at this point was held on Wednesdays after Easter. == The Duchess of Devonshire's 2 July 1897 Fancy-dress Ball == Louise, Duchess of Devonshire and Spencer Compton, 8th Duke of Devonshire hosted the famous [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Fancy-dress ball|fancy-dress ball]], which took place on Friday night. According to ''House Style: Five Centuries of Fashion at Chatsworth'',<blockquote>Such an event required extensive planning and attention to detail. The housekeeper aided by two secretaries was in charge of organisation inside the house with precise instructions from the Duchess on menus and all arrangements.<ref name=":18" />{{rp|137}}</blockquote> === The Devonshire House Staff at the Ball === The Dukes of Devonshire did not keep employment records of the staff working at their various properties. The Servants and Staff Database managed by Chatsworth House has a list of everyone ever named in any documents as a servant or staff member, and by 1891 census records included employment at places like the properties owned by the Duke of Devonshire.<ref name=":19" /> === Questions === # Who was housekeeper? Who were the secretaries? # Where did this info about the "precise instructions" come from? == The Duchess of Devonshire's Costume == [[File:Louise Frederica Augusta Cavendish (née von Alten), Duchess of Devonshire (formerly Duchess of Manchester) as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra.jpg|thumb|Louise, Duchess of Devonshire as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra|alt=Louise, Duchess of Devonshire in costume as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra]] At their fancy-dress ball, Louisa, Duchess of Devonshire sat at Table 1 during the first seating for supper, escorted in to the table by the Prince of Wales.<ref name=":7">"Fancy Dress Ball at Devonshire House." ''Morning Post'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 7 [of 12], Col. 4a–8 Col. 2b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000174/18970703/054/0007.</ref>{{rp|p. 7, Col. 4c}} Her costume was designed by M. Comelli (Attillo Giuseppe Comelli, 1858–1925, artist and costumier for opera, ballet and theatre in London as well as Europe and the U.S.<ref name=":13">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SZh2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT207&lpg=PT207&dq=Attilio+Comelli&source=bl&ots=lFB0If7CwV&sig=ACfU3U1_Ost_lhmMvzMMs6NvuhK5SlRhJw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjKlsTw2sH3AhXYAp0JHVIxDWA4KBDoAXoECBAQAw#v=onepage&q=Attilio%20Comelli&f=false|title=Forgotten Designers Costume Designers of American Broadway Revues and Musicals From 1900-1930|last=Unruh|first=Delbert|date=2018-11-06|publisher=Page Publishing Inc|isbn=978-1-64082-758-5|language=en}} N.P.</ref>)<ref name=":5">“The Devonshire House Ball.” The ''Man of Ross'' 10 July 1897, Saturday: 2 [of 8], Col. 4b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0001463/18970710/033/0002.</ref> <ref name=":8">"The Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy Dress Ball. Special Telegram." ''Belfast News-Letter'' Saturday 03 July 1897: 5 [of 8], Col. 9 [of 9]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000038/18970703/015/0005.</ref>{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} <ref name=":9">"By One Who Was There." “The Duchess’s Costume Ball.” ''Westminster Gazette'' 03 July 1897 Saturday: 5 [of 8], Cols. 1a–3b [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0002947/18970703/035/0005.</ref> and constructed by the House of Worth. Comelli seems to have designed [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#The Duchess and Her Entourage|the costumes of her retinue as well]]. According to Russell Harris,<blockquote>For her costume, the Duchess commissioned Monsieur Comelli (1858-1925), a well-known designer of opera costumes for the London theatre and opera stage, and then had the design made up by Worth of Paris. ''Munsey’s Magazine'' noted “it is safe to say that the Queen of Palmyra never owned such a sumptuous costume in her lifetime.”<ref>Harris, Russell. {{Cite web|url=http://www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk/incalmprose/devonshiredss.html|title=Louise, Duchess of Devonshire, née Countess von Alten of Hanover (1832-1911), as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra|website=www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk|access-date=2022-05-05}} ''Narrated in Calm Prose: Photographs from the V&A's Lafayette Archive of Guests in Costume at the Duchess of Devonshire's Diamond Jubilee Ball, July 1897''. http://www.rvondeh.dircon.co.uk/incalmprose/devonshiredss.html.</ref></blockquote>Lafayette's portrait of "Louise Frederica Augusta Cavendish (née von Alten), Duchess of Devonshire (formerly Duchess of Manchester)" in costume is photogravure #5 in the album presented to the Duchess of Devonshire and now in the National Portrait Gallery.<ref>"Devonshire House Fancy Dress Ball (1897): photogravures by Walker & Boutall after various photographers." 1899. National Portrait Gallery https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait-list.php?set=515.</ref> The printing on the portrait says, "The Duchess of Devonshire as Zenobia Queen of Palmyra," with a Long S in ''Duchess''.<ref>"Louise Frederica Augusta Cavendish (née von Alten), Duchess of Devonshire (formerly Duchess of Manchester) as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra." Devonshire House Fancy Dress Ball Album. National Portrait Gallery https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw158357/Louise-Frederica-Augusta-Cavendish-ne-von-Alten-Duchess-of-Devonshire-formerly-Duchess-of-Manchester-as-Zenobia-Queen-of-Palmyra.</ref> Often, the V&A Lafayette Archive contains more than one portrait of a sitter for this ball, but the uncropped portrait (above right), which shows the unfinished end of the balustrade in front of the Duchess and the edge of the painted drop behind it, seems to have been the only portrait taken by Lafayette of the Duchess in costume. The copy owned by the National Portrait Gallery in London and the copy included in the album are cropped so that those unfinished edges do not show, but they appear to be from the same photograph. That is, there is one source for our information about this portrait: this single photograph. === Newspaper Descriptions of the Duchess's Costume === Newspaper articles about the Duchess's presence at the ball focused on her hosting, her costume, [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#The Duchess's Jewelry|her jewelry]], and [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#The Duchess's Entourage|her entourage]], often in the same story. These almost exactly identical descriptions suggest [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball/anthology#Scissors-and-Paste Journalism|scissors-and-paste journalism]] or a shared primary source: * The London ''Evening Standard'', ''Morning Post'' and ''Times'' published almost identical descriptions, varying only by the occasional punctuation mark or short phrase ("supplied by Worth, of Paris"). The fullest version is this one: "The Duchess of Devonshire, as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, wore a magnificent costume, supplied by Worth, of Paris. The skirt of gold tissue was embroidered all over in a star-like design in emeralds, sapphires, diamonds, and other jewels, outlined with gold, the corners where it opened in front being elaborately wrought in the same jewels and gold to represent peacocks' outspread tails. This opened to show an under-dress of cream crêpe de chine, delicately embroidered in silver, gold, and pearls, and sprinkled all over with diamonds. The train was attached to the shoulders by two slender points, and was fastened at the waist with a large diamond ornament. It was of green velvet of a lovely shade, and was superbly embroidered in Oriental designs, introducing the lotus flower in rubies, sapphires, amethysts, emeralds, and diamonds, in four borderings on contrasting grounds, separated with gold cord. The train was lined with turquoise satin. The bodice was composed of gold tissue to match the skirt, and the front was of crêpe de chine, hidden with a [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Stomacher|stomacher]] of real diamonds, rubies, and emeralds, and there was a jewelled belt."<ref name=":16">“The Ball at Devonshire House. Magnificent Spectacle. Description of the Dresses.” London ''Evening Standard'' 3 July 1897 Saturday: 3 [of 12], Cols. 1a–5b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000183/18970703/015/0004.</ref>{{rp|p. 3, Col. 2b}} <ref name=":7" />{{rp|p. 7, Col. 7a}} <ref name=":6">"Ball at Devonshire House." The ''Times'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 12, Cols. 1A–4C ''The Times Digital Archive''. Web. 28 Nov. 2015.</ref>{{rp|p. 12, Col. 3b}} *"The Duchess of Devonshire was a dazzling vision, dressed as 'Zenobia,' in a glistening gold gauze gown, elaborately ornamented with suns and discs, wrought in purple and green gems outlined with gold, and having a large diamond as centre. The space between was fluted with fine silver spangles. This robe was open in front over an under dress of white crépe de chine, delicately worked in crystals, and at each side of the opening on the gold robe were large fan-shaped groups of peacock feathers, worked in multicoloured jewels. The [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Corsage|corsage]] was to correspond, and had a magnificent [[Social Victorians/Terminology#Girdle|girdle]] of jewels, the train of bright green velvet, hung like a fan, without folds, being fastened at each side of the shoulders by diamond brooches, and caught at the waist with a similar ornament. It was a mass of gorgeous embroidery, carried out in heliotrope velvet, lotus flowers studded with tinted gems, and other devices in terra-cotta and electric blue velvet — all enriched with gold, diamond, and jewelled embroidery — and lined with pale blue satin. ... Attending the hostess were four children, four fan-bearers, and four trumpeters, all magnificently arrayed in artistically embroidered Assyrian robes, helmets, and other accessories, correct in every detail."<ref name=":15">"Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy Ball. A Brilliant Spectacle. Some of the Dresses." London ''Daily News'' Saturday 3 July 1897: 5 [of 10], Col. 6a–6, Col. 1b. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000051/18970703/024/0005 and http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/BL/0000051/18970703/024/0006.</ref>{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6a}} * According to the article in ''The Graphic'' written by [[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Lady Violet Greville]], though this caption to the Lafayette photograph may not be hers, the Duchess of Devonshire wore a "Skirt of gold tissue, embroidered all over with emeralds, sapphires, diamonds, and other jewels outlined with gold. This opened to show an underdress of crème crêpe de chine, embroidered in silver, gold, and pearls, and sprinkled all over with diamonds. The train was green velvet, superbly embroidered in Oriental designs. The bodice was composed of gold tissue, and the front was of crêpe de chine hidden with a stomacher of diamonds, rubies, and emeralds."<ref name=":10">Greville, Violet, Lady. "Devonshire House Ball." The ''Graphic'' Saturday 10 July 1897: 15 [of 24]: Col. 1a–16, Col. 1c. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000057/18970710/019/0015.</ref>{{rp|p. 15, Col. 3b}} Because it is in black and white, the photograph of the Duchess taken by Lafayette in her costume (above right) can tell us almost nothing about the colors of the costume. Fortunately, this costume has survived and is held in Archives of the Duke of Devonshire (Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth). ''House Style: Five Centuries of Fashion at Chatsworth'', the volume about an exhibition mounted 25 March to 22 October 2017, has beautiful photographs from several perspective of the costume, including the train, and accessories. Published photographs of it '''show X'''.<ref name=":18">Burlington, Julia, and Hamish Bowles. ''House Style: Five Centuries of Fashion at Chatsworth''. Skira Rizzoli, 2017. Based on an exhibition 25 March to 22 October 2017.</ref> It has been worn by '''Deborah, 11th Duchess of Devonshire when the Dowager Duchess at some point for some reason'''. Some accounts of her costume suggest that the reporter thought that all the jewels sewn onto the dress were actual precious or semiprecious stones, but the London ''Daily News'' says some of them were crystals.<ref name=":15" />(p. 5, Col. 6a) According to ''House Style: Five Centuries of Fashion at Chatsworth'',<blockquote>The skirt of gold gauze, appliquéd with tinsel medallions and peacock plumes worked in bright foils, wire coils and spangled with sequins, was worn over an ivory satin underskirt wrought over with silver thread and diamonds. Attached to the shoulders was a long graduated train in the most vivid emerald-green velvet, appliquéd with velvet and gold work in an eastern design and studied with jewels.<ref name=":18" />(128)</blockquote> === Observations on the Duchess's Costume === In the photograph of her in costume, the Duchess is standing in a three-quarter front pose. That static position in a two-dimensional image makes it difficult to see how the fabric draped, how tight the bodice was, what the stomacher looked like, what pearls she is wearing and exactly what is going on with her headdress. Is her hair down or up? Do the horns on [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#Zenobia's Crown|her crown]] go toward the back from the apex that rises from the jewel-encrusted band or do they stick straight out to the sides? Does the headdress include the traditional three white plumes? * The exhibitions of the dress show a different fit than what is shown in the Lafayette photograph. Louise, the 8th Duchess's bodice is draped loosely over the stomacher, but the bodice in recent photographs of Deborah, 11th Duchess or the mannequin in the 2017 exhibition shows a bodice fitted to the stomacher. * Recent photographs of the costume show that it may have been altered or adjusted to make the waist more defined and the line looks more Elizabethan (the wide, square neckline; the A-line, the split skirt with the petticoat in the middle). * The dress seems to have been designed to flatter the 8th Duchess's statuesque figure, especially her waist: the belt falls down to the hips, the A-line; the way what we can see of the under-dress is narrow at the top and widens toward the bottom. * The drape of the skirt is straighter on the 8th Duchess as well as the Dowager Duchess than on the mannequins. * The sleeve treatment on the 1897 photograph is caught up at the shoulder. On the Dowager Duchess and the mannequins, the sleeves are released. * The 1897 reports use different terminology for the parts of the dress than we would now: skirt, under-dress, bodice, stomacher as opposed to skirt, underskirt. under dress, robe, and train, corsage, girdle. * The train: very Victorian * There appears to be silver sequins, which appear to have tarnished, which is why they are dark now. * There appears to be silver and gold thread in the embroidery. The gold thread has not tarnished, silver thread has. it would have been sparklier at the ball than what we can see now. * The newspaper accounts of the Duchess's costume do not agree on several particulars, including the color of the train and its lining. * The reporter's description of the Duchess's costume in the London ''Daily News'' is confusing: it says the train is "bright green velvet" and "It was a mass of gorgeous embroidery, carried out in heliotrope velvet." Embroidery is not "carried out" in velvet. Heliotrope is not green, it's pinkish purple. Furthermore, heliotrope appears to have been a new word for a color, introduced perhaps in 1882 in A. Maerz and M. Rea Paul ''A Dictionary of Colour'', New York: 1930 McGraw-Hill Page 196; Color Sample of Heliotrope: Page 131 Plate 54 Colour Sample C10 ("Heliotrope," Wikipedia [[wikipedia:Heliotrope_(color)#cite_note-2|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliotrope_(color)#c]]<nowiki/>[[wikipedia:Heliotrope_(color)#cite_note-2|ite_note-2]]). The ''OED'' lists 3 periodical sources for the 1880s, The ''World'' (1882), ''Truth'' (1886), and the ''Daily News'' (1887) ("heliotrope" 1.d. Retrieved 6 August 2022). The ''Daily News'' describes it well: "that peculiar mauve known as heliotrope." The word itself has existed in English for many centuries, both for the flower (which turns to follow the sun) as well as for instruments that reflect or measure sunlight and for a variety of quartz (also called bloodstone). * Can't tell how many strands of pearls are around Louise's neck in the Lafayette photo. * Color of green velvet on the train: the colors differ, depending on the photograph. One photograph shows a very vivid green, and the rest show a lighter green. We're not sure what's up with that. === The Historical Zenobia === Zenobia (240 – c. 274) was queen of the Syrian Palmyrene Empire, ruling as regent for her son after her husband's assassination.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2022-05-03|title=Zenobia|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zenobia&oldid=1086005949|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zenobia.</ref> She was the subject of much art in the 19th century, including literature, opera, sculpture, and paintings. Middle-eastern traveller Lady Hester Stanhope (1776–1839) discussed Zenobia in her memoirs, published in 1847.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2022-03-07|title=Lady Hester Stanhope|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lady_Hester_Stanhope&oldid=1075838273|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}} https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Hester_Stanhope.</ref> We do not know what sources, if any, were consulted by Louise, Duchess of Devonshire in preparing for personating Zenobia for the ball. The ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' offers a sense of what was generally available to those interested in that kind of research. The article on Zenobia in the 11th edition of the ''Encyclopedia Britannica'', published in 1911, written by '''G.A.C.''', is quite extensive, about '''XX''' words. The prior edition, the 9th edition, does not have an article on Zenobia, but she has an entry that is a cross reference to the Palmyra article (by '''W.R.S.''', in Volume XVIII, published in 1885). In a very long paragraph about her husband's father and then her husband, the ''Britannica''<nowiki/>'s discussion of Zenobia begins, <blockquote>Odænathus himself seems to have been engaged in almost constant warfare in the east and north against the Persians and perhaps the Scythians, but in his absence the reins of government were firmly held by his wife Zenobia, the most famous heroine of antiquity, to whom indeed Aurelian, in a letter preserved by Trebellius Pollio, ascribes the chief merit of all her husband's success. Septimia Zenobia was by firth a Palmyrene; her native name was Bath Zabbai ... [;] and Pollio's description of her dark beauty, black flashing eyes, and pearly teeth, together with her unusual physical endurance and the frank commanding manners which secured her authority in the camp and the desert, point emphatically to an Arabic rather than a Syrian descent. ... To the union of firmness and clemency, which is the most necessary quality of an Eastern sovereign, Zenobia added the rarer gifts of economy and organization, and an unusual range of intellectual culture. She spoke Coptic as well as Syriac, knew something of Latin, and had learned Greek from the famous Longinus, who remained at her court to the last, and paid the penalty of his life for his share in her counsels. She was also a diligent student of Eastern and Western history, and the statement that she enjoined her sons to speak Latin so that they had difficulty in using Greek implies a consistent and early adoption of the policy which made the sucess of Odænathus, and, taken in connexion with Aurelians' testimony, in a letter preserved by Pollio, that she had the chief merit of her husband's exploits, seems to justify the conclusion that it was her educated political insight that created the fortunes of the short-lived dynasty. ... In the zenith of his fame Odænathus was cut off by assassination along with his eldest son Herod, and it is generally assumed that the murder took place under Gallienus. ... [p. 201, Col. 2c – p. 202, Col. 1a] The fact seems to be that, while Odaenathus was busy at the other end of his kingdom, Zenobia administered the government at Palmyra and directed the conquest of Egypt, still nominally acting under the emperor at Rome, whose authority on the Nile was disputed by one or more pretenders. ... It still seems ... strange and yet an undoubted fact that Zenobia, who not only enjoyed the real authority behind her beardless son, but placed her name before his on public inscriptions, ... struck no coins till the second year of Aurelian, when the breach with Rome took place, and she suddenly appears as an empress (Σεβαστή, Augusta) of five years' standing. Up to that date the royal pair probably did not venture to coin in open defiance to Rome, and yet were unwilling to circulate an acknowledgment of vassalship in all the bazaars of the East. ... ... Zenobia, supported by her two generals, kinsmen of her husband, was now face to face with a Roman invasion. She held Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia, and Asia Minor as far as Ancyra; and Bithynia was ready to join her party had not the army of Aurelian appeared just in time from Byzantium. She could count too on the Armenians and the Arabs, but the loyalty of Syria was doubtful: the towns disliked a rule which was essentially "barbarian," and in Antioch at least the patroness of the Monarchian bishop Paul of Samosata could to be popular with the large Christian party by whom he was bitterly hated. There were many Romans [p. 202, Col. 1c – p. 202, Col. 2a] in Zenobia's force, and it was they who bore the brunt of the two great battles at Antioch and Emesa, which followed Aurelian's rapid advance through Asia Minor. But Zenobia made light of these defeats, — "I have suffered no great loss" was her message to Aurelian, "for almost all who have fallen are Romans." ... But the empire of Palmyra came four centuries too soon. Rome was not yet exhausted, and Zenobia had neither the religious discipline of Islam to hold the Arabs together nor the spoil of the treasuries of Persia to keep their enthusiasm always fresh. Aurelian's military skill was strained to the uttermost by the prudence and energy of Zenobia, but he succeeded in forming and maintaining the siege of Palmyra in spite of its bulwark of desert, and his gold corrupted the Arab and Armenian auxiliaries. Zenobia attempted to flee and throw herself on the Persians, but she was pursued and taken, and then the Palmyrene lost heart and capitulated. Aurelian seized the wealth of the city, but spared the inhabitants, and to Zenobia he granted her life while he put her advisors to death. She figured in his splendid triumph, and by the most probable account accepted her fall with dignity, and closed her days at Tibur, where she lived with her sons the life of a Roman matron. The fall of Zenobia may be placed in the spring of 272. (Vol. XVIII, Orne–Phthisis: p. 201, Col. 2a – p. 202, Col. 2b) </blockquote> == The Duchess's Jewelry == The Duchess was known fo<nowiki/>r her jewelry, and as she aged and after her marriage to the 8th Duke in 1892, the jewelry she wore only increased in scale and notability. It is not surprising that her jewelry would make up copy for the newspapers. Newspaper reports before the ball gossiped about the jewelry associated with the costumes being developed. For example, according to the Edinburgh ''Evening News'' on 21 June 1897, less than two weeks before the party, "The ball being a fancy dress one, men as well as women will be able in certain characters to wear jewels. The Duchess of Devonshire, who is to appear as Zenobia, is getting her jewels reset after the antique style."<ref>“The Duchess of Devonshire’s Ball.” Edinburgh ''Evening News'' 21 June 1897, Monday: 4 [of 6], Col. 5c [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000452/18970621/079/0004.</ref> While almost all descriptions of her mention her jewels because they were so much a topic of conversation and because they were sewn onto the costume itself, these emphasize her jewelry and most are very similar to each other: * "The Duchess was attired with great Oriental magnificence as Zenobia. Her dress was a tissue of silver, embroidered with gold and jewels, an overmantle of cloth of gold embroidered in the same manner hung from the shoulders, and she wore a bandeau of gold studded with gems, and surrounded by hanging chains of pearls over her elaborate headdress; strings and ropes of jewels and pearls were worn round the neck, and hung down almost to the knees."<ref>“The Duchess of Devonshire’s Ball.” The ''Gentlewoman'' 10 July 1897 Saturday: 32–42 [of 76], Cols. 1a–3c [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0003340/18970710/155/0032. </ref>{{rp|p. 32, Cols. 1c–2a}} <ref name=":17">"Duchess of Devonshire's Fancy-Dress Ball. Brilliant Spectacle." The [Guernsey] ''Star'' 6 July 1897, Tuesday: 1 [of 4], Col. 1a–2b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000184/18970706/003/0001.</ref>{{rp|p. 1, Col. 2a}} * "A wonderfully beautiful dress was that which was worn by the Duchess of Devonshire as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra. It was of golden tissue, sewn with silver paillettes, and jewelled with diamonds and other precious stones. In front there were silk embroideries, in many vivid shades of colour, and here the golden draperies opened to show a petticoat of white crêpe de chine, embroidered with pearls and gold. The short train was of brilliant green velvet, exquisitely embroidered. One of the Duchess of Devonshire’s beautiful diamond and emerald tiaras had been taken to pieces to form a stomacher, the effect of which was dazzling in its brilliancy. Long chains of pearls and other wonderful jewels were worn with this beautiful dress."<ref>“The Devonshire House Ball. A Brilliant Gathering.” The ''Pall Mall Gazette'' 3 July 1897, Saturday: 7 [of 10], Col. 2a–3a [of 3]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000098/18970703/019/0007.</ref>{{rp|p. 7, Col. 2b}} * In the article about the ball in the ''Graphic'', [[Social Victorians/People/Lady Violet Greville|Lady Violet Greville]] says, "The Ducal hostess herself elected to appear as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, with lavish magnificence, and wearing a corruscation of jewels which must have eclipsed the state of even the all-subduing majesty the Duchess impersonated."<ref name=":10" />{{rp|p. 16, Col. 1a}} *The Duchess was dressed "as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, her dress a marvel of soft tissues and exquisite ornament, and her tiara a still greater marvel of the jeweller's art."<ref name=":6" />{{rp|p. 12, Col. 2a}} <ref>"The Duchess of Devonshire’s Historic Ball. Some of the Fancy Costumes." Supplement. The ''Leicester Chronicle and Leicestershire Mercury'' 10 July 1897, Saturday: 11 [of 12], Cols. 4a–b [of 7]. ''British Newspaper Archive'' http://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000173/18970710/141/0011.</ref>{{rp|p. 11, 4a}} As with the colors, Lafayette's photograph of the Duchess in costume does not show the jewels very clearly. We cannot see the stomacher or the "long chains of pearls and other wonderful jewels" or the pearls that "hung down almost to the knees" (although, of course, any newspaper account can be wrong because reporters were not present at the ball). === Zenobia's Crown<ref name=":10" /> === The crown that the Duchess wore as Zenobia is difficult to see clearly in the Lafayette photograph (above right), and no other images of the crown exist. It was lavish, "encrusted" with jewels and featuring pearls: * London ''Daily News'' says, "The crown worn with this was high, and of filigree gold, surmounted with two horns, each tipped with a large diamond. It was encrusted with large diamonds, rubies, and emeralds, and long chains of pearls fell under the chin and about the head — one magnificent pear-shaped pearl resting on the forehead."<ref name=":15" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6a}} * These descriptions are all identical except for the addition or subtraction of an occasional comma: The London ''Evening Standard'' says, "A gold crown encrusted with emeralds, diamonds, and rubies, with a diamond drop at each curved end, and two upstanding white ostrich feathers in the centre, and round the front were festoons of pearls, with a large pear-shaped pearl in the centre falling on the forehead."<ref name=":16" />{{rp|p. 3, Col. 2b}} <ref name=":7" />{{rp|p. 7, Col. 7a}} <ref name=":6" />{{rp|p. 12, Col. 3b}} <ref name=":10" />{{rp|p. 15, Col. 3b}} * The Guernsey ''Star'' says, "Her Grace wore a bandeau of gold round her head, studded with diamonds, turquoise, and emeralds, and surrounded by hanging chains of superb pearls."<ref name=":17" />{{rp|p. 1, Col. 2a}} This crown was recreated from the single Lafayette photograph of the Duchess in costume for the ''House Style: Five Centuries of Fashion at Chatsworth'', the exhibition mounted in 2017 and exhibited on the mannequin wearing the Duchess's costume. A photograph of this recreation separate from the costume, but with the pearls and the white plumes, can be seen on [https://www.sothebys.com/en/articles/how-c-w-sellors-transformed-five-centuries-of-fashion-into-modern-jewellery this Sotheby's page] about C. W Sellor's, the jewelry firm that did the recreation as well as a number of other recreations for the exhibit.<ref>Sotheby's. "How C. W. Sellors Transformed Five Centuries of Fashion Into Modern Jewellery." ''Sotheby's'' 9 May 2017. Retrieved 11 August 2022. https://www.sothebys.com/en/articles/how-c-w-sellors-transformed-five-centuries-of-fashion-into-modern-jewellery.</ref> Although Lafayette's photograph is not conclusive, in Sellor's recreation the horns on the crown point toward back of the head rather than out to the sides. === Goldsmith, Pearl & Diamond Merchant, & Silversmith === The Duchess's pearls, which were an important feature of her costume, occasioned a great deal of direct commentary in the newspaper accounts. The Duchess's jewelry occasioned a great deal of reportage in the articles about the ball. '''It was reported that she had her jewels restrung to be used in the costume. stomacher and review of jewelry in more general articles''' An invoice and receipt in the Archives of the Duke of Devonshire (Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth) is from a concern whose preprinted stationery has a crown in the upper-left corner, suggesting that they had a royal warrant, and no name other than Goldsmith, Pearl & Diamond Merchant, & Silversmith. This document offers a unique view into the evolution of one necklace, at least, over the years. It lists what are apparently three restringing of some pearls of Louise, Duchess of Devonshire. The three restringings appear to be dated: The first necklace is a "Pearl Necklet in original 4 rows." The invoice is dated 20 October 1892 (but the stationery was printed to assume the invoice would be used in the 1880s, so the 9 is written over the second 8, and the 2 has been added).<ref name=":14">Invoice and receipt. Goldsmith, Pearl & Diamond Merchant & Silversmith. Date of itemized invoices for restringing pearls: 20 October 1892, 1 March 1897, 1909. The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number FIS/4/1/2.</ref>(p. 1) The necklet she brought in to be restrung contained a "Total [of] Total 224 large pearls": # 1st [row] 51 large pearls # 2nd 53 large pearls # 3rd 57 large pearls # 4th 63 large pearls The second necklace is a "Necklet as re-strung on October 15th 1892, with addition of small pearls supplied, now consists of 5 rows, containing" a total of "224 large pearls & 227 small"<ref name=":14" />(p. 1): # 1st 41 large pearls & 40 small # 2nd 42 large pearls & 42 small # 3rd 44 large pearls & 45 small # 4th 47 large pearls & 48 small # 5th 50 large pearls & 51 small The third necklace is a "Pearl Necklet as again re-strung with additional pearls supplied 1 March 1897, now consisting of 5 Rows containing" a total of "262 Large Pearls & 267 Small"<ref name=":14" />(p. 2): # 1st Row 45 Large Pearls & 44 Small # 2nd Row 48 large Pearls & 49 Small # 3rd Row 51 Large Pearls & 52 Small # 4th Row 56 Large Pearls & 65 small Possibly these pearls may have been restrung in 1909 into a coronet, but the handwriting is not clear enough to read.<ref name=":14" />(p. 2) If the Duchess wore one of these stringings of her pearls for the ball, then it must have been the second necklet, strung in 1892, a 5-strand necklace. None of the newspaper accounts refer to a 5-strand pearl necklace, although her pearls are often mentioned. == The Duchess's Entourage == Besides the Duke of Devonshire, the retinue of Louise, Duchess of Devonshire as Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, included her grandson, [[Social Victorians/People/William Angus Drogo Montagu|William Angus Drago Montagu, 9th Duke of Manchester]], dressed as a Georgian courtier. Four newspapers say that the Duchess's entourage included three groups, all in costume: children, trumpeters and fan-bearers. The ''Westminster Gazette'' and the ''Man of Ross'' list the groups but do not mention the number of members of the groups. According to two sources, probably in error, the London ''Daily News''<ref name=":15" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6a}} and the Belfast ''News-Letter,''<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} these groups each had four members. The London ''Daily News'' is likely the source (because it was published at 5:00 a.m.<ref>Mitchell, Charles. ''Newspaper Press Directory'', 1895. [Hathi Trust via U Wisconsin Madison.] http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.39015085486150.</ref>{{rp|55}}) for the Belfast ''News-Letter'', which took part in [[Social Victorians/1897 Fancy Dress Ball/anthology#Scissors-and-Paste Journalism|scissors-and-paste journalism]], like so many other newspapers of the 19th century. ['''check this: which one was published earlier in the day, and on which day?'''] These four sources describe the Duchess's retinue and how the people in it were dressed: *"The Duchess of Devonshire was dazzingly [sic] magnificent as 'Zenobia,' arrayed in the glistening fabrics and massive jewels in which artists have delighted to depict the Warrior Queen, the costume in this case being specially designed by the clever French artist, M. Comelli, who was also responsible for the splendid attire of the Queen's suite. This was composed of four children in white Assyrian robes, draped with pink shawls; four trumpeters in white cloth robes, embroidered in subdued tones of silks, with a purple shawl draped over, beautifully ornamented with embroidery, and wearing fringed steel helmets and leather cuirasses embossed in steel; and four fan-bearers attired in pale blue robes, with crimson shawls, enriched with gold and jewelled embroidery, adorned with jewelled diadems, and holding long-handled fans of white feathers, mounted in blue and gold — a gloriously magnificent pageant."<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} *"Attending the hostess were four children, four fan-bearers, and four trumpeters, all magnificently arrayed in artistically embroidered Assyrian robes, helmets, and other accessories, correct in every detail."<ref name=":15" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 6a}} *"The duchess was dressed as Zenobia, in gold cloth, gorgeously embroidered in gold, brilliants, and coloured stones, and opening over an under dress of white crêpe de Chine, worked finely in brilliants. The train of light green velvet was lined with blue, and sumptuously embroidered in jewels and gold, the colouring being particularly artistic. With this dress were worn splendid jewels, and a large horn crown, encrusted with diamonds, emeralds, and rubies. The duchess was attended by a suite of children, trumpeters, and fan-bearers, all picturesquely attired in Assyian [sic] costumes — the whole group being specially designed by M. Comelli."<ref name=":5" /> *"The host was dressed as Charles V. of Germany, in black velvet, satin, and fur; and the Duchess made the most gorgeous of Zenobias, in a gown of gold gauze, and a green velvet train — both a mass of exquisite oriental embroidery. The crown and hanging ropes of pearls, the jewelled girdle, and the train of children, fan-bearers, and trumpeters — all in Babylonish garb — as designed by M. Comelli, made a gloriously imposing and picturesque group."<ref name=":9" /> === Details of the Costumes in the Entourage === The Archives of the Duke of Devonshire (Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth) has "receipts" or invoices that functioned as receipts for several commercial concerns that were involved in making costumes or accessories for costumes for this ball. They are the following: * [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#M. (Attillo Giuseppe) Comelli|M. (Attillo Giuseppe) Comelli]] * [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#B. Burnet & Co.|B. Burnet & Co.]] * [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller|Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller]] * [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#Liberty & Co., Ltd.|Liberty & Co., Ltd.]] * [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#Lafayette, Ltd.|Lafayette, Ltd.]] * [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#Goldsmith, Pearl & Diamond Merchant, & Silversmith|Goldsmith, Pearl & Diamond Merchant, & Silversmith]] This list of commercial concerns almost certainly cannot be the complete list of all concerns that contributed to the costumes. These are the only receipts or invoices about expenses for the ball, however, that the Chatsworth Archive contains; similar documents were likely not even kept or were destroyed with other papers not retained at some point in time. The business concerns listed above were specialized and likely used for different elements of the costumes. As a theatrical designer, Comelli would have depended on the suppliers he knew and arranged with them for the construction of these costumes. The Chatsworth Archive calls these documents ''receipts'', which indeed they are because they were returned to Devonshire House as receipts for payment. From our perspective, though, they are invoices that contain specifics about what was used to make the costumes. The analysis of these invoices has led to an understanding of what the people who attended the Duchess in her entourage wore and a clearer sense, perhaps, of how many people walked in that entourage. This analysis is based on the items listed on the invoices and their pricing, most of which is included in the section for each invoice, below. While the Belfast ''News-Letter'' says that each group contained four members,<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} the invoices and receipts suggest that the newspaper, the single source for this information, was wrong about the number of people in each group. It is theoretically possible, of course, that suppliers other than the ones in the Chatsworth Archive made some of these costumes and that other invoices and receipts must have existed at that time. But the [[Social Victorians/People/Louisa Montagu Cavendish#M. (Attillo Giuseppe) Comelli|Comelli memo, below]], seems definitive: he designed and seems to have overseen the construction of the costumes, which numbered six rather than twelve. '''[Collier discussion?]''' Besides providing welcome detail about the costumes of the people in the Duchess's entourage, which is available nowhere else, these invoices also raise at least as many questions as they answer. ==== M. (Attillo Giuseppe) Comelli ==== Attillo Giuseppe Comelli was a designer for opera, ballet and theatre in Europe, the UK and North America.<ref name=":13" /> The receipt in the Chatsworth Archive was sent from Covent Garden. The invoice lists £4 for "Making six costumes," 3''s'' for "Extras" and 12s for "Cab fares for men paid by the request of M. Comelli."<ref>M. Comelli, Covent Garden, to Duchess of Devonshire. Date of invoice 13 July 1897; postmarked 25 October 1897, for receipt of payment(?). The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number L/109/4(3).</ref> Three other names are on this invoice and receipt: * L. L[?] Collier [?], written under and perhaps as part of the direction to the Duchess of Devonshire * Mr. Strong ("Forwarded to Mr Strong. [sic] by the instructions of M. Comelli," written in the same hand as wrote the majority of the memo) * Floyd [?] Collier [??] ("Received with Thanks," presumably thanking for the payment, in a different hand) ==== B. Burnet & Co. ==== An invoice and receipt from B. Burnet & Co., held in the Archives of the Duke of Devonshire, has specific information about some of the fabrics, trims and accessories purchased for the costumes of the Duchess's retinue.<ref name=":11">B. Burnet & Co. to Louise, Duchess of Devonshire. Date of invoice 2 and 6 July 1897; postmarked 25 October 1897, for receipt of payment(?). The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number L/109/4(3).</ref> Besides itemizing some costume or accessory elements that seem clearly to be for the groups, the invoice also lists items not easy to associate with particular costumes, like the following: * 12 yards of White silk fringe 8in deep<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back left}} * 12 1/2 yards of "wht cloth"<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back left}} * 9 yards of "[[Social Victorians/Terminology#Selesia|Selesia]]"<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back left}} * 2 yards of Canvas<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back right}} * 4 Tan Wool Tights<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back right}} * 2 Tan Boys Tights<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back right}} At this time, we are not sure which costumes these elements were used for. Possibly the white silk fringe and the white cloth would have been used to construct the robes for the children and trumpeters in the entourage. The number of tights suggests that the six costumes on this invoice all included tights. With other elements of the trumpeters' costumes, the Burnet invoice also lists "6 prs Assyrian Buskins." Probably, to a late Victorian, buskins would have been "defensive leggings"<ref>Demmin, Auguste. An illustrated History of Arms and Armour: From the Earliest Period to the Present Time. George Bell, 1894. Google Books https://books.google.com/books?id=ArRCAAAAYAAJ: 106.</ref> laced together and covering the lower leg and often feet of a soldier. To a clothing and military historian, buskins (or greaves) were worn by people in a number of cultures over millennia and varied widely in style and construction. Buskins appear in Assyrian art held at the time by the British Museum. Listing six pairs of buskins suggests that every costume in the Duchess's entrourage included buskins, possibly worn over the tan tights. The Burnet invoice lists "4 Broad Belts," which may have held "4 Skins Fleshers."<ref name=":11" />{{rp|p. 1, front of invoice}} (A skin flesher is a kind of knife used to separate the skin from the meat in animals.) If each group included only two members, then perhaps the belts and fleshers were worn not only by the trumpeters but also by the fan-bearers. The Millward invoice (specifics in the section on the Millward invoice below) lists "8 Doz 'Plaques' for Belts'" with a drawing of an upright rectangle with a circle in the middle, which might have been a jewel. Double lines around the rectangle suggest that the plaques were not flat or the metal was not thin. The drawing does not give any ideas about how the plaques were attached to the belts, if they were. It is impossible to tell if the plaques were attached to the "4 Broad Belts" (likely for the trumpeters and fan-bearers), but unless they were quite tiny, "8 Doz 'Plaques'" would be far too many for the belts of only the two children. A different hand, probably "[L.??] L. Collier," wrote the following sentence at the end of the invoice and receipt, above the postmark:<blockquote>All the above named articles were used for the six [?] dresses made for the Devonshire Ball.<ref name=":11" />{{rp|back right}}</blockquote> This same hand, signing what is possibly "Floyd Collier," also signed the postmark of the Comelli invoice and receipt. On the Burnet document, this writer, possibly an assistant or employee of the Duchess of Devonshire, says that "six dresses" were made (if in fact, that word is ''six''). (No "Collier" is listed among the staff or servants of the Duke of Devonshire at the end of the 19th century.<ref name=":19">"Servants A-H." ''Historic Servants and Staff. Servants and Staff Database''. Retrieved 18 July 2022 https://www.chatsworth.org/media/11528/servants-a-h.pdf.</ref> The invoice appears to itemize materials used for six costumes: two children, two trumpeters and two fan-bearers. ==== Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller ==== An invoice and request for payment from Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller, held in the Archives of Chatsworth House, has more specifics about some of the fabrics, trims and accessories for the costumes of the Duchess's retinue.<ref name=":12">Memorandum. Arthur Millward, Theatrical Jeweller, to Louise, Duchess of Devonshire. Date of itemized invoice 1 July 1897; date of request for payment(?) 27 August 1897. The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number L/109/4(?).</ref> This invoice lists the following, which could have been used in any of the costumes for the entourage: * 8 Doz 'Plaques' for Belts [discussed with the belts in the section on the Burnet invoice, above] * 4 Large Armlets * 4 Bracelets * 8 Armlets<ref name=":12" />{{rp|p. 2, back}} Because Millward was a Theatrical Jeweller, it seems likely that most (if not all) of the items listed on the invoice were made of metal and the jewels mentioned were artificial, made of glass or paste. Other items on the invoice seem to belong to the costumes of the trumpeters, which the Belfast ''News-Letter'' says included helmets: * 2 Helmets * 2 Centre pieces The Millward invoice shows tiny line drawings next to the words ''2 Helmets'' and ''2 Centre pieces''. These drawings suggest that the Centre pieces were attached to the helmets rather than being anything that would have been put on a table as decoration. Other items seem to belong to the costumes of the fan-bearers: * 2 Pearl & Gold Headdresses * 2 Fan properties with Feathers The "Pearl & Gold Headdresses" were likely the "jewelled diadems" mentioned in the Belfast ''News-Letter''. The "Fan properties with Feathers" are likely to have been the "long-handled fans of white feathers, mounted in blue and gold" mentioned in the newspaper report.<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} At the end of the Millward invoice, a "reduction as agreed with M [Mr?] Commelli [sic]" of £1 10''s'' is subtracted from a total of £22 3''s''. No reason for this reduction is given.<ref name=":12" />{{rp|p. 2, back}} ==== Liberty & Co., Ltd. ==== One invoice and receipt from the Chatsworth Archive, dated 12 July, to the Duchess of Devonshire, lists "13 yds S&W Satin[?]," 7 yards of blue and 6 of purple.<ref>Invoice and receipt. Liberty & Co. Ltd. To Her Grace, The Duchess of Devonshire. Date of itemized invoice 12 July [1897]. The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number L/109/4(?).</ref> Because the fabric is satin and from Liberty, it is possible that it was not used in the costumes of the people in the entourage but perhaps for the costume of the Duchess herself??? ==== Lafayette, Ltd. ==== The invoice and receipt from Lafayette, Ltd., the photographer that set up a temporary studio in the garden to take portraits of people at the ball in their costumes, may not be related to the ball at all.<ref>Invoice and receipt. Lafayette, Ltd. To His Grace The Duke of Devonshire. Date of itemized invoice 12 April 1897; addressed to the Duke, 18 February 1898; receipt and thanks for payment, 7 April 1898. The Devonshire Collections, Chatsworth, Reference number L/109/4(?).</ref> Three dates are written on the preprinted stationery: # 18/2/98 (18 February 1898), under the direction to "His Grace The Duke of Devonshire" # 4/12/97 (4 December 1897), next to the single item on the invoice for which a charge is listed: "6 [??] £1.10.0" # 7/4/98 (7 April 1898), in a different hand, with "Recd by cheque 7/4/98 Lafayette Ltd pp[?] [??] thanks" At the bottom of the page, in the hand that wrote all of the invoice except the receipt and thanks, is "With Lafayette Ltds Compliments." ==== Details for the Children in the Entourage ==== According to the ''Belfast News-Letter'', four children were "in white Assyrian robes, draped with pink shawls."<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} According to the B. Burnet invoice, the following was purchased for "White Cloth Dresses":<ref name=":11" />{{rp|p. 2, back left of invoice}} * "2 Terra Gown draperies with Stars 200 in all" * "2 Cloth fronts embroidered with Square Medallions down centre" * "2 do do [ditto ditto, that is, cloth fronts] embroidered double border down front each side and collar" * "4 Sleeves embroidered Small Medallions" The Burnet & Co. invoice lists 6 yards of "Terra" Silk Fringe, which perhaps was used to trim the "terra draperies," or shawls, made from 3 1/4 yards of "Light Terra Satinette" worn by the children? ==== Details for the Trumpeters in the Entourage ==== According to the ''Belfast News-Letter'', four trumpeters were "in white cloth robes, embroidered in subdued tones of silks, with a purple shawl draped over, beautifully ornamented with embroidery, and wearing fringed steel helmets and leather cuirasses embossed in steel."<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} The trumpeters appear to have been dressed as soldiers or military men. According to the B. Burnet invoice, the following was purchased for the trumpeters' costumes:<ref name=":11" />{{rp|p. 1, front of invoice}} * 7 '''units (yards?)''' of purple silk [probably used for shawls?] * "2 skirt fronts with border alround [sic]" * "2 sets of Leather Cuarasses [sic] Embroidered front & back" * "4 Sleeves embroidered loop stitch" The Millward invoice lists * 2 Helmets * 2 Centre Pieces [probably for helmets rather than table decorations] ==== Details for the Fan-bearers in the Entourage ==== According to the ''Belfast News-Letter'', four fan-bearers were "attired in pale blue robes, with crimson shawls, enriched with gold and jewelled embroidery, adorned with jewelled diadems, and holding long-handled fans of white feathers, mounted in blue and gold."<ref name=":8" />{{rp|p. 5, Col. 9a}} According to the B. Burnet invoice, the following was purchased for the fan bearers's costumes:<ref name=":11" />{{rp|pp. 1–2, front and left-back of invoice}} * "Embroidering 2 Crimson draperies with Stars 334 in all" * "2 Top [?] fronts embroidered & round necks" * "4 Sleeves embroidered long stitch"The Millward invoice lists * 2 Pearl & Gold Headdresses * 2 Fan properties with Feathers<ref name=":12" />{{rp|p. 2, back}} The Burnet & Co. invoice lists 12 yards of "Red Silk Fringe," which perhaps was used to trim the "crimson shawls" or "Crimson draperies," which may have been made from the 5 yards of "Red Satinette." Again, this list suggests two rather than four costumes. == Demographics == *Nationality: born in Hanover, in what is now Germany<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|date=2020-07-27|title=Louisa Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louisa_Cavendish,_Duchess_of_Devonshire&oldid=969824214|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> === Residences === ==== As Duchess of Manchester ==== *Kimbolton Castle, Huntingdonshire *Manchester House, London ==== As Duchess of Devonshire ==== *Devonshire House, London (mid-April until mid-July, for the Season) *Compton Place, Eastbourne (mid-July until 12 August<ref name=":1" />{{rp|p. 32}}) *Bolton Abbey, Yorkshire (12 August until the middle of September<ref name=":1" />{{rp|p. 32}}) *Chatsworth, Derbyshire (middle of September until early Spring<ref name=":1" />{{rp|p. 32}}) *Lismore Castle, County Waterford (early Spring until the middle of April<ref name=":1" />{{rp|p. 32}}) == Family == *Louisa (or Luise) Friederike Auguste Gräfin von Alten Montagu Cavendish (15 January 1832 – 15 November 1911)<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":0" /> *William Drogo Montagu, 7th Duke of Manchester (15 October 1823 – 22 March 1890)<ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-09-07|title=William Montagu, 7th Duke of Manchester|url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Montagu,_7th_Duke_of_Manchester&oldid=977197445|journal=Wikipedia|language=en}}</ref> #George Victor Drogo Montagu, 8th Duke of Manchester (17 June 1853 – 18 August 1892) #Mary Louise [Louisa?] Elizabeth Montagu Douglas-Hamilton Forster (27 December 1854 – 10 February 1934) #Louisa Augusta Beatrice Montagu Acheson (c. 1856 – 3 March 1944) #Charles William Augustus Montagu (23 November 1860 – 10 November 1939) #Alice Maude Olivia Montagu Stanley (15 August 1862 – 23 July 1957) *[[Social Victorians/People/Spencer Compton Cavendish|Spencer Compton Cavendish]], 8th Duke of Devonshire (23 July 1833 – 24 March 1908) == Notes and Questions == #As Duchess of Manchester Luise was not invited to the wedding between Bertie and Alix, Victoria's punishment for Luise's having gotten the Duke of Derby to promise her the position of Mistress of the Robes (and then exacting that promise).<ref>Leslie, Anita. ''The Marlborough House Set''. New York: Doubleday, 1973.</ref>{{rp|pp. 47–48}} #"As a young woman she was extremely beautiful; Princess Catherine Radziwill saw her at a reception given by the Empress of Germany and recalls on being introduced to her 'how she struck me as the loveliest creature I had ever set eyes upon. Indeed I have only met three women in my whole existence who could be compared to her.'"<ref name=":1" />{{rp|p. 21}} == Footnotes == {{reflist}} rjnno4haz0obrqxak32w1ko70x7es4m 0 264909 2415647 2413735 2022-08-17T00:08:44Z Jtneill 10242 /* See also */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 03: Physiological needs|third}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> [[File:WP20Symbols brain.svg|right|thumb|200px|The brain is not only for thinking - it is also the source of our motivation and emotion.]] ==Overview== [[File:Brain human sagittal section.svg|thumb|right|200px|The cortex is wrapped over the [[w:Phylogenetics|phylogenetically]] older sub-cortical brain region.]] This tutorial: # considers the brain structures involved in motivation and emotion # discusses the motivational and emotional role of neurotransmitters and hormones # demonstrates social contributions ==Physiological aspects== Physiological aspects of motivational and emotional experiences include [[#Brain structures|brain structures]], [[#Hormone|hormones]], and [[#Neurotransmitter|neurotransmitters]]. Whilst each component serves particular functions, they also communicate directly or indirectly with one another to work dynamically and holistically. The purpose of these mix and match activities is to become familiar with the motivational and emotional functions of brain structures, hormones, and neurotransmitters. ===Brain structures=== The brain has two anatomically and functionally distinct regions: * '''Sub-cortical''' which includes structures that operate largely unconsciously to monitor the environment and regulate responses. * '''Cortical''' which analyses information from sub-cortical pathways, sets goals, interprets the meaning of events, makes decisions, and modulates sub-cortical responses. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Activity 1''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|110px]] <!-- ;Face-to-face # Review the [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Needs/Brain|master list of brain structures and functions]]. # Cut up the copy into separate structures and functions, then mix them around. # As a group, match the brain structures to their functions - do the best you can, then check against the master list. # Mix them up, and try again - repeat process until your group can get them all right. ;Online --> # Open [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1llev4L4pJCvp6QEZ1nyYDDUIUQjFfbIgZTz6hmBCaM8/edit?usp=sharing this spreadsheet] # Allocate your name to one of the structures and research the correct answer. Repeat until all matches are correct. # As a group, discuss and review the answers. Then delete the answers and try again. Second time around, group members should select different structures. Aim to complete the exercise at least twice. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ;See also * [[Motivation and emotion/Brain structures|Brain structures]] ===Hormones and neurotransmitters=== Ask/discuss: * What is a hormone? * What is a neurotransmitter? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity 2''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|110px]] # Open [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1sK3AnwaVacZIOCCdoPZEIey2OlHvzAU2tNlk05mApWU/edit#gid=0 this spreadsheet] # Allocate your name to one of the hormones or neurotransmitters and research the correct answer. Repeat until all matches are correct. # As a group, discuss and review the answers. Then delete the answers and try again. Second time around, group members should select different structures. Aim to complete the exercise at least twice. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ; See also * [[Motivation and emotion/Hormones|Hormones]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Neurotransmitters|Neurotransmitters]] ==Social contributions== Demonstration of how to make and record [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Social contributions|social contributions]]. ==Recording== * Tutorial 03 (2022) TBA * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b4f7000172964be1af7a162229011341 Tutorial 03 recording] (2021)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/3b714fcbd35e4496bd91ee3c96cb4350 Tutorial 03 recording] (2020) --> ==See also== ;External tutorial material * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs#Brain app|Brain app]] ;Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs|Brain and physiological needs]] (Lecture) ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Wiki editing|Wiki editing]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Psychological needs|Psychological needs]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==External links== * [http://www.fortrefuge.com/quiz-BIS-BAS.php BIS/BAS scales] (fortrefuge.com) --> <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs| ]] l74er8ltr206u87rm3920cfv0tdo9yb 2415649 2415647 2022-08-17T00:11:09Z Jtneill 10242 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 03: Physiological needs|third}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> [[File:WP20Symbols brain.svg|right|thumb|200px|The brain is not only for thinking - it is also the source of our motivation and emotion.]] ==Overview== [[File:Brain human sagittal section.svg|thumb|right|200px|The cortex is wrapped over the [[w:Phylogenetics|phylogenetically]] older sub-cortical brain region.]] This tutorial: # considers the brain structures involved in motivation and emotion # discusses the motivational and emotional role of neurotransmitters and hormones # demonstrates social contributions ==Physiological aspects== Physiological aspects of motivational and emotional experiences include [[#Brain structures|brain structures]], [[#Hormone|hormones]], and [[#Neurotransmitter|neurotransmitters]]. Whilst each component serves particular functions, they also communicate directly or indirectly with one another to work dynamically and holistically. The purpose of these mix and match activities is to become familiar with the motivational and emotional functions of brain structures, hormones, and neurotransmitters. ===Brain structures=== The brain has two anatomically and functionally distinct regions: * '''Sub-cortical''' which includes structures that operate largely unconsciously to monitor the environment and regulate responses. * '''Cortical''' which analyses information from sub-cortical pathways, sets goals, interprets the meaning of events, makes decisions, and modulates sub-cortical responses. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Activity 1''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|110px]] <!-- ;Face-to-face # Review the [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Needs/Brain|master list of brain structures and functions]]. # Cut up the copy into separate structures and functions, then mix them around. # As a group, match the brain structures to their functions - do the best you can, then check against the master list. # Mix them up, and try again - repeat process until your group can get them all right. ;Online --> # Open [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1llev4L4pJCvp6QEZ1nyYDDUIUQjFfbIgZTz6hmBCaM8/edit?usp=sharing this spreadsheet] # You will be in a group with one or two others # Allocate your name to one of the structures and research the correct answer. Repeat until all matches are correct. # As a group, discuss and review the answers. Then delete the answers and try again. Second time around, group members should select different structures. Aim to complete the exercise at least twice. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ;See also * [[Motivation and emotion/Brain structures|Brain structures]] ===Hormones and neurotransmitters=== Ask/discuss: * What is a hormone? * What is a neurotransmitter? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity 2''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|110px]] # Open [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1sK3AnwaVacZIOCCdoPZEIey2OlHvzAU2tNlk05mApWU/edit#gid=0 this spreadsheet] # You will be in a group with one or two others # Allocate your name to one of the hormones or neurotransmitters and research the correct answer. Repeat until all matches are correct. # As a group, discuss and review the answers. Then delete the answers and try again. Second time around, group members should select different structures. Aim to complete the exercise at least twice. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ; See also * [[Motivation and emotion/Hormones|Hormones]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Neurotransmitters|Neurotransmitters]] ==Social contributions== Demonstration of how to make and record [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Social contributions|social contributions]]. ==Recording== * Tutorial 03 (2022) TBA * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b4f7000172964be1af7a162229011341 Tutorial 03 recording] (2021)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/3b714fcbd35e4496bd91ee3c96cb4350 Tutorial 03 recording] (2020) --> ==See also== ;External tutorial material * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs#Brain app|Brain app]] ;Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs|Brain and physiological needs]] (Lecture) ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Wiki editing|Wiki editing]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Psychological needs|Psychological needs]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==External links== * [http://www.fortrefuge.com/quiz-BIS-BAS.php BIS/BAS scales] (fortrefuge.com) --> <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs| ]] o3mfbc387qn8wuzy9tsq724wpvbs0kb 2415650 2415649 2022-08-17T00:11:43Z Jtneill 10242 Update for 2022 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 03: Physiological needs|third}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> [[File:WP20Symbols brain.svg|right|thumb|200px|The brain is not only for thinking - it is also the source of our motivation and emotion.]] ==Overview== [[File:Brain human sagittal section.svg|thumb|right|200px|The cortex is wrapped over the [[w:Phylogenetics|phylogenetically]] older sub-cortical brain region.]] This tutorial: # considers the brain structures involved in motivation and emotion # discusses the motivational and emotional role of neurotransmitters and hormones # demonstrates social contributions ==Physiological aspects== Physiological aspects of motivational and emotional experiences include [[#Brain structures|brain structures]], [[#Hormone|hormones]], and [[#Neurotransmitter|neurotransmitters]]. Whilst each component serves particular functions, they also communicate directly or indirectly with one another to work dynamically and holistically. The purpose of these mix and match activities is to become familiar with the motivational and emotional functions of brain structures, hormones, and neurotransmitters. ===Brain structures=== The brain has two anatomically and functionally distinct regions: * '''Sub-cortical''' which includes structures that operate largely unconsciously to monitor the environment and regulate responses. * '''Cortical''' which analyses information from sub-cortical pathways, sets goals, interprets the meaning of events, makes decisions, and modulates sub-cortical responses. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Activity 1''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|110px]] <!-- ;Face-to-face # Review the [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Needs/Brain|master list of brain structures and functions]]. # Cut up the copy into separate structures and functions, then mix them around. # As a group, match the brain structures to their functions - do the best you can, then check against the master list. # Mix them up, and try again - repeat process until your group can get them all right. ;Online --> # Open [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1llev4L4pJCvp6QEZ1nyYDDUIUQjFfbIgZTz6hmBCaM8/edit?usp=sharing this spreadsheet] # You will be in a group with one or two others # Allocate your name to one of the structures and research the correct answer. Repeat until all matches are correct. # As a group, discuss and review the answers. Then delete the answers and try again. Second time around, group members should select different structures. Aim to complete the exercise at least twice. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ;See also * [[Motivation and emotion/Brain structures|Brain structures]] ===Hormones and neurotransmitters=== Ask/discuss: * What is a hormone? * What is a neurotransmitter? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity 2''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|110px]] # Open [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1sK3AnwaVacZIOCCdoPZEIey2OlHvzAU2tNlk05mApWU/edit#gid=0 this spreadsheet] # You will be in a group with one or two others # Allocate your name to one of the hormones or neurotransmitters and research the correct answer. Repeat until all matches are correct. # As a group, discuss and review the answers. Then delete the answers and try again. Second time around, group members should select different structures. Aim to complete the exercise at least twice. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ; See also * [[Motivation and emotion/Hormones|Hormones]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Neurotransmitters|Neurotransmitters]] ==Social contributions== Demonstration of how to make and record [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Social contributions|social contributions]]. ==Recording== * Tutorial 03 (2022) TBA * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b4f7000172964be1af7a162229011341 Tutorial 03 recording] (2021)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/3b714fcbd35e4496bd91ee3c96cb4350 Tutorial 03 recording] (2020) --> ==See also== ;External tutorial material * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs#Brain app|Brain app]] ;Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs|Brain and physiological needs]] (Lecture) ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Wiki editing|Wiki editing]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Psychological needs|Psychological needs]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==External links== * [http://www.fortrefuge.com/quiz-BIS-BAS.php BIS/BAS scales] (fortrefuge.com) --> <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs| ]] nz6q42uowj69ux1mgmxim34rzatzrkf 2415686 2415650 2022-08-17T03:22:58Z Jtneill 10242 /* Brain structures */ Update wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 03: Physiological needs|third}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> [[File:WP20Symbols brain.svg|right|thumb|200px|The brain is not only for thinking - it is also the source of our motivation and emotion.]] ==Overview== [[File:Brain human sagittal section.svg|thumb|right|200px|The cortex is wrapped over the [[w:Phylogenetics|phylogenetically]] older sub-cortical brain region.]] This tutorial: # considers the brain structures involved in motivation and emotion # discusses the motivational and emotional role of neurotransmitters and hormones # demonstrates social contributions ==Physiological aspects== Physiological aspects of motivational and emotional experiences include [[#Brain structures|brain structures]], [[#Hormone|hormones]], and [[#Neurotransmitter|neurotransmitters]]. Whilst each component serves particular functions, they also communicate directly or indirectly with one another to work dynamically and holistically. The purpose of these mix and match activities is to become familiar with the motivational and emotional functions of brain structures, hormones, and neurotransmitters. ===Brain structures=== The brain has two anatomically and functionally distinct regions: * '''Sub-cortical''' which includes structures that operate largely unconsciously to monitor the environment and regulate responses. * '''Cortical''' which analyses information from sub-cortical pathways, sets goals, interprets the meaning of events, makes decisions, and modulates sub-cortical responses. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Activity 1''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|110px]] <!-- ;Face-to-face # Review the [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Needs/Brain|master list of brain structures and functions]]. # Cut up the copy into separate structures and functions, then mix them around. # As a group, match the brain structures to their functions - do the best you can, then check against the master list. # Mix them up, and try again - repeat process until your group can get them all right. ;Online --> # You will be in a group with one or two others # Open [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1llev4L4pJCvp6QEZ1nyYDDUIUQjFfbIgZTz6hmBCaM8/edit?usp=sharing this spreadsheet] and click on the tab that corresponds to your group number # Allocate yourself to one of the structures and select or research the correct answer. Repeat until all matches are correct. # As a group, discuss and review the answers. # Then delete the answers and try again. Second time around, group members should select different structures. Aim to complete the exercise at least twice. # Identify an interesting fact about the function of one of the brain structures that you can share with the whole class. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ;See also * [[Motivation and emotion/Brain structures|Brain structures]] ===Hormones and neurotransmitters=== Ask/discuss: * What is a hormone? * What is a neurotransmitter? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity 2''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|110px]] # Open [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1sK3AnwaVacZIOCCdoPZEIey2OlHvzAU2tNlk05mApWU/edit#gid=0 this spreadsheet] # You will be in a group with one or two others # Allocate your name to one of the hormones or neurotransmitters and research the correct answer. Repeat until all matches are correct. # As a group, discuss and review the answers. Then delete the answers and try again. Second time around, group members should select different structures. Aim to complete the exercise at least twice. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ; See also * [[Motivation and emotion/Hormones|Hormones]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Neurotransmitters|Neurotransmitters]] ==Social contributions== Demonstration of how to make and record [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Social contributions|social contributions]]. ==Recording== * Tutorial 03 (2022) TBA * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b4f7000172964be1af7a162229011341 Tutorial 03 recording] (2021)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/3b714fcbd35e4496bd91ee3c96cb4350 Tutorial 03 recording] (2020) --> ==See also== ;External tutorial material * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs#Brain app|Brain app]] ;Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs|Brain and physiological needs]] (Lecture) ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Wiki editing|Wiki editing]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Psychological needs|Psychological needs]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==External links== * [http://www.fortrefuge.com/quiz-BIS-BAS.php BIS/BAS scales] (fortrefuge.com) --> <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs| ]] qu6s9hu4jgvxmyt8ws41svl8bmmgat2 2415687 2415686 2022-08-17T03:25:08Z Jtneill 10242 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 03: Physiological needs|third}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> [[File:WP20Symbols brain.svg|right|thumb|200px|The brain is not only for thinking - it is also the source of our motivation and emotion.]] ==Overview== [[File:Brain human sagittal section.svg|thumb|right|200px|The cortex is wrapped over the [[w:Phylogenetics|phylogenetically]] older sub-cortical brain region.]] This tutorial: # considers the brain structures involved in motivation and emotion # discusses the motivational and emotional role of neurotransmitters and hormones # demonstrates social contributions ==Physiological aspects== Physiological aspects of motivational and emotional experiences include [[#Brain structures|brain structures]], [[#Hormone|hormones]], and [[#Neurotransmitter|neurotransmitters]]. Whilst each component serves particular functions, they also communicate directly or indirectly with one another to work dynamically and holistically. The purpose of these mix and match activities is to become familiar with the motivational and emotional functions of brain structures, hormones, and neurotransmitters. ===Brain structures=== The brain has two anatomically and functionally distinct regions: * '''Sub-cortical''' which includes structures that operate largely unconsciously to monitor the environment and regulate responses. * '''Cortical''' which analyses information from sub-cortical pathways, sets goals, interprets the meaning of events, makes decisions, and modulates sub-cortical responses. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Activity 1''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|110px]] <!-- ;Face-to-face # Review the [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Needs/Brain|master list of brain structures and functions]]. # Cut up the copy into separate structures and functions, then mix them around. # As a group, match the brain structures to their functions - do the best you can, then check against the master list. # Mix them up, and try again - repeat process until your group can get them all right. ;Online --> # You will be in a group with one or two others # Open [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1llev4L4pJCvp6QEZ1nyYDDUIUQjFfbIgZTz6hmBCaM8/edit?usp=sharing this spreadsheet] and click on the tab that corresponds to your group number # Allocate yourself to one of the brain structures and select or research the correct answer. Repeat until all matches are correct. # As a group, discuss and review the answers. # Then delete the answers and try again. Second time around, group members should select different structures. Aim to complete the exercise at least twice. # Identify and discuss an interesting fact about the function of one of the brain structures that you can share with the whole class. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ;See also * [[Motivation and emotion/Brain structures|Brain structures]] ===Hormones and neurotransmitters=== Ask/discuss: * What is a hormone? * What is a neurotransmitter? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity 2''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|110px]] # You will be in a group with one or two others # Open [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1sK3AnwaVacZIOCCdoPZEIey2OlHvzAU2tNlk05mApWU/edit#gid=0 this spreadsheet] and click on the tab that correspondents to your group number # Allocate yourself to one of the hormones or neurotransmitters and select or research the correct answer. Repeat until all matches are correct. # As a group, discuss and review the answers. # Then delete the answers and try again. Second time around, group members should select different hormones or neurotransmitters. Aim to complete the exercise at least twice. # Identify and discuss an interesting fact about one of the neurotransmitters or hormones that you can share with the whole class. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ; See also * [[Motivation and emotion/Hormones|Hormones]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Neurotransmitters|Neurotransmitters]] ==Social contributions== Demonstration of how to make and record [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Social contributions|social contributions]]. ==Recording== * Tutorial 03 (2022) TBA * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b4f7000172964be1af7a162229011341 Tutorial 03 recording] (2021)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/3b714fcbd35e4496bd91ee3c96cb4350 Tutorial 03 recording] (2020) --> ==See also== ;External tutorial material * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs#Brain app|Brain app]] ;Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs|Brain and physiological needs]] (Lecture) ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Wiki editing|Wiki editing]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Psychological needs|Psychological needs]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==External links== * [http://www.fortrefuge.com/quiz-BIS-BAS.php BIS/BAS scales] (fortrefuge.com) --> <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs| ]] qc1jr42ld1xve1klfy86cmo2yc5vuo7 2415688 2415687 2022-08-17T03:26:09Z Jtneill 10242 /* Overview */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 03: Physiological needs|third}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> [[File:WP20Symbols brain.svg|right|thumb|200px|The brain is not only for thinking - it is also the source of our motivation and emotion.]] ==Overview== [[File:Brain human sagittal section.svg|thumb|right|200px|The cortex is wrapped over the [[w:Phylogenetics|phylogenetically]] older sub-cortical brain region.]] This tutorial: # considers how different brain structures are involved in motivation and emotion # examines the motivational and emotional role of neurotransmitters and hormones # demonstrates how to make and record social contributions ==Physiological aspects== Physiological aspects of motivational and emotional experiences include [[#Brain structures|brain structures]], [[#Hormone|hormones]], and [[#Neurotransmitter|neurotransmitters]]. Whilst each component serves particular functions, they also communicate directly or indirectly with one another to work dynamically and holistically. The purpose of these mix and match activities is to become familiar with the motivational and emotional functions of brain structures, hormones, and neurotransmitters. ===Brain structures=== The brain has two anatomically and functionally distinct regions: * '''Sub-cortical''' which includes structures that operate largely unconsciously to monitor the environment and regulate responses. * '''Cortical''' which analyses information from sub-cortical pathways, sets goals, interprets the meaning of events, makes decisions, and modulates sub-cortical responses. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Activity 1''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|110px]] <!-- ;Face-to-face # Review the [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Needs/Brain|master list of brain structures and functions]]. # Cut up the copy into separate structures and functions, then mix them around. # As a group, match the brain structures to their functions - do the best you can, then check against the master list. # Mix them up, and try again - repeat process until your group can get them all right. ;Online --> # You will be in a group with one or two others # Open [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1llev4L4pJCvp6QEZ1nyYDDUIUQjFfbIgZTz6hmBCaM8/edit?usp=sharing this spreadsheet] and click on the tab that corresponds to your group number # Allocate yourself to one of the brain structures and select or research the correct answer. Repeat until all matches are correct. # As a group, discuss and review the answers. # Then delete the answers and try again. Second time around, group members should select different structures. Aim to complete the exercise at least twice. # Identify and discuss an interesting fact about the function of one of the brain structures that you can share with the whole class. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ;See also * [[Motivation and emotion/Brain structures|Brain structures]] ===Hormones and neurotransmitters=== Ask/discuss: * What is a hormone? * What is a neurotransmitter? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity 2''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|110px]] # You will be in a group with one or two others # Open [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1sK3AnwaVacZIOCCdoPZEIey2OlHvzAU2tNlk05mApWU/edit#gid=0 this spreadsheet] and click on the tab that correspondents to your group number # Allocate yourself to one of the hormones or neurotransmitters and select or research the correct answer. Repeat until all matches are correct. # As a group, discuss and review the answers. # Then delete the answers and try again. Second time around, group members should select different hormones or neurotransmitters. Aim to complete the exercise at least twice. # Identify and discuss an interesting fact about one of the neurotransmitters or hormones that you can share with the whole class. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ; See also * [[Motivation and emotion/Hormones|Hormones]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Neurotransmitters|Neurotransmitters]] ==Social contributions== Demonstration of how to make and record [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Social contributions|social contributions]]. ==Recording== * Tutorial 03 (2022) TBA * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b4f7000172964be1af7a162229011341 Tutorial 03 recording] (2021)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/3b714fcbd35e4496bd91ee3c96cb4350 Tutorial 03 recording] (2020) --> ==See also== ;External tutorial material * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs#Brain app|Brain app]] ;Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs|Brain and physiological needs]] (Lecture) ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Wiki editing|Wiki editing]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Psychological needs|Psychological needs]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==External links== * [http://www.fortrefuge.com/quiz-BIS-BAS.php BIS/BAS scales] (fortrefuge.com) --> <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs| ]] dzrtm6chbyjzfm0bz7514lekhwumznv 2415784 2415688 2022-08-17T08:39:41Z Jtneill 10242 /* Recording */ Update for 2022 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 03: Physiological needs|third}} {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --> <!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --> [[File:WP20Symbols brain.svg|right|thumb|200px|The brain is not only for thinking - it is also the source of our motivation and emotion.]] ==Overview== [[File:Brain human sagittal section.svg|thumb|right|200px|The cortex is wrapped over the [[w:Phylogenetics|phylogenetically]] older sub-cortical brain region.]] This tutorial: # considers how different brain structures are involved in motivation and emotion # examines the motivational and emotional role of neurotransmitters and hormones # demonstrates how to make and record social contributions ==Physiological aspects== Physiological aspects of motivational and emotional experiences include [[#Brain structures|brain structures]], [[#Hormone|hormones]], and [[#Neurotransmitter|neurotransmitters]]. Whilst each component serves particular functions, they also communicate directly or indirectly with one another to work dynamically and holistically. The purpose of these mix and match activities is to become familiar with the motivational and emotional functions of brain structures, hormones, and neurotransmitters. ===Brain structures=== The brain has two anatomically and functionally distinct regions: * '''Sub-cortical''' which includes structures that operate largely unconsciously to monitor the environment and regulate responses. * '''Cortical''' which analyses information from sub-cortical pathways, sets goals, interprets the meaning of events, makes decisions, and modulates sub-cortical responses. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=11}} '''Activity 1''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|110px]] <!-- ;Face-to-face # Review the [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Needs/Brain|master list of brain structures and functions]]. # Cut up the copy into separate structures and functions, then mix them around. # As a group, match the brain structures to their functions - do the best you can, then check against the master list. # Mix them up, and try again - repeat process until your group can get them all right. ;Online --> # You will be in a group with one or two others # Open [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1llev4L4pJCvp6QEZ1nyYDDUIUQjFfbIgZTz6hmBCaM8/edit?usp=sharing this spreadsheet] and click on the tab that corresponds to your group number # Allocate yourself to one of the brain structures and select or research the correct answer. Repeat until all matches are correct. # As a group, discuss and review the answers. # Then delete the answers and try again. Second time around, group members should select different structures. Aim to complete the exercise at least twice. # Identify and discuss an interesting fact about the function of one of the brain structures that you can share with the whole class. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ;See also * [[Motivation and emotion/Brain structures|Brain structures]] ===Hormones and neurotransmitters=== Ask/discuss: * What is a hormone? * What is a neurotransmitter? {{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}} '''Activity 2''' [[File:Antu 67EF addoninstaller.0.svg|right|110px]] # You will be in a group with one or two others # Open [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1sK3AnwaVacZIOCCdoPZEIey2OlHvzAU2tNlk05mApWU/edit#gid=0 this spreadsheet] and click on the tab that correspondents to your group number # Allocate yourself to one of the hormones or neurotransmitters and select or research the correct answer. Repeat until all matches are correct. # As a group, discuss and review the answers. # Then delete the answers and try again. Second time around, group members should select different hormones or neurotransmitters. Aim to complete the exercise at least twice. # Identify and discuss an interesting fact about one of the neurotransmitters or hormones that you can share with the whole class. {{RoundBoxBottom}} ; See also * [[Motivation and emotion/Hormones|Hormones]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Neurotransmitters|Neurotransmitters]] ==Social contributions== Demonstration of how to make and record [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Social contributions|social contributions]]. ==Recording== * Tutorial 03 (2022) - [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/a2cc45e35b514792a79393907a04fd79 Pt 1], [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/446ac2edb4a54437bb3f903809fa4187 Pt 2], [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/66730d0b594d4b6997515cedf4f25c24 Pt 3] - There were some problems with the 2022 recording - it is not complete - so it might be better to watch the 2021 recording * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/b4f7000172964be1af7a162229011341 Tutorial 03 recording] (2021)<!-- * [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/3b714fcbd35e4496bd91ee3c96cb4350 Tutorial 03 recording] (2020) --> ==See also== ;External tutorial material * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs#Brain app|Brain app]] ;Lecture * [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Brain and physiological needs|Brain and physiological needs]] (Lecture) ;Tutorials * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Wiki editing|Wiki editing]] (Previous tutorial) * [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Psychological needs|Psychological needs]] (Next tutorial) <!-- ;Admin * [[/Instructor notes/]] ==External links== * [http://www.fortrefuge.com/quiz-BIS-BAS.php BIS/BAS scales] (fortrefuge.com) --> <noinclude>{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}</noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs| ]] mc1vkbscued1dpvmk2h7h9gp2ybg9hv 0 267586 2415774 2415542 2022-08-17T08:17:49Z D.H 52339 wikitext text/x-wiki {{../Lorentz transformation (header)}} ==Most general Lorentz transformations== ===General quadratic form=== The general [[w:quadratic form]] ''q(x)'' with coefficients of a [[w:symmetric matrix]] '''A''', the associated [[w:bilinear form]] ''b(x,y)'', and the [[w:linear transformation]]s of ''q(x)'' and ''b(x,y)'' into ''q(x′)'' and ''b(x′,y′)'' using the [[w:transformation matrix]] '''g''', can be written as<ref>Bôcher (1907), chapter X</ref> {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{align}\begin{align}q=\sum_{0}^{n}A_{ij}x_{i}x_{j}=\mathbf{x}^{\mathrm{T}}\cdot\mathbf{A}\cdot\mathbf{x}\end{align} & =q'=\mathbf{x}^{\mathrm{\prime T}}\cdot\mathbf{A}'\cdot\mathbf{x}'\\ b=\sum_{0}^{n}A_{ij}x_{i}y_{j}=\mathbf{x}^{\mathrm{T}}\cdot\mathbf{A}\cdot\mathbf{y} & =b'=\mathbf{x}^{\mathrm{\prime T}}\cdot\mathbf{A}'\cdot\mathbf{y}' \end{align} \quad\left(A_{ij}=A_{ji}\right)\\ \hline \left.\begin{align}x_{i}^{\prime} & =\sum_{j=0}^{n}g_{ij}x_{j}=\mathbf{g}\cdot\mathbf{x}\\ x_{i} & =\sum_{j=0}^{n}g_{ij}^{(-1)}x_{j}^{\prime}=\mathbf{g}^{-1}\cdot\mathbf{x}' \end{align} \right|\mathbf{g}^{{\rm T}}\cdot\mathbf{A}\cdot\mathbf{g}=\mathbf{A}' \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|Q1}}}} The case ''n=1'' is the [[w:binary quadratic form]] introduced by [[#Lagrange|Lagrange (1773)]] and [[#Gauss|Gauss (1798/1801)]], ''n=2'' is the ternary quadratic form introduced by [[#Gauss2|Gauss (1798/1801)]], ''n=3'' is the quaternary quadratic form etc. ===Most general Lorentz transformation=== The general Lorentz transformation follows from ({{equationNote|Q1}}) by setting '''A'''='''A′'''=diag(-1,1,...,1) and det '''g'''=±1. It forms an [[w:indefinite orthogonal group]] called the [[w:Lorentz group]] O(1,n), while the case det '''g'''=+1 forms the restricted [[w:Lorentz group]] SO(1,n). The quadratic form ''q(x)'' becomes the [[w:Lorentz interval]] in terms of an [[w:indefinite quadratic form]] of [[w:Minkowski space]] (being a special case of [[w:pseudo-Euclidean space]]), and the associated bilinear form ''b(x)'' becomes the [[w:Minkowski inner product]]:<ref name=ratcliffe>Ratcliffe (1994), 3.1 and Theorem 3.1.4 and Exercise 3.1</ref><ref>Naimark (1964), 2 in four dimensions</ref> {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{align}-x_{0}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2} & =-x_{0}^{\prime2}+\dots+x_{n}^{\prime2}\\ -x_{0}y_{0}+\cdots+x_{n}y_{n} & =-x_{0}^{\prime}y_{0}^{\prime}+\cdots+x_{n}^{\prime}y_{n}^{\prime} \end{align} \\ \hline \left.\begin{matrix}\mathbf{x}'=\mathbf{g}\cdot\mathbf{x}\\ \downarrow\\ \begin{align}x_{0}^{\prime} & =x_{0}g_{00}+x_{1}g_{01}+\dots+x_{n}g_{0n}\\ x_{1}^{\prime} & =x_{0}g_{10}+x_{1}g_{11}+\dots+x_{n}g_{1n}\\ & \dots\\ x_{n}^{\prime} & =x_{0}g_{n0}+x_{1}g_{n1}+\dots+x_{n}g_{nn} \end{align} \\ \\ \mathbf{x}=\mathbf{g}^{-1}\cdot\mathbf{x}'\\ \downarrow\\ \begin{align}x_{0} & =x_{0}^{\prime}g_{00}-x_{1}^{\prime}g_{10}-\dots-x_{n}^{\prime}g_{n0}\\ x_{1} & =-x_{0}^{\prime}g_{01}+x_{1}^{\prime}g_{11}+\dots+x_{n}^{\prime}g_{n1}\\ & \dots\\ x_{n} & =-x_{0}^{\prime}g_{0n}+x_{1}^{\prime}g_{1n}+\dots+x_{n}^{\prime}g_{nn} \end{align} \end{matrix}\right|\begin{matrix}\begin{align}\mathbf{A}\cdot\mathbf{g}^{\mathrm{T}}\cdot\mathbf{A} & =\mathbf{g}^{-1}\\ \mathbf{g}^{{\rm T}}\cdot\mathbf{A}\cdot\mathbf{g} & =\mathbf{A}\\ \mathbf{g}\cdot\mathbf{A}\cdot\mathbf{g}^{\mathrm{T}} & =\mathbf{A}\\ \\ \end{align} \\ \begin{align}\sum_{i=1}^{n}g_{ij}g_{ik}-g_{0j}g_{0k} & =\left\{ \begin{align}-1\quad & (j=k=0)\\ 1\quad & (j=k>0)\\ 0\quad & (j\ne k) \end{align} \right.\\ \sum_{j=1}^{n}g_{ij}g_{kj}-g_{i0}g_{k0} & =\left\{ \begin{align}-1\quad & (i=k=0)\\ 1\quad & (i=k>0)\\ 0\quad & (i\ne k) \end{align} \right. \end{align} \end{matrix} \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|1a}}}} The invariance of the Lorentz interval with ''n''=1 between axes and conjugate diameters of hyperbolas was known for a long time since [[#Apo|Apollonius (ca. 200 BC)]]. Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|1a}}) for various dimensions were used by [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]], [[#Jacobi|Jacobi (1827, 1833)]], [[#Lebesgue|Lebesgue (1837)]], [[#Bour|Bour (1856)]], [[#Somov|Somov (1863)]], [[#Hill|Hill (1882)]] in order to simplify computations of [[w:elliptic function]]s and integrals.<ref>Musen (1970) pointed out the intimate connection of Hill's scalar development and Minkowski's pseudo-Euclidean 3D space.</ref><ref>Touma et al. (2009) showed the analogy between Gauss and Hill's equations and Lorentz transformations, see eq. 22-29.</ref> They were also used by [[#Chasles|Chasles (1829)]] and [[#Weddle|Weddle (1847)]] to describe relations on hyperboloids, as well as by [[#Poincare|Poincaré (1881)]], [[#Cox|Cox (1881/82)]], [[#Picard|Picard (1882, 1884)]], [[#Killing|Killing (1885, 1893)]], [[#Gerard|Gérard (1892)]], [[#Hausdorff|Hausdorff (1899)]], [[#Woods2|Woods (1901, 1903)]], [[#Liebmann|Liebmann (1904/05)]] to describe [[w:hyperbolic motion]]s (i.e. rigid motions in the [[w:hyperbolic plane]] or [[w:hyperbolic space]]), which were expressed in terms of Weierstrass coordinates of the [[w:hyperboloid model]] satisfying the relation <math>-x_{0}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}=-1</math> or in terms of the [[w:Cayley–Klein metric]] of [[w:projective geometry]] using the "absolute" form <math>-x_{0}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}=0</math> as discussed by [[#Klein|Klein (1871-73)]].<ref group=M>Killing (1885), p. 71</ref><ref>Müller (1910), p. 661, in particular footnote 247.</ref><ref>Sommerville (1911), p. 286, section K6.</ref> In addition, [[w:infinitesimal transformation]]s related to the [[w:Lie algebra]] of the group of hyperbolic motions were given in terms of Weierstrass coordinates <math>-x_{0}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}=-1</math> by [[#Killing3|Killing (1888-1897)]]. ===Most general Lorentz transformation of velocity=== If <math>x_{i},\ x_{i}^{\prime}</math> in ({{equationNote|1a}}) are interpreted as [[w:homogeneous coordinates]], then the corresponding inhomogenous coordinates <math>u_{s},\ u_{s}^{\prime}</math> follow by :<math>\frac{x_{s}}{x_{0}}=u_{s},\ \frac{x_{s}^{\prime}}{x_{0}^{\prime}}=u_{s}^{\prime}\ (s=1,2\dots n)</math> defined by <math>u_{1}^{2}+u_{2}^{2}+\dots+u_{n}^{2}\le1</math> so that the Lorentz transformation becomes a [[w:homography]] inside the [[w:unit hypersphere]], which [[w:John Lighton Synge]] called "the most general formula for the composition of velocities" in terms of special relativity<ref>Synge (1955), p. 129 for ''n''=3</ref> (the transformation matrix '''g''' stays the same as in ({{equationNote|1a}})): {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{align}u_{s}^{\prime} & =\frac{g_{s0}+g_{s1}u_{1}+\dots+g_{sn}u_{n}}{g_{00}+g_{01}u_{1}+\dots+g_{0n}u_{n}}\\ \\ u_{s} & =\frac{-g_{0s}+g_{1s}u_{1}^{\prime}+\dots+g_{ns}u_{n}^{\prime}}{g_{00}-g_{10}u_{1}^{\prime}-\dots-g_{n0}u_{n}^{\prime}} \end{align} \left|\begin{align}\sum_{i=1}^{n}g_{ij}g_{ik}-g_{0j}g_{0k} & =\left\{ \begin{align}-1\quad & (j=k=0)\\ 1\quad & (j=k>0)\\ 0\quad & (j\ne k) \end{align} \right.\\ \sum_{j=1}^{n}g_{ij}g_{kj}-g_{i0}g_{k0} & =\left\{ \begin{align}-1\quad & (i=k=0)\\ 1\quad & (i=k>0)\\ 0\quad & (i\ne k) \end{align} \right. \end{align} \right.</math>|{{equationRef|1b}}}} Such Lorentz transformations for various dimensions were used by [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]], [[#Jacobi|Jacobi (1827–1833)]], [[#Lebesgue|Lebesgue (1837)]], [[#Bour|Bour (1856)]], [[#Somov|Somov (1863)]], [[#Hill|Hill (1882)]], [[#Callandreau|Callandreau (1885)]] in order to simplify computations of elliptic functions and integrals, by [[#Picard|Picard (1882-1884)]] in relation to [[w:Hermitian form|Hermitian quadratic form]]s, or by [[#Woods2|Woods (1901, 1903)]] in terms of the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model]] of hyperbolic geometry. In addition, infinitesimal transformations in terms of the [[w:Lie algebra]] of the group of hyperbolic motions leaving invariant the unit sphere <math>-1+u_{1}^{\prime2}+\cdots+u_{n}^{\prime2}=0</math> were given by [[#Lie3|Lie (1885-1893) and Werner (1889)]] and [[#Killing3|Killing (1888-1897)]]. ==Historical notation== ==={{anchor|Apo}} Apollonius (BC) – Conjugate diameters of hyperbolas === [[w:Apollonius of Perga]] (c. 240–190 BC) defined propositions related to conjugate diameters of hyperbolas, which was translated and adapted to the modern reader by [[w:Thomas Heath (classicist)|w:Thomas Heath]] as follows:<ref group=M>Apollonius/Heath (1896), Proposition 129; (Apollonius, Book VII, Prop. 13).</ref> :[..] in every hyperbola the difference of the squares on any two conjugate diameters is equal to the [..] difference [..] of the squares on the axes. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Apollonius result indicates the invariance of the Lorentz interval <math>-x_{\prime0}^{2}+x_{\prime1}^{2})=-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2})</math>, by which Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=1)'' can be interpreted as mapping from one pair of axes of a hyperbola to a pair of conjugate axes.</p> ===Lagrange (1773) – Binary quadratic forms {{anchor|Lagrange}}=== After the invariance of the sum of squares under linear substitutions was discussed by [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#Euler|E:Euler (1771)]], the general expressions of a [[w:binary quadratic form]] and its transformation was formulated by [[w:Joseph-Louis Lagrange]] (1773/75) as follows<ref group=M>Lagrange (1773/75), section 22</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}py^{2}+2qyz+rz^{2}=Ps^{2}+2Qsx+Rx^{2}\\ \hline \begin{align}y & =Ms+Nx\\ z & =ms+nx \end{align} \left|\begin{matrix}\begin{align}P & =pM^{2}+2qMm+rm^{2}\\ Q & =pMN+q(Mn+Nm)+rmn\\ R & =pN^{2}+2qNn+rn^{2} \end{align} \\ \downarrow\\ PR-Q^{2}=\left(pr-q^{2}\right)(Mn-Nm)^{2} \end{matrix}\right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to ({{equationNote|Q1}}) ''(n=1)''. The Lorentz interval <math>-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}</math> and the Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=1)'' are a special case of the binary quadratic form by setting ''(p,q,r)=(P,Q,R)=(1,0,-1)''.</p> ==={{anchor|Gauss}} Gauss (1798–1818)=== ===={{anchor|Gauss1}} Binary quadratic forms==== The theory of binary quadratic forms was considerably expanded by [[w:Carl Friedrich Gauss]] (1798, published 1801) in his [[w:Disquisitiones Arithmeticae]]. He rewrote Lagrange's formalism as follows using integer coefficients α,β,γ,δ:<ref group=M>Gauss (1798/1801), articles 157–158;</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}F=ax^{2}+2bxy+cy^{2}=(a,b,c)\\ F'=a'x^{\prime2}+2b'x'y'+c'y^{\prime2}=(a',b',c')\\ \hline \begin{align}x & =\alpha x'+\beta y'\\ y & =\gamma x'+\delta y'\\ \\ x' & =\delta x-\beta y\\ y' & =-\gamma x+\alpha y \end{align} \left|\begin{matrix}\begin{align}a' & =a\alpha^{2}+2b\alpha\gamma+c\gamma^{2}\\ b' & =a\alpha\beta+b(\alpha\delta+\beta\gamma)+c\gamma\delta\\ c' & =a\beta^{2}+2b\beta\delta+c\delta^{2} \end{align} \\ \downarrow\\ b^{2}-a'c'=\left(b^{2}-ac\right)(\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma)^{2} \end{matrix}\right. \end{matrix}</math> which is equivalent to ({{equationNote|Q1}}) ''(n=1)''. As pointed out by Gauss, ''F'' and ''F′'' are called "proper equivalent" if αδ-βγ=1, so that ''F'' is contained in ''F′'' as well as ''F′'' is contained in ''F''. In addition, if another form ''F″'' is contained by the same procedure in ''F′'' it is also contained in ''F'' and so forth.<ref group=M>Gauss (1798/1801), section 159</ref> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The Lorentz interval <math>-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}</math> and the Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=1)'' are a special case of the binary quadratic form by setting ''(a,b,c)=(a',b',c')=(1,0,-1)''.</p> ===={{anchor|Gauss2}} Ternary quadratic forms==== Gauss (1798/1801)<ref group=M>Gauss (1798/1801), articles 266–285</ref> also discussed ternary quadratic forms with the general expression :<math>\begin{matrix}f=ax^{2}+a'x^{\prime2}+a''x^{\prime\prime2}+2bx'x''+2b'xx''+2b''xx'=\left(\begin{matrix}a, & a', & a''\\ b, & b', & b'' \end{matrix}\right)\\ g=my^{2}+m'y^{\prime2}+m''y^{\prime\prime2}+2ny'y''+2n'yy''+2n''yy'=\left(\begin{matrix}m, & m', & m''\\ n, & n', & n'' \end{matrix}\right)\\ \hline \begin{align}x & =\alpha y+\beta y'+\gamma y''\\ x' & =\alpha'y+\beta'y'+\gamma'y''\\ x'' & =\alpha''y+\beta''y'+\gamma''y'' \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> which is equivalent to ({{equationNote|Q1}}) ''(n=2)''. Gauss called these forms definite when they have the same sign such as ''x<sup>2</sup>+y<sup>2</sup>+z<sup>2</sup>'', or indefinite in the case of different signs such as ''x<sup>2</sup>+y<sup>2</sup>-z<sup>2</sup>''. While discussing the classification of ternary quadratic forms, Gauss (1801) presented twenty special cases, among them these six variants:<ref group=M>Gauss (1798/1801), article 277</ref> :<math>\left(\begin{matrix}a, & a', & a''\\ b, & b', & b'' \end{matrix}\right)\Rightarrow\begin{matrix}\left(\begin{matrix}1, & -1, & 1\\ 0, & 0, & 0 \end{matrix}\right),\ \left(\begin{matrix}-1, & 1, & 1\\ 0, & 0, & 0 \end{matrix}\right),\ \left(\begin{matrix}1, & 1, & -1\\ 0, & 0, & 0 \end{matrix}\right),\\ \left(\begin{matrix}1, & -1, & -1\\ 0, & 0, & 0 \end{matrix}\right),\ \left(\begin{matrix}-1, & 1, & -1\\ 0, & 0, & 0 \end{matrix}\right),\ \left(\begin{matrix}-1, & -1, & 1\\ 0, & 0, & 0 \end{matrix}\right) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">These are all six types of Lorentz interval in 2+1 dimensions that can be produced as special cases of a ternary quadratic form. In general: The Lorentz interval <math>x^{2}+x^{\prime2}-x^{\prime\prime2}</math> and the Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)'' is an indefinite ternary quadratic form, which follows from the general ternary form by setting: <br><math>\left(\begin{matrix}a, & a', & a''\\ b, & b', & b'' \end{matrix}\right)=\left(\begin{matrix}m, & m', & m''\\ n, & n', & n'' \end{matrix}\right)=\left(\begin{matrix}1, & 1, & -1\\ 0, & 0, & 0 \end{matrix}\right)</math></p> ===={{anchor|Gauss4}} Homogeneous coordinates==== Gauss (1818) discussed planetary motions together with formulating [[w:elliptic function]]s. In order to simplify the integration, he transformed the expression :<math>(AA+BB+CC)tt+aa(t\cos E)^{2}+bb(t\sin E)^{2}-2aAt\cdot t\cos E-2bBt\cdot t\sin E</math> into :<math>G+G'\cos T^{2}+G''\sin T^{2}</math> in which the [[w:eccentric anomaly]] ''E'' is connected to the new variable ''T'' by the following transformation including an arbitrary constant ''k'', which Gauss then rewrote by setting ''k''=1:<ref group=M>Gauss (1818), pp. 5–10</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}{\scriptstyle \left(\alpha+\alpha'\cos T+\alpha''\sin T\right)^{2}+\left(\beta+\beta'\cos T+\beta''\sin T\right)^{2}-\left(\gamma+\gamma'\cos T+\gamma''\sin T\right)^{2}}=0\\ k\left(\cos^{2}T+\sin^{2}T-1\right)=0\\ \hline \begin{align}\cos E & =\frac{\alpha+\alpha'\cos T+\alpha''\sin T}{\gamma+\gamma'\cos T+\gamma''\sin T}\\ \sin E & =\frac{\beta+\beta'\cos T+\beta''\sin T}{\gamma+\gamma'\cos T+\gamma''\sin T} \end{align} \left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}-\alpha\alpha-\beta\beta+\gamma\gamma & =k & \alpha\alpha-\alpha'\alpha'-\alpha''\alpha'' & =-k\\ -\alpha'\alpha'-\beta'\beta'+\gamma'\gamma' & =-k & \beta\beta-\beta'\beta'-\beta''\beta'' & =-k\\ -\alpha''\alpha''-\beta''\beta''+\gamma''\gamma'' & =-k & \gamma\gamma-\gamma'\gamma'-\gamma''\gamma'' & =+k\\ -\alpha'\alpha''-\beta'\beta''+\gamma'\gamma'' & =0 & \beta\gamma-\beta'\gamma'-\beta''\gamma'' & =0\\ -\alpha''\alpha-\beta''\beta+\gamma''\gamma & =0 & \gamma\alpha-\gamma'\alpha'-\gamma''\alpha'' & =0\\ -\alpha\alpha'-\beta\beta'+\gamma\gamma' & =0 & \alpha\beta-\alpha'\beta'-\alpha''\beta'' & =0 \end{align} }\right.\\ \hline k=1\\ \begin{align}t\cos E & =\alpha+\alpha'\cos T+\alpha''\sin T\\ t\sin E & =\beta+\beta'\cos T+\beta''\sin T\\ t & =\gamma+\gamma'\cos T+\gamma''\sin T \end{align} \left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}-\alpha\alpha-\beta\beta+\gamma\gamma & =1\\ -\alpha'\alpha'-\beta'\beta'+\gamma'\gamma' & =-1\\ -\alpha''\alpha''-\beta''\beta''+\gamma''\gamma'' & =-1\\ -\alpha'\alpha''-\beta'\beta''+\gamma'\gamma'' & =0\\ -\alpha''\alpha-\beta''\beta+\gamma''\gamma & =0\\ -\alpha\alpha'-\beta\beta'+\gamma\gamma' & =0 \end{align} }\right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The coefficients α,β,γ,... of Gauss' case ''k''=1 are equivalent to the coefficient system in Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|1a}}) and ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)''. Further setting <math>[\cos T,\sin T,\cos E,\sin E]=\left[u_{1},\ u_{2},\ u_{1}^{\prime},\ u_{2}^{\prime}\right]</math>, Gauss' transformation becomes Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)''.</p> Subsequently, he showed that these relations can be reformulated using three variables ''x,y,z'' and ''u,u′,u″'', so that :<math>aaxx+bbyy+(AA+BB+CC)zz-2aAxz-2bByz</math> can be transformed into :<math>Guu+G'u'u'+G''u''u''</math>, in which ''x,y,z'' and ''u,u′,u″'' are related by the transformation:<ref group=M>Gauss (1818), pp. 9–10</ref> :<math>\begin{align}x & =\alpha u+\alpha'u'+\alpha''u''\\ y & =\beta u+\beta'u'+\beta''u''\\ z & =\gamma u+\gamma'u'+\gamma''u''\\ \\ u & =-\alpha x-\beta y+\gamma z\\ u' & =\alpha'x+\beta'y-\gamma'z\\ u'' & =\alpha''x+\beta''y-\gamma''z \end{align} \left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}-\alpha\alpha-\beta\beta+\gamma\gamma & =1\\ -\alpha'\alpha'-\beta'\beta'+\gamma'\gamma' & =-1\\ -\alpha''\alpha''-\beta''\beta''+\gamma''\gamma'' & =-1\\ -\alpha'\alpha''-\beta'\beta''+\gamma'\gamma'' & =0\\ -\alpha''\alpha-\beta''\beta+\gamma''\gamma & =0\\ -\alpha\alpha'-\beta\beta'+\gamma\gamma' & =0 \end{align} }\right.</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)'' satisfying <math>x^{2}+y^{2}-z^{2}=u^{\prime2}+u^{\prime\prime2}-u^{2}</math>, and can be related to Gauss' previous equations in terms of homogeneous coordinates <math>\left[\cos T,\sin T,\cos E,\sin E\right]=\left[\tfrac{x}{z},\ \tfrac{y}{z},\ \tfrac{u'}{u},\ \tfrac{u''}{u}\right]</math>.</p> ==={{anchor|Jacobi}} Jacobi (1827, 1833/34) – Homogeneous coordinates=== Following [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]], [[w:Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi]] extended Gauss' transformation in 1827:<ref group=M>Jacobi (1827), p. 235, 239–240</ref> :<math>{\scriptstyle \begin{matrix}\cos P^{2}+\sin P^{2}\cos\vartheta^{2}+\sin P^{2}\sin\vartheta^{2}=1\\ k\left(\cos\psi^{2}+\sin\psi^{2}\cos\varphi^{2}+\sin\psi^{2}\sin\varphi^{2}-1\right)=0\\ \hline {\left.\begin{matrix}\mathbf{(1)}\begin{align}\cos P & =\frac{\alpha+\alpha'\cos\psi+\alpha''\sin\psi\cos\varphi+\alpha'''\sin\psi\sin\varphi}{\delta+\delta'\cos\psi+\delta''\sin\psi\cos\varphi+\delta'''\sin\psi\sin\varphi}\\ \sin P\cos\vartheta & =\frac{\beta+\beta'\cos\psi+\beta''\sin\psi\cos\varphi+\beta'''\sin\psi\sin\varphi}{\delta+\delta'\cos\psi+\delta''\sin\psi\cos\varphi+\delta'''\sin\psi\sin\varphi}\\ \sin P\sin\vartheta & =\frac{\gamma+\beta'\cos\psi+\gamma''\sin\psi\cos\varphi+\gamma'''\sin\psi\sin\varphi}{\delta+\delta'\cos\psi+\delta''\sin\psi\cos\varphi+\delta'''\sin\psi\sin\varphi}\\ \\ \cos\psi & =\frac{-\delta'+\alpha'\cos P+\beta'\sin P\cos\vartheta+\gamma'\sin P\sin\vartheta}{\delta-\alpha\cos P-\beta\sin P\cos\vartheta-\gamma\sin P\sin\vartheta}\\ \sin\psi\cos\varphi & =\frac{-\delta''+\alpha''\cos P+\beta''\sin P\cos\vartheta+\gamma''\sin P\sin\vartheta}{\delta-\alpha\cos P-\beta\sin P\cos\vartheta-\gamma\sin P\sin\vartheta}\\ \sin\psi\sin\varphi & =\frac{-\delta'''+\alpha'''\cos P+\beta'''\sin P\cos\vartheta+\gamma'''\sin P\sin\vartheta}{\delta-\alpha\cos P-\beta\sin P\cos\vartheta-\gamma\sin P\sin\vartheta} \end{align} \\ \\ \hline \mathbf{(2)}\begin{align}\alpha\mu+\beta x+\gamma y+\delta z & =m\\ \alpha'\mu+\beta'x+\gamma'y+\delta'z & =m'\\ \alpha''\mu+\beta''x+\gamma''y+\delta''z & =m''\\ \alpha'''\mu+\beta'''x+\gamma'''y+\delta'''z & =m'''\\ \\ Am+A'm'+A''m''+A'''m''' & =\mu\\ Bm+B'm'+B''m''+B'''m''' & =x\\ Cm+C'm'+C''m''+C'''m''' & =y\\ Dm+D'm'+D''m''+D'''m''' & =z\\ \\ \end{align} \\ \begin{align}\alpha & =-kA, & \beta & =-kB, & \gamma & =-kC, & \delta & =kD,\\ \alpha' & =kA', & \beta' & =kB', & \gamma' & =kC', & \delta' & =-kD',\\ \alpha'' & =kA'', & \beta'' & =kB'', & \gamma'' & =kC'', & \delta'' & =-kD'',\\ \alpha''' & =kA''', & \beta''' & =kB''', & \gamma''' & =kC''', & \delta''' & =-kD''', \end{align} \end{matrix}\right|\begin{matrix}\begin{align}\alpha\alpha+\beta\beta+\gamma\gamma-\delta\delta & =-k\\ \alpha'\alpha'+\beta'\beta'+\gamma'\gamma'-\delta'\delta' & =k\\ \alpha''\alpha''+\beta''\beta''+\gamma''\gamma''-\delta''\delta'' & =k\\ \alpha'''\alpha'''+\beta'''\beta'''+\gamma'''\gamma'''-\delta'''\delta''' & =k\\ \alpha\alpha'+\beta\beta'+\gamma\gamma'-\delta\delta' & =0\\ \alpha\alpha''+\beta\beta''+\gamma\gamma''-\delta\delta'' & =0\\ \alpha\alpha'''+\beta\beta'''+\gamma\gamma'''-\delta\delta''' & =0\\ \alpha''\alpha'''+\beta''\beta'''+\gamma''\gamma'''-\delta''\delta''' & =0\\ \alpha'''\alpha'+\beta'''\beta'+\gamma'''\gamma'-\delta'''\delta' & =0\\ \alpha'\alpha''+\beta'\beta''+\gamma'\gamma''-\delta'\delta'' & =0\\ \\ -\alpha\alpha+\alpha'\alpha'+\alpha''\alpha''+\alpha'''\alpha''' & =k\\ -\beta\beta+\beta'\beta'+\beta''\beta''+\beta'''\beta''' & =k\\ -\gamma\gamma+\gamma'\gamma'+\gamma''\gamma''+\gamma'''\gamma''' & =k\\ -\delta\delta+\delta'\delta'+\delta''\delta''+\delta'''\delta''' & =-k\\ -\alpha\beta+\alpha'\beta'+\alpha''\beta''+\alpha'''\beta''' & =0\\ -\alpha\gamma+\alpha'\gamma'+\alpha''\gamma''+\alpha'''\gamma''' & =0\\ -\alpha\delta+\alpha'\delta'+\alpha''\delta''+\alpha'''\delta''' & =0\\ -\beta\gamma+\beta'\gamma'+\beta''\gamma''+\beta'''\gamma''' & =0\\ -\gamma\delta+\gamma'\delta'+\gamma''\delta''+\gamma'''\delta''' & =0\\ -\delta\beta+\delta'\beta'+\delta''\beta''+\delta'''\beta''' & =0 \end{align} \end{matrix}} \end{matrix}}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">By setting <math>{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\left[\cos P,\ \sin P\cos\varphi,\ \sin P\sin\varphi\right] & =\left[u_{1},\ u_{2},\ u_{3}\right]\\{} [\cos\psi,\ \sin\psi\cos\vartheta,\ \sin\psi\sin\vartheta] & =\left[u_{1}^{\prime},\ u_{2}^{\prime},\ u_{3}^{\prime}\right] \end{align} }</math> and ''k''=1 in the (1827) formulas, transformation system (1) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=3)'', and by setting ''k''=1 in transformation system (2) it becomes equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=3)'' producing <math>m^{2}+m^{\prime2}+m^{\prime\prime2}-m^{\prime\prime\prime2}=\mu^{2}+x^{2}+y^{2}-z^{2}</math>.</p> Alternatively, in two papers from 1832 Jacobi started with an ordinary orthogonal transformation, and by using an imaginary substitution he arrived at Gauss' transformation (up to a sign change):<ref group=M>The orthogonal substitution and the imaginary transformation was defined in Jacobi (1832a), pp. 257, 265–267; Transformation system (2) and (3) and coefficients in Jacobi (1832b), pp. 321-325.</ref> :<math>{\scriptstyle \begin{matrix}xx+yy+zz=ss+s's'+s''s''=0\\ \mathbf{(1)}\begin{align}x & =\alpha s+\alpha's'+\alpha''s''\\ y & =\beta s+\beta's'+\beta''s''\\ z & =\gamma s+\gamma's'+\gamma''s''\\ \\ s & =\alpha x+\beta y+\gamma z\\ s' & =\alpha'x+\beta'y+\gamma'z\\ s'' & =\alpha''x+\beta''y+\gamma''z \end{align} \left|\begin{align}\alpha\alpha+\beta\beta+\gamma\gamma & =1 & \alpha\alpha+\alpha'\alpha'+\alpha''\alpha'' & =1\\ \alpha'\alpha'+\beta'\beta'+\gamma'\gamma' & =1 & \beta\beta+\beta'\beta'+\beta''\beta'' & =1\\ \alpha''\alpha''+\beta''\beta''+\gamma''\gamma'' & =1 & \gamma\gamma+\gamma'\gamma'+\gamma''\gamma'' & =1\\ \alpha'\alpha''+\beta'\beta''+\gamma'\gamma'' & =0 & \beta\gamma+\beta'\gamma'+\beta''\gamma'' & =0\\ \alpha''\alpha+\beta''\beta+\gamma''\gamma & =0 & \gamma\alpha+\gamma'\alpha'+\gamma''\alpha'' & =0\\ \alpha\alpha'+\beta\beta'+\gamma\gamma' & =0 & \alpha\beta+\alpha'\beta'+\alpha''\beta'' & =0 \end{align} \right.\\ \hline \left[\frac{y}{x},\ \frac{z}{x},\ \frac{s'}{s},\ \frac{s''}{s}\right]=\left[-i\cos\varphi,\ -i\sin\varphi,\ i\cos\eta,\ i\sin\eta\right]\\ \left[\alpha',\ \alpha'',\ \beta,\ \gamma\right]=\left[i\alpha',\ i\alpha'',\ -i\beta,\ -i\gamma\right]\\ \hline \begin{matrix}\mathbf{(2)}\begin{matrix}\left(\alpha-\alpha'\cos\eta-\alpha''\sin\eta\right)^{2}=\left(\beta-\beta'\cos\eta-\beta''\sin\eta\right)^{2}+\left(\gamma-\gamma'\cos\eta-\gamma''\sin\eta\right)^{2}\\ \left(\alpha-\beta\cos\phi-\gamma\sin\phi\right)^{2}=\left(\alpha'-\beta'\cos\phi-\gamma'\sin\phi\right)^{2}+\left(\alpha''-\beta''\cos\phi-\gamma''\sin\phi\right)^{2}\\ \hline \begin{align}\cos\phi & =\frac{\beta-\beta'\cos\eta-\beta''\sin\eta}{\alpha-\alpha'\cos\eta-\alpha''\sin\eta}, & \cos\eta & =\frac{\alpha'-\beta'\cos\phi-\gamma'\sin\phi}{\alpha-\beta\cos\phi-\gamma\sin\phi}\\ \sin\phi & =\frac{\gamma-\gamma'\cos\eta-\gamma''\sin\eta}{\alpha-\alpha'\cos\eta-\alpha''\sin\eta}, & \sin\eta & =\frac{\alpha''-\beta''\cos\phi-\gamma''\sin\phi}{\alpha-\beta\cos\phi-\gamma\sin\phi} \end{align} \end{matrix}\\ \hline \\ \mathbf{(3)}\begin{matrix}1-zz-yy=\frac{1-s's'-s''s''}{\left(\alpha-\alpha's'-\alpha''s''\right)^{2}}\\ \hline \begin{align}y & =\frac{\beta-\beta's'-\beta''s''}{\alpha-\alpha's'-\alpha''s''}, & s' & =\frac{\alpha'-\beta'y-\gamma'z}{\alpha-\beta y-\gamma z},\\ z & =\frac{\gamma-\gamma's'-\gamma''s''}{\alpha-\alpha's'-\alpha''s'''}, & s'' & =\frac{\alpha''-\beta''y-\gamma''z}{\alpha-\beta y-\gamma z}, \end{align} \end{matrix} \end{matrix}\left|\begin{align}\alpha\alpha-\beta\beta-\gamma\gamma & =1\\ \alpha'\alpha'-\beta'\beta'-\gamma'\gamma' & =-1\\ \alpha''\alpha''-\beta''\beta''-\gamma''\gamma'' & =-1\\ \alpha'\alpha''-\beta'\beta''-\gamma'\gamma'' & =0\\ \alpha''\alpha-\beta''\beta-\gamma''\gamma & =0\\ \alpha\alpha'-\beta\beta'-\gamma\gamma' & =0\\ \\ \alpha\alpha-\alpha'\alpha'-\alpha''\alpha'' & =1\\ \beta\beta-\beta'\beta'-\beta''\beta'' & =-1\\ \gamma\gamma-\gamma'\gamma'-\gamma''\gamma'' & =-1\\ \beta\gamma-\beta'\gamma'-\beta''\gamma'' & =0\\ \gamma\alpha-\gamma'\alpha'-\gamma''\alpha'' & =0\\ \alpha\beta-\alpha'\beta'-\alpha''\beta'' & =0 \end{align} \right. \end{matrix}}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">By setting <math>[\cos\phi,\ \sin\phi,\ \cos\eta,\ \sin\eta]=\left[u_{1},\ u_{2},\ u_{1}^{\prime},\ u_{2}^{\prime}\right]</math>, transformation system (2) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)''. Also transformation system (3) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)'' up to a sign change.</p> Extending his previous result, Jacobi (1833) started with [[#Cauchy|Cauchy's (1829)]] orthogonal transformation for ''n'' dimensions, and by using an imaginary substitution he formulated Gauss' transformation (up to a sign change) in the case of ''n'' dimensions:<ref group =M>Jacobi (1833/34), pp. 7–8, 34–35, 41; Some misprints were corrected in Jacobi's collected papers, vol 3, pp. 229–230.</ref> :<math>{\scriptstyle \begin{matrix}x_{1}x_{1}+x_{2}x_{2}+\dots+x_{n}x_{n}=y_{1}y_{1}+y_{2}y_{2}+\dots+y_{n}y_{n}\\ \hline \mathbf{(1)\ }\begin{align}y_{\varkappa} & =\alpha_{1}^{(\varkappa)}x_{1}+\alpha_{2}^{(\varkappa)}x_{2}+\dots+\alpha_{n}^{(\varkappa)}x_{n}\\ x_{\varkappa} & =\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}y_{1}+\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}y_{2}+\dots+\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n)}y_{n}\\ \\ \frac{y_{\varkappa}}{y_{n}} & =\frac{\alpha_{1}^{(\varkappa)}x_{1}+\alpha_{2}^{(\varkappa)}x_{2}+\dots+\alpha_{n}^{(\varkappa)}x_{n}}{\alpha_{1}^{(n)}x_{1}+\alpha_{2}^{(n)}x_{2}+\dots+\alpha_{n}^{(n)}x_{n}}\\ \frac{x_{\varkappa}}{x_{n}} & =\frac{\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}y_{1}+\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}y_{2}+\dots+\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n)}y_{n}}{\alpha_{1}^{(n)}x_{1}+\alpha_{2}^{(n)}x_{2}+\dots+\alpha_{n}^{(n)}x_{n}} \end{align} \left|\begin{align}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}\alpha_{\lambda}^{\prime}+\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}\alpha_{\lambda}^{\prime\prime}+\dots+\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n)}\alpha_{\lambda}^{(n)} & =0\\ \alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}+\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}+\dots+\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n)}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n)} & =1\\ \\ \alpha_{1}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{1}^{(\lambda)}+\alpha_{2}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{2}^{(\lambda)}+\dots+\alpha_{n}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{n}^{(\lambda)} & =0\\ \alpha_{1}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{1}^{(\varkappa)}+\alpha_{2}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{2}^{(\varkappa)}+\dots+\alpha_{n}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{n}^{(\varkappa)} & =1 \end{align} \right.\\ \hline \frac{x_{\varkappa}}{x_{n}}=-i\xi_{\varkappa},\ \frac{y_{\varkappa}}{y_{n}}=i\nu_{\varkappa}\\ 1-\xi_{1}\xi_{1}-\xi_{2}\xi_{2}-\dots-\xi_{n-1}\xi_{n-1}=\frac{y_{n}y_{n}}{x_{n}x_{n}}\left(1-\nu_{1}\nu_{1}-\nu_{2}\nu_{2}-\dots-\nu_{n-1}\nu_{n-1}\right)\\ \alpha_{n}^{(\varkappa)}=i\alpha^{(\varkappa)},\ \alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n)}=-i\alpha_{\varkappa},\ \alpha_{n}^{(n)}=\alpha\\ 1-\xi_{1}\xi_{1}-\xi_{2}\xi_{2}-\dots-\xi_{n-1}\xi_{n-1}=\frac{1-\nu_{1}\nu_{1}-\nu_{2}\nu_{2}-\dots-\nu_{n-1}\nu_{n-1}}{\left[\alpha-\alpha^{\prime}\nu_{1}-\alpha^{\prime\prime}\nu_{2}\dots-\alpha^{(n-1)}\nu_{n-1}\right]^{2}}\\ \hline \mathbf{(2)\ }\begin{align}\nu_{\varkappa} & =\frac{\alpha^{(\varkappa)}-\alpha_{1}^{(\varkappa)}\xi_{1}-\alpha_{2}^{(\varkappa)}\xi_{2}\dots-\alpha_{n-1}^{(\varkappa)}\xi_{n-1}}{\alpha-\alpha_{1}\xi_{1}-\alpha_{2}\xi_{2}\dots-\alpha_{n-1}\xi_{n-1}}\\ \\ \xi_{\varkappa} & =\frac{\alpha_{\varkappa}-\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}\nu_{1}-\alpha_{2}^{\prime\prime}\nu_{2}\dots-\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n-1)}\nu_{n-1}}{\alpha-\alpha^{\prime}\nu_{1}-\alpha^{\prime\prime}\nu_{2}\dots-\alpha^{(n-1)}\nu_{n-1}} \end{align} \\ \hline \xi_{1}\xi_{1}-\xi_{2}\xi_{2}-\dots-\xi_{n-1}\xi_{n-1}=1\ \Rightarrow\ \nu_{1}\nu_{1}-\nu_{2}\nu_{2}-\dots-\nu_{n-1}\nu_{n-1}=1 \end{matrix}}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Transformation system (2) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) up to a sign change.</p> He also stated the following transformation leaving invariant the Lorentz interval:<ref group=M>Jacobi (1833/34), p. 37. Some misprints were corrected in Jacobi's collected papers, vol 3, pp. 232–233.</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}uu-u_{1}u_{1}-u_{2}u_{2}-\dots-u_{n-1}u_{n-1}=ww-w_{1}w_{1}-w_{2}w_{2}-\dots-w_{n-1}w_{n-1}\\ \hline {\scriptstyle \begin{align}u & =\alpha w-\alpha'w_{1}-\alpha''w_{2}-\dots-\alpha^{(n-1)}w_{n-1}\\ u_{1} & =\alpha_{1}w-\alpha_{1}^{\prime}w_{1}-\alpha_{1}^{\prime\prime}w_{2}-\dots-\alpha_{1}^{(n-1)}w_{n-1}\\ & \dots\\ u_{n-1} & =\alpha_{n-1}w-\alpha_{n-1}^{\prime}w_{1}-\alpha_{n-1}^{\prime\prime}w_{2}-\dots-\alpha_{n-1}^{(n-1)}w_{n-1}\\ \\ w & =\alpha u-\alpha_{1}u_{1}-\alpha_{2}^{\prime\prime}u_{2}-\dots-\alpha_{n-1}u_{n-1}\\ w_{1} & =\alpha'u-\alpha_{1}^{\prime}u_{1}-\alpha_{2}^{\prime}u_{2}-\dots-\alpha_{n-1}^{\prime}u_{n-1}\\ & \dots\\ w_{n-1} & =\alpha^{(n-1)}u-\alpha_{1}^{(n-1)}u_{1}-\alpha_{2}^{(n-1)}u_{2}-\dots-\alpha_{n-1}^{(n-1)}u_{n-1} \end{align} \left|\begin{align}\alpha\alpha-\alpha'\alpha'-\alpha''\alpha''\dots-\alpha^{(n-1)}\alpha^{(n-1)} & =+1\\ \alpha_{\varkappa}\alpha_{\varkappa}-\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}-\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}\dots-\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n-1)}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n-1)} & =-1\\ \alpha\alpha_{\varkappa}-\alpha^{\prime}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}-\alpha^{\prime\prime}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}\dots-\alpha^{(n-1)}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n-1)} & =0\\ \alpha_{\varkappa}\alpha_{\lambda}-\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}\alpha_{\lambda}^{\prime}-\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}\alpha_{\lambda}^{\prime\prime}\dots-\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n-1)}\alpha_{\lambda}^{(n-1)} & =0\\ \\ \alpha\alpha-\alpha_{1}\alpha_{1}-\alpha_{2}\alpha_{2}\dots-\alpha_{n-1}\alpha_{n-1} & =+1\\ \alpha_{\varkappa}\alpha_{\varkappa}-\alpha_{1}^{\varkappa}\alpha_{1}^{\varkappa}-\alpha_{2}^{\prime\prime}\alpha_{2}^{\prime\prime}\dots-\alpha_{n-1}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{n-1}^{(\varkappa)} & =-1\\ \alpha\alpha^{(\varkappa)}-\alpha_{1}\alpha_{1}^{(\varkappa)}-\alpha_{2}\alpha_{2}^{(\varkappa)}\dots-\alpha_{n-1}\alpha_{n-1}^{(\varkappa)} & =0\\ \alpha^{(\varkappa)}\alpha^{(\lambda)}-\alpha_{1}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{1}^{\lambda l)}-\alpha_{2}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{2}^{(\lambda)}\dots-\alpha_{n-1}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{n-1}^{(\lambda)} & =0 \end{align} \text{ }\right.} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) up to a sign change.</p> ==={{anchor|Chasles}} Chasles (1829) – Conjugate hyperboloids === [[w:Michel Chasles]] (1829) independently introduced the same equation systems as [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]] and [[#Jacobi|Jacobi (1827)]], albeit in the different context of conjugate hyperboloids. He started with two equation systems (a) and (b) from which he derived systems (c), (d) and others:<ref group=M>Chasles (1829), p. 139</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\left.\begin{align}\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2} & =1\\ \alpha^{\prime2}+\beta^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime2} & =1\\ \alpha^{\prime\prime2}+\beta^{\prime\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} & =-1 \end{align} \right\} & \dots(a)\\ \\ \left.\begin{align}\alpha\alpha'+\beta\beta'-\gamma\gamma' & =0\\ \alpha\alpha''+\beta\beta''-\gamma\gamma'' & =0\\ \alpha'\alpha''+\beta'\beta''-\gamma'\gamma' & =0 \end{align} \right\} & \dots(b)\\ \\ \left.\begin{align}\alpha^{2}+\alpha^{\prime2}-\alpha^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ \beta^{2}+\beta^{\prime2}-\beta^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ \gamma^{2}+\gamma^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} & =-1 \end{align} \right\} & \dots(c)\\ \\ \left.\begin{align}\alpha\beta+\alpha'\beta'-\alpha''\beta'' & =0\\ \alpha\gamma+\alpha'\gamma'-\alpha''\gamma'' & =0\\ \beta\gamma+\beta'\gamma'-\beta''\gamma'' & =0 \end{align} \right\} & \dots(d) \end{matrix}</math> He noted that those quantities become the “frequently employed” formulas of Lagrange [i.e. the coefficients of the Euclidean orthogonal transformation first given by [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#Euler|E:Euler (1771)]]] by setting:<ref group=M>Chasles (1829), p. 141</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\gamma\quad\Rightarrow\quad-\gamma\sqrt{-1}\\ \gamma'\quad\Rightarrow\quad-\gamma'\sqrt{-1}\\ \alpha''\quad\Rightarrow\quad\alpha''\sqrt{-1}\\ \beta''\quad\Rightarrow\quad\beta''\sqrt{-1} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Equations (a,b,c,d) are the coefficients of Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}, n=2).</p> Chasles now showed that equation systems (a,b,c,d) are of importance when discussing the relations between conjugate diameters of hyperboloids. He used the equations of a one-sheet hyperboloid and of a two-sheet hyperboloid having the same principal axes (x,y,z), thus sharing the same conjugate axes, and having the common asymptotic cone <math>\tfrac{x^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\tfrac{y^{2}}{b^{2}}-\tfrac{z^{2}}{c^{2}}=0</math>. He then transformed those two hyperboloids to new axes (x',y',z') sharing the property of conjugacy:<ref group=M>Chasles (1829), pp. 143-144</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\frac{x^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z^{2}}{c^{2}}=1\\ \frac{x^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z^{2}}{c^{2}}=-1\\ \hline \begin{align}x & =lx'+l'y'+l''z'\\ y & =mx'+m'y'+m''z'\\ z & =nx'+n'y'+n''z' \end{align} \\ \left\{ \begin{align}\frac{ll'}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{mm'}{b^{2}}-\frac{nn'}{c^{2}} & =0\\ \frac{ll''}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{mm''}{b^{2}}-\frac{nn''}{c^{2}} & =0\\ \frac{l'l''}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{m'm''}{b^{2}}-\frac{n'n''}{c^{2}} & =0 \end{align} \right\} \\ \hline \left(\frac{l^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{m^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{n^{2}}{c^{2}}\right)x^{\prime2}+\left(\frac{l^{\prime2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{m^{\prime2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{n^{\prime2}}{c^{2}}\right)y^{\prime2}+\left(\frac{l^{\prime\prime2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{m^{\prime\prime2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{n^{\prime\prime2}}{c^{2}}\right)z^{\prime2}=1\\ \left(\frac{l^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{m^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{n^{2}}{c^{2}}\right)x^{\prime2}+\left(\frac{l^{\prime2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{m^{\prime2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{n^{\prime2}}{c^{2}}\right)y^{\prime2}+\left(\frac{l^{\prime\prime2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{m^{\prime\prime2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{n^{\prime\prime2}}{c^{2}}\right)z^{\prime2}=-1 \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Chasles defined the conditional equations of ''l,m,n'' in the same way as those of <math>\alpha,\beta,\gamma</math> in equation system (b) above, so his transformation of x,y,z into x',y',z' represents Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}, n=2) by applying equation system (a) as well.</p> He went on to use two semi-diameters of the one-sheet hyperboloid and one semi-diameter of the two-sheet hyperboloid in order to define equation system (A), and went on to suggest that the other equations related to this system can be obtained using the above transformation from oblique coordinates to other oblique ones, but he deemed it more simple to use a geometric argument to obtain system (B), which together with (A) then allowed him to algebraically determine systems (C), (D) and additional ones, leading Chasles to announce that “''from these formulas one can very easily conclude the various properties of conjugated diameters of hyperboloids''”:<ref group=M>Chasles (1829), pp. 145-146</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\left.\begin{align}\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2} & =a^{2}\\ \alpha^{\prime2}+\beta^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime2} & =b^{2}\\ \alpha^{\prime\prime2}+\beta^{\prime\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} & =-c^{2} \end{align} \right\} & \dots(A)\\ \left.\begin{align}\alpha\alpha'+\beta\beta'-\gamma\gamma' & =0\\ \alpha\alpha''+\beta\beta''-\gamma\gamma'' & =0\\ \alpha'\alpha''+\beta'\beta''-\gamma'\gamma' & =0 \end{align} \right\} & \dots(B)\\ \left.\begin{align}\alpha^{2}+\alpha^{\prime2}-\alpha^{\prime\prime2} & =a^{2}\\ \beta^{2}+\beta^{\prime2}-\beta^{\prime\prime2} & =b^{2}\\ \gamma^{2}+\gamma^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} & =-c^{2} \end{align} \right\} & \dots(C)\\ \left.\begin{align}\alpha\beta+\alpha'\beta'-\alpha''\beta'' & =0\\ \alpha\gamma+\alpha'\gamma'-\alpha''\gamma'' & =0\\ \beta\gamma+\beta'\gamma'-\beta''\gamma'' & =0 \end{align} \right\} & \dots(D) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Equation systems (A,B,C,D), being equivalent to systems (a,b,c,d) above, are the coefficients of Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}, n=2) by setting ''a=b=c=1''.</p> ==={{anchor|Lebesgue}} Lebesgue (1837) – Homogeneous coordinates=== [[w:Victor-Amédée Lebesgue]] (1837) summarized the previous work of [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]], [[#Jacobi|Jacobi (1827, 1833)]], [[#Cauchy|Cauchy (1829)]]. He started with the orthogonal transformation<ref group=M>Lebesgue (1837), pp. 338-341</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}=y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n}^{2}\ (9)\\ \hline {\scriptstyle \begin{align}x_{1} & =a_{1,1}y_{1}+a_{1,2}y_{2}+\dots+a_{1,n}y_{n}\\ x_{2} & =a_{2,1}y_{1}+a_{2,2}y_{2}+\dots+a_{2,n}y_{n}\\ \dots\\ x_{n} & =a_{n,1}x_{1}+a_{n,2}x_{2}+\dots+a_{n,n}x_{n}\\ \\ y_{1} & =a_{1,1}x_{1}+a_{2,1}x_{2}+\dots+a_{n,1}x_{n}\\ y_{2} & =a_{1,2}x_{1}+a_{2,2}x_{2}+\dots+a_{n,2}x_{n}\ (12)\ \\ \dots\\ y_{n} & =a_{1,n}x_{1}+a_{2,n}x_{2}+\dots+a_{n,n}x_{n} \end{align} \left|\begin{align}a_{1,\alpha}^{2}+a_{2,\alpha}^{2}+\dots+a_{n,\alpha}^{2} & =1 & (10)\\ a_{1,\alpha}a_{1,\beta}+a_{2,\alpha}a_{2,\beta}+\dots+a_{n,\alpha}a_{n,\beta} & =0 & (11)\\ a_{\alpha,1}^{2}+a_{\alpha,2}^{2}+\dots+a_{\alpha,n}^{2} & =1 & (13)\\ a_{\alpha,1}a_{\beta,1}+a_{\alpha,2}a_{\beta,2}+\dots+a_{\alpha,n}a_{\beta,n} & =0 & (14) \end{align} \right.} \end{matrix}</math> In order to achieve the invariance of the Lorentz interval<ref group=M>Lebesgue (1837), pp. 353–354</ref> :<math>x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\dots+x_{n-1}^{2}-x_{n}^{2}=y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n-1}^{2}-y_{n}^{2}</math> he gave the following instructions as to how the previous equations shall be modified: In equation (9) change the sign of the last term of each member. In the first ''n-1'' equations of (10) change the sign of the last term of the left-hand side, and in the one which satisfies α=''n'' change the sign of the last term of the left-hand side as well as the sign of the right-hand side. In all equations (11) the last term will change sign. In equations (12) the last terms of the right-hand side will change sign, and so will the left-hand side of the ''n''-th equation. In equations (13) the signs of the last terms of the left-hand side will change, moreover in the ''n''-th equation change the sign of the right-hand side. In equations (14) the last terms will change sign. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">These instructions give Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) in the form: <br><math>{\scriptstyle \begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\dots+x_{n-1}^{2}-x_{n}^{2}=y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n-1}^{2}-y_{n}^{2}\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{1} & =a_{1,1}y_{1}+a_{1,2}y_{2}+\dots+a_{1,n}y_{n}\\ x_{2} & =a_{2,1}y_{1}+a_{2,2}y_{2}+\dots+a_{2,n}y_{n}\\ \dots\\ x_{n} & =a_{n,1}x_{1}+a_{n,2}x_{2}+\dots+a_{n,n}x_{n}\\ \\ y_{1} & =a_{1,1}x_{1}+a_{2,1}x_{2}+\dots+a_{n-1,1}x_{n-1}-a_{n,1}x_{n}\\ y_{2} & =a_{1,2}x_{1}+a_{2,2}x_{2}+\dots+a_{n-1,2}x_{n-1}-a_{n,2}x_{n}\\ \dots\\ -y_{n} & =a_{1,n}x_{1}+a_{2,n}x_{2}+\dots+a_{n-1,n}x_{n-1}-a_{n,n}x_{n} \end{align} \left|\begin{align}a_{1,\alpha}^{2}+a_{2,\alpha}^{2}+\dots+a_{n-1,\alpha}^{2}-a_{n,\alpha}^{2} & =1\\ a_{1,n}^{2}+a_{2,n}^{2}+\dots+a_{n-1,n}^{2}-a_{n,n}^{2} & =-1\\ a_{1,\alpha}a_{1,\beta}+a_{2,\alpha}a_{2,\beta}+\dots+a_{n-1,\alpha}a_{n-1,\beta}-a_{n,\alpha}a_{n,\beta} & =0\\ a_{\alpha,1}^{2}+a_{\alpha,2}^{2}+\dots+a_{\alpha,n-1}^{2}-a_{\alpha,n}^{2} & =1\\ a_{n,1}^{2}+a_{n,2}^{2}+\dots+a_{n,n-1}^{2}-a_{n,n}^{2} & =-1\\ a_{\alpha,1}a_{\beta,1}+a_{\alpha,2}a_{\beta,2}+\dots+a_{\alpha,n-1}a_{\beta,n-1}-a_{\alpha,n}a_{\beta,n} & =0 \end{align} \right. \end{matrix}}</math></p> He went on to redefine the variables of the Lorentz interval and its transformation:<ref group=M>Lebesgue (1837), pp. 353–355</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\dots+x_{n-1}^{2}-x_{n}^{2}=y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n-1}^{2}-y_{n}^{2}\\ \downarrow\\ \begin{align}x_{1} & =x_{n}\cos\theta_{1}, & x_{2} & =x_{n}\cos\theta_{2},\dots & x_{n-1} & =x_{n}\cos\theta_{n-1}\\ y_{1} & =y_{n}\cos\phi_{1}, & y_{2} & =y_{n}\cos\phi_{2},\dots & y_{n-1} & =y_{n}\cos\phi_{n-1} \end{align} \\ \downarrow\\ \cos^{2}\theta_{1}+\cos^{2}\theta_{2}+\dots+\cos^{2}\theta_{n-1}=1\\ \cos^{2}\phi_{1}+\cos^{2}\phi_{2}+\dots+\cos^{2}\phi_{n-1}=1\\ \hline \\ \cos\theta_{i}=\frac{a_{i,1}\cos\phi_{1}+a_{i,2}\cos\phi_{2}+\dots+a_{i,n-1}\cos\phi_{n-1}+a_{i,n}}{a_{n,1}\cos\phi_{1}+a_{n,2}\cos\phi_{2}+\dots+a_{n,n-1}\cos\phi_{n-1}+a_{n,n}}\\ (i=1,2,3\dots n) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Setting <math>[\cos\theta_{i},\ \cos\phi_{i}]=\left[u_{s},\ u_{s}^{\prime}\right]</math> it is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Weddle}} Weddle (1847) – Conjugate hyperboloids=== Very similar to [[#Chasles|Chasles (1829)]], though without reference to him, [[w:Thomas Weddle]] discussed conjugate hyperboloids using the following equation system (&alpha;), from which he derived equations (&beta;) and others:<ref group=M>Weddle (1847), p. 274</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\left.\begin{align}l_{1}^{2}+m_{1}^{2}-n_{1}^{2} & =1, & l_{1}l_{2}+m_{1}m_{2}-n_{1}n_{2} & =0\\ l_{2}^{2}+m_{2}^{2}-n_{2}^{2} & =1, & l_{1}l_{3}+m_{1}m_{3}-n_{1}n_{3} & =0\\ l_{3}^{2}+m_{3}^{2}-n_{3}^{2} & =-1, & l_{2}l_{3}+m_{2}m_{3}-n_{2}n_{3} & =0 \end{align} \right\} & \dots(\alpha)\\ \\ \left.\begin{align}l_{1}^{2}+l_{2}^{2}-l_{3}^{2} & =1, & l_{1}m_{1}+l_{2}m_{2}-l_{3}m_{3} & =0\\ m_{1}^{2}+m_{2}^{2}-m_{3}^{2} & =1, & l_{1}n_{1}+l_{2}n_{2}-l_{3}n_{3} & =0\\ n_{1}^{2}+n_{2}^{2}-n_{3}^{2} & =-1, & m_{1}n_{1}+m_{2}n_{2}-m_{3}n_{3} & =0 \end{align} \right\} & \dots(\beta) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">These are the coefficients of Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}, n=2).</p> Using the equations of a one-sheet hyperboloid and of a two-sheet hyperboloid sharing the same conjugate axes, and having the common asymptotic cone <math>\tfrac{x^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\tfrac{y^{2}}{b^{2}}-\tfrac{z^{2}}{c^{2}}=0</math>, he defined three conjugate points <math>(x_{1}\dots,y_{1}\dots,z_{1}\dots)</math> on those two conjugate hyperboloids, related to each other in the same way as equations (&alpha;, &beta;) stated above:<ref group=M>Weddle (1847), pp. 275-276</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\frac{x^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z^{2}}{c^{2}}=1\\ \frac{x^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z^{2}}{c^{2}}=-1\\ \hline \begin{align}\frac{x_{1}x_{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y_{1}y_{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z_{1}z_{2}}{c^{2}} & =0\\ \frac{x_{1}x_{3}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y_{1}y_{3}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z_{1}z_{3}}{c^{2}} & =0\\ \frac{x_{2}x_{3}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y_{2}y_{3}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z_{2}z_{3}}{c^{2}} & =0 \end{align} \quad\begin{align}\frac{x_{1}^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y_{1}^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z_{1}^{2}}{c^{2}} & =1\\ \frac{x_{2}^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y_{2}^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z_{2}^{2}}{c^{2}} & =1\\ \frac{x_{3}^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y_{3}^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z_{3}^{2}}{c^{2}} & =-1 \end{align} \\ \begin{align}x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}-x_{3}^{2} & =a^{2}\\ y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}-y_{3}^{2} & =b^{2}\\ z_{1}^{2}+z_{2}^{2}-z_{3}^{2} & =-c^{2} \end{align} \quad\begin{align}x_{1}y_{1}+x_{2}y_{2}-x_{3}y_{3} & =0\\ x_{1}z_{1}+x_{2}z_{2}-x_{3}z_{3} & =0\\ y_{1}z_{1}+y_{2}z_{2}-y_{3}z_{3} & =0 \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black"> These are the coefficients of Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}, n=2) by setting ''a=b=c=1''.</p> ==={{anchor|Bour}} Bour (1856) – Homogeneous coordinates=== Following [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]], [[w:Edmond Bour]] (1856) wrote the transformations:<ref group=M>Bour (1856), pp. 61; 64–65</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\cos^{2}E+\sin^{2}E-1=k\left(\cos^{2}T+\sin^{2}T-1\right)\\ \hline \left.\begin{matrix}\mathbf{(1)}\ \begin{align}\cos E & =\frac{\alpha+\alpha'\cos T+\alpha''\sin T}{\gamma+\gamma'\cos T+\gamma''\sin T}\\ \sin E & =\frac{\beta+\beta'\cos T+\beta''\sin T}{\gamma+\gamma'\cos T+\gamma''\sin T} \end{align} \\ \hline \\ k=+1\\ t=\gamma+\gamma'\cos T+\gamma''\sin T,\\ 1=u,\ \cos T=u',\ \sin T=u',\\ t=z,\ t\cos E=x,\ t\sin E=y\\ \downarrow\\ \mathbf{(2)}\begin{align}x & =\alpha u+\alpha'u'+\alpha''u''\\ y & =\beta u+\beta'u'+\beta''u''\\ z & =\gamma u+\gamma'u'+\gamma''u''\\ \\ u & =\gamma z-\alpha x-\beta y\\ u' & =\alpha'x+\beta'y'-\gamma'z\\ u'' & =\alpha''x+\beta''y-\gamma''z \end{align} \end{matrix}\right|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}-\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2} & =k\\ -\alpha^{\prime2}-\beta^{\prime2}+\gamma^{\prime2} & =-k\\ -\alpha^{\prime\prime2}-\beta^{\prime\prime2}+\gamma^{\prime\prime2} & =-k\\ \alpha\alpha'+\beta\beta'-\gamma\gamma' & =0\\ \alpha\alpha''+\beta\beta''-\gamma\gamma'' & =0\\ \alpha'\alpha''+\beta'\beta''-\gamma'\gamma'' & =0\\ \\ \alpha^{2}-\alpha^{\prime2}-\alpha^{\prime\prime2} & =-k\\ \beta^{2}-\beta^{\prime2}-\beta^{\prime\prime2} & =-k\\ \gamma^{2}-\gamma^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} & =k\\ \beta\gamma-\beta'\gamma'-\beta''\gamma'' & =0\\ \alpha\gamma-\alpha'\gamma'-\alpha''\gamma'' & =0\\ \alpha\beta-\alpha'\beta'-\alpha''\beta'' & =0 \end{align} } \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Transformation system (2) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)'', implying <math>x^{2}+y^{2}-z^{2}=u^{\prime2}+u^{\prime\prime2}-u^{2}</math>. Furthermore, setting <math>[k,\cos T,\sin T,\cos E,\sin E]=\left[1,u_{1},u_{2},u_{1}^{\prime},u_{2}^{\prime}\right]</math> in transformation system (1) produces Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)''.</p> === {{anchor|Somov}} Somov (1863) – Homogeneous coordinates === Following [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]], [[#Jacobi|Jacobi (1827, 1833)]], and [[#Bour|Bour (1856)]], [[w:Osip Ivanovich Somov]] (1863) wrote the transformation systems:<ref group=M>Somov (1863), pp. 12–14; p. 18 for differentials.</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\left.\begin{align}\cos\phi & =\frac{m\cos\psi+n\sin\psi+s}{m''\cos\psi+n''\sin\psi+s''}\\ \sin\phi & =\frac{m'\cos\psi+n'\sin\psi+s'}{m''\cos\psi+n''\sin\psi+s''} \end{align} \right|\begin{matrix}\cos^{2}\phi+\cos^{2}\phi=1\\ \cos^{2}\psi+\cos^{2}\psi=1 \end{matrix}\\ \hline \mathbf{(1)}\ \begin{align}\cos\phi & =x, & \cos\psi & =x'\\ \sin\phi & =y, & \sin\psi & =y' \end{align} \ \left|\begin{align}x & =\frac{mx'+ny'+s}{m''x'+n''y'+s''}\\ y & =\frac{m'x'+n'y'+s'}{m''x'+n''y'+s''} \end{align} \right|\ \begin{matrix}x^{2}+y^{2}=1\\ x^{\prime2}+y^{\prime2}=1 \end{matrix}\\ \hline \begin{align}\cos\phi & =\frac{x}{z}, & \cos\psi & =\frac{x'}{z'}\\ \sin\phi & =\frac{y}{z}, & \sin\psi & =\frac{y'}{z'} \end{align} \ \left|\begin{align}\frac{x}{z} & =\frac{mx'+ny'+sz'}{m''x'+n''y'+s''z'}\\ \frac{y}{z} & =\frac{m'x'+n'y'+s'z'}{m''x'+n''y'+s''z'} \end{align} \right|\ \begin{matrix}x^{2}+y^{2}=z^{2}\\ x^{\prime2}+y^{\prime2}=z^{\prime2} \end{matrix}\\ \hline \mathbf{(2)}\ \left.\begin{align}x & =mx'+ny'+sz'\\ y & =m'x'+n'y'+s'z'\\ z & =m''x'+n''y'+s''z'\\ \\ x' & =mx+m'y-m''z\\ y' & =nx+n'y-n''z\\ z' & =-sx-s'y+s''z\\ \\ dx & =mdx'+ndy'+sdz'\\ dy & =m'dx'+n'dy'+s'dz'\\ dz & =m''dx'+n''dy'+s''dz' \end{align} \right|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}m^{2}+m^{\prime2}-m^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ n^{2}+n^{\prime2}-n^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ -s^{2}-s^{\prime2}+s^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ ns+n's'-n''s'' & =0\\ sm+s'm'-s''m'' & =0\\ mn+m'n'-m''n'' & =0\\ \\ m^{2}+n^{2}-s^{2} & =1\\ m^{\prime2}+n^{\prime2}-s^{\prime2} & =1\\ -m^{\prime\prime2}-n^{\prime\prime2}+s^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ -m'm''-n'n''+s's'' & =0\\ -m''m-n''n+s''s & =0\\ mm'+nn'-ss' & =0 \end{align} }\\ dx^{2}+dy^{2}-dz^{2}=dx^{\prime2}+dy^{\prime2}-dz^{\prime2} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Transformation system (1) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)''. Transformation system (2) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)''.</p> ==={{anchor|Klein}} Klein (1871-73) – Cayley absolute and non-Euclidean geometry=== Elaborating on [[w:Arthur Cayley]]'s (1859) definition of an "absolute" ([[w:Cayley–Klein metric]]), [[w:Felix Klein]] (1871) defined a "fundamental [[w:conic section]]" in order to discuss motions such as rotation and translation in the non-Euclidean plane.<ref group=M>Klein (1871), pp. 601–602</ref> This was elaborated in (1873) when he pointed out that hyperbolic geometry in terms of a surface of constant negative curvature can be related to a quadratic equation, which can be transformed into a sum of squares of which one square has a different sign, and can also be related to the interior of a surface of second degree corresponding to a two-sheet [[w:hyperboloid]].<ref group=M>Klein (1873), pp. 127-128</ref> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Klein's representation of hyperbolic space in terms of a two-sheet hyperboloid and its accompanied quadratic form suggests that Lorentz transformations can be geometrically interpreted as motions or isometries in hyperbolic space.</p> ==={{anchor|Killing}} Killing (1878–1893)=== ===={{anchor|Killing1}} Weierstrass coordinates==== [[w:Wilhelm Killing]] (1878–1880) described non-Euclidean geometry by using [[w:hyperboloid model|Weierstrass coordinates]] (named after [[w:Karl Weierstrass]] who described them in lectures in 1872 which Killing attended) obeying the form :<math>k^{2}t^{2}+u^{2}+v^{2}+w^{2}=k^{2}</math><ref group=M>Killing (1877/78), p. 74; Killing (1880), p. 279</ref> with <math>ds^{2}=k^{2}dt^{2}+du^{2}+dv^{2}+dw^{2}</math><ref group=M>Killing (1880), eq. 25 on p. 283</ref> or<ref group=M>Killing (1880), p. 283</ref> :<math>k^{2}x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}=k^{2}</math> where ''k'' is the reciprocal measure of curvature, <math>k^{2}=\infty</math> denotes [[w:Euclidean geometry]], <math>k^{2}>0</math> [[w:elliptic geometry]], and <math>k^{2}<0</math> hyperbolic geometry. In (1877/78) he pointed out the possibility and some characteristics of a transformation (indicating rigid motions) preserving the above form.<ref group=M>Killing (1877/78), eq. 25 on p. 283</ref> In (1879/80) he tried to formulate the corresponding transformations by plugging <math>k^{2}</math> into a [[w:Rotation matrix#Rotation matrix from axis and angle|general rotation matrix]]:<ref group=M>Killing (1879/80), p. 274</ref> <math>\begin{matrix}k^{2}u^{2}+v^{2}+w^{2}=k^{2}\\ \hline \begin{matrix}\cos\eta\tau+\lambda^{2}\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}}, & \nu\frac{\sin\eta\tau}{\eta}+\lambda\mu\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}}, & -\mu\frac{\sin\eta\tau}{\eta}+\nu\lambda\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}}\\ -k^{2}\nu\frac{\sin\eta\tau}{\eta}+k^{2}\lambda\mu\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}}, & \cos\eta\tau+\mu^{2}\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}}, & \lambda\frac{\sin\eta\tau}{\eta}+k^{2}\mu\nu\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}}\\ k^{2}\mu\frac{\sin\eta\tau}{\eta}+k^{2}\nu\lambda\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}}, & -\lambda\frac{\sin\eta\tau}{\eta}+k^{2}\mu\nu\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}}, & \cos\eta\tau+\nu^{2}\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}} \end{matrix}\\ \left(\lambda^{2}+k^{2}\mu^{2}+k^{2}\nu^{2}=\eta^{2}\right) \end{matrix}</math> In (1885) he wrote the Weierstrass coordinates and their transformation as follows:<ref group=M>Killing (1885), pp. 18, 28–30, 53</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}k^{2}p^{2}+x^{2}+y^{2}=k^{2}\\ k^{2}p^{2}+x^{2}+y^{2}=k^{2}p^{\prime2}+x^{\prime2}+y^{\prime2}\\ ds^{2}=k^{2}dp^{2}+dx^{2}+dy^{2}\\ \hline \begin{align}k^{2}p' & =k^{2}wp+w'x+w''y\\ x' & =ap+a'x+a''y\\ y' & =bp+b'x+b''y\\ \\ k^{2}p & =k^{2}wp'+ax'+by'\\ x & =w'p'+a'x+b'y'\\ y & =w''p'+a''x'+b''y' \end{align} \left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}k^{2}w^{2}+w^{\prime2}+w^{\prime\prime2} & =k^{2}\\ \frac{a^{2}}{k^{2}}+a^{\prime2}+a^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ \frac{b^{2}}{k^{2}}+b^{\prime2}+b^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ aw+a'w'+a''w'' & =0\\ bw+b'w'+b''w'' & =0\\ \frac{ab}{k^{2}}+a'b'+a''b'' & =0\\ \\ k^{2}w^{2}+a^{2}+b^{2} & =k^{2}\\ \frac{w^{\prime2}}{k^{2}}+a^{\prime2}+b^{\prime2} & =1\\ \frac{w^{\prime\prime2}}{k^{2}}+a^{\prime\prime2}+b^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ ww'+aa'+bb' & =0\\ ww''+aa''+bb'' & =0\\ \frac{w'w''}{k^{2}}+a'a''+b'b'' & =0 \end{align} }\right. \end{matrix}</math> In (1885) he also gave the transformation for ''n'' dimensions:<ref group=M>Killing (1884/85), pp. 42–43; Killing (1885), pp. 73–74, 222</ref><ref>Ratcliffe (1994), § 3.6</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}k^{2}x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}=k^{2}\\ ds^{2}=k^{2}dx_{0}^{2}+dx_{1}^{2}+\dots+dx_{n}^{2}\\ \hline \left.\begin{align}k^{2}\xi_{0} & =k^{2}a_{00}x_{0}+a_{01}x_{1}+\dots+a_{0n}x_{0}\\ \xi_{\varkappa} & =a_{\varkappa0}x_{0}+a_{\varkappa1}x_{1}+\dots+a_{\varkappa n}x_{n}\\ \\ k^{2}x_{0} & =a_{00}k^{2}\xi_{0}+a_{10}\xi_{1}+\dots+a_{n0}\xi_{n}\\ x_{\varkappa} & =a_{0\varkappa}\xi_{0}+a_{1\varkappa}\xi_{1}+\dots+a_{n\varkappa}\xi_{n} \end{align} \right|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}k^{2}a_{00}^{2}+a_{10}^{2}+\dots+a_{n0}^{2} & =k^{2}\\ a_{00}a_{0\varkappa}+a_{10}a_{1\varkappa}+\dots+a_{n0}a_{n\varkappa} & =0\\ \frac{a_{0\iota}a_{0\varkappa}}{k^{2}}+a_{0\iota}a_{1\varkappa}+\dots+a_{n\iota}a_{n\varkappa}=\delta_{\iota\kappa} & =1\ (\iota=\kappa)\ \text{or}\ 0\ (\iota\ne\kappa) \end{align} } \end{matrix}</math> In (1885) he applied his transformations to mechanics and defined four-dimensional vectors of velocity and force.<ref group=M>Killing (1884/85), pp. 4–5</ref> Regarding the geometrical interpretation of his transformations, Killing argued in (1885) that by setting <math>k^{2}=-1</math> and using ''p,x,y'' as rectangular space coordinates, the hyperbolic plane is mapped on one side of a two-sheet hyperboloid <math>p^{2}-x^{2}-y^{2}=1</math> (known as [[w:hyperboloid model]]),<ref group=M>Killing (1885), Note 9 on p. 260</ref><ref name=rey /> by which the previous formulas become equivalent to Lorentz transformations and the geometry becomes that of Minkowski space. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">All of Killing's transformations between 1879 and 1885 don't work when <math>k^{2}</math> is negative, thus they fail to produce Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) with <math>k^{2}=-1</math>.</p> Finally, in (1893) he wrote:<ref group=M>Killing (1893), see pp. 144, 327–328</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}k^{2}t^{2}+u^{2}+v^{2}=k^{2}\\ \hline \begin{align}t' & =at+bu+cv\\ u' & =a't+b'u+c'v\\ v' & =a''t+b''u+c''v \end{align} \left|\begin{align}k^{2}a^{2}+a^{\prime2}+a^{\prime\prime2} & =k^{2}\\ k^{2}b^{2}+b^{\prime2}+b^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ k^{2}c^{2}+b^{\prime2}+c^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ k^{2}ab+a'b'+a''b'' & =0\\ k^{2}ac+a'c'+a''c'' & =0\\ k^{2}bc+b'c'+b''c'' & =0 \end{align} \right. \end{matrix}</math> and in ''n'' dimensions<ref group=M>Killing (1893), pp. 314–316, 216–217</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}k^{2}x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}=k^{2}\\ k^{2}y_{0}y_{0}^{\prime}+y_{1}y_{1}^{\prime}+\cdots+y_{n}y_{n}^{\prime}=k^{2}x_{0}x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{1}x_{1}^{\prime}+\cdots+x_{n}x_{n}^{\prime}\\ ds^{2}=k^{2}dx_{0}^{2}+\dots+dx_{n}^{2}\\ \hline \begin{align}y_{0} & =a_{00}x_{0}+a_{01}x_{1}+\dots+a_{0n}x_{n}\\ y_{1} & =a_{10}x_{0}+a_{11}x_{1}+\dots+a_{1n}x_{n}\\ & \,\,\,\vdots\\ y_{n} & =a_{n0}x_{0}+a_{n1}x_{1}+\dots+a_{nn}x_{n} \end{align} \left|\begin{align}k^{2}a_{00}^{2}+a_{10}^{2}+\dots+a_{n0}^{2} & =k^{2}\\ k^{2}a_{0\varkappa}^{2}+a_{1\varkappa}^{2}+\dots+a_{n\varkappa}^{2} & =1\\ k^{2}a_{00}a_{0\varkappa}+a_{10}a_{1\varkappa}+\dots+a_{n0}a_{n\varkappa} & =0\\ k^{2}a_{0\varkappa}a_{0\lambda}+a_{1\varkappa}a_{1\lambda}+\dots+a_{n\varkappa}a_{n\lambda} & =0\\ (\varkappa,\lambda=1,\dots, n,\ \lambda\lessgtr\varkappa) \end{align} \right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) with <math>k^{2}=-1</math>.</p> ===={{anchor|Killing3}} Infinitesimal transformations and Lie group==== After [[#Lie3|Lie (1885/86)]] identified the projective group of a general surface of second degree <math>\sum f_{ik}x_{i}'x_{k}'=0</math> with the group of non-Euclidean motions, Killing (1887/88)<ref group=M>Killing (1887/88a), pp. 274–275</ref> defined the infinitesimal projective transformations (Lie algebra) in relation to the unit hypersphere: :<math>\begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{m+1}^{2}=1\\ \hline X_{\iota\varkappa}f=x_{i}\frac{\partial f}{\partial x_{\varkappa}}-x_{\varkappa}\frac{\partial f}{\partial x_{\iota}}\\ \text{where}\\ \left(X_{\iota\varkappa},X_{\iota\lambda}\right)=X_{\varkappa\lambda};\ \left(X_{\iota\varkappa},X_{\lambda\mu}\right)=0;\\ \left[\iota\ne\varkappa\ne\lambda\ne\mu\right] \end{matrix}</math> and in (1892) he defined the infinitesimal transformation for non-Euclidean motions in terms of Weierstrass coordinates:<ref group=M>Killing (1892), p. 177</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}k^{2}x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}=k^{2}\\ \hline X_{\iota\varkappa}=x_{\iota}p_{\varkappa}-x_{\varkappa}p_{\iota},\quad X_{\iota}=x_{0}p_{\iota}-\frac{x_{\iota}p_{0}}{k^{2}}\\ \text{where}\\ \left(X_{\iota}X_{\iota\varkappa}\right)=X_{\varkappa}f;\ \left(X_{\iota}X_{\varkappa\lambda}\right)=0;\ \left(X_{\iota}X_{\varkappa}\right)=-\frac{1}{k^{2}}X_{\iota\varkappa}f; \end{matrix}</math> In (1897/98) he showed the relation between Weierstrass coordinates <math>k^{2}x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}=k^{2}</math> and corrdinates <math>k^{2}+y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n}^{2}=0</math> used by himself in (1887/88) and by [[#Lie3|Werner (1889), Lie (1890)]]:<ref group=M>Killing (1897/98), pp. 255–256</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}k^{2}x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2} & (a)\\ k^{2}x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}=k^{2} & (b) \end{matrix}\\ \hline V_{\varkappa}=k^{2}x_{0}p_{\varkappa}-x_{\varkappa}p_{0},\quad U_{\iota\varkappa}=p_{\iota}x_{\varkappa}-p_{\varkappa}x_{\iota}\\ \text{where}\\ \left(V_{\iota},V_{\varkappa}\right)=k^{2}U_{\iota\varkappa},\ \left(V_{\iota},U_{\iota\varkappa}\right)=-V_{\varkappa},\ \left(V_{\iota},U_{\varkappa\lambda}\right)=0,\\ \left(U_{\iota\varkappa},U_{\iota\lambda}\right)=U_{\varkappa\lambda},\ \left(U_{\iota\varkappa},U_{\lambda\mu}\right)=0\\ \left[\iota,\varkappa,\lambda,\mu=1,2,\dots n\right]\\ \hline \begin{matrix}y_{1}=\frac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ y_{2}=\frac{x_{2}}{x_{0}},\dots y_{n}=\frac{x_{n}}{x_{0}}\\ \downarrow\\ k^{2}+y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n}^{2}=0\\ \hline q_{\varkappa}+\frac{y_{\varkappa}}{k^{2}}\sum_{\varrho}y_{y}q_{\varrho},\quad q_{\iota}y_{\varkappa}-q_{\varkappa}y_{\iota} \end{matrix} \end{matrix}</math> He pointed out that the corresponding group of non-Euclidean motions in terms of Weierstrass coordinates is intransitive when related to quadratic form (a) and [[w:Group action (mathematics)|transitive]] when related to quadratic form (b). <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Setting <math>k^{2}=-1</math> denotes the group of hyperbolic motions and thus the Lorentz group.</p> === {{anchor|Poincare}} Poincaré (1881) – Weierstrass coordinates === [[w:Henri Poincaré]] (1881) connected the work of [[../Lorentz transformation (Cayley-Hermite)#Hermite|E:Hermite (1853)]] and [[../Lorentz transformation (Möbius)#Selling|E:Selling (1873)]] on indefinite quadratic forms with non-Euclidean geometry (Poincaré already discussed such relations in an unpublished manuscript in 1880).<ref>Gray (1997)</ref> He used two indefinite ternary forms in terms of three squares and then defined them in terms of Weierstrass coordinates (without using that expression) connected by a transformation with integer coefficients:<ref group=M name=p1>Poincaré (1881a), pp. 133–134</ref><ref>Dickson (1923), pp. 220–221</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{align}F & =(ax+by+cz)^{2}+(a'x+b'y+c'z)^{2}-(a''x+b''y+c''z)^{2}\\ & =\xi^{2}+\eta^{2}-\zeta^{2}=-1\\ F & =(ax'+by'+cz')^{2}+(a'x'+b'y'+c'z')^{2}-(a''x'+b''y'+c''z')^{2}\\ & =\xi^{\prime2}+\eta^{\prime2}-\zeta^{\prime2}=-1 \end{align} \\ \hline \begin{align}\xi' & =\alpha\xi+\beta\eta+\gamma\zeta\\ \eta' & =\alpha'\xi+\beta'\eta+\gamma'\zeta\\ \zeta' & =\alpha''\xi+\beta''\eta+\gamma''\zeta \end{align} \left|\begin{align}\alpha^{2}+\alpha^{\prime2}-\alpha^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ \beta^{2}+\beta^{\prime2}-\beta^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ \gamma^{2}+\gamma^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} & =-1\\ \alpha\beta+\alpha'\beta'-\alpha''\beta'' & =0\\ \alpha\gamma+\alpha'\gamma'-\alpha''\gamma'' & =0\\ \beta\gamma+\beta'\gamma'-\beta''\gamma'' & =0 \end{align} \right. \end{matrix}</math> He went on to describe the properties of "hyperbolic coordinates".<ref group=M name=poinc>Poincaré (1881b), p. 333</ref><ref name=rey>Reynolds (1993)</ref> Poincaré mentioned the hyperboloid model also in (1887).<ref group=M>Poincaré (1887), p. 206</ref> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)''.</p> === {{anchor|Cox}} Cox (1881–1883) – Weierstrass coordinates === [[w:Homersham Cox (mathematician)|Homersham Cox]] (1881/82) – referring to similar rectangular coordinates used by [[w:Christoph Gudermann|Gudermann]] (1830)<ref name=guder group=M>Gudermann (1830), §1–3, §18–19</ref> and [[w:George Salmon]] (1862)<ref group=M>Salmon (1862), section 212, p. 165</ref> on a sphere, and to [[#Escherich|Escherich (1874)]] as reported by [[w:Johannes Frischauf]] (1876)<ref group=M>Frischauf (1876), pp. 86–87</ref> in the hyperbolic plane – defined the Weierstrass coordinates (without using that expression) and their transformation:<ref group=M>Cox (1881), p. 186 for Weierstrass coordinates; (1881/82), pp. 193–194 for Lorentz transformation. On p. 193, the misprinted expression <math>x^{2}-y^{2}-z^{2}</math> should read <math>z^{2}-y^{2}-x^{2}</math></ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}z^{2}-x^{2}-y^{2}=1\\ z^{2}-y^{2}-x^{2}=Z^{2}-Y^{2}-X^{2}\\ \hline \begin{align}x & =l_{1}X+l_{2}Y+l_{3}Z\\ y & =m_{1}X+m_{2}Y+m_{3}Z\\ z & =n_{1}X+n_{2}Y+n_{3}Z\\ \\ X & =l_{1}x+m_{1}y-n_{1}z\\ Y & =l_{2}x+m_{2}y-n_{2}z\\ Z & =l_{3}x+m_{3}y-n_{3}z \end{align} \left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}l_{1}^{2}+m_{1}^{2}-n_{1}^{2} & =1\\ l_{2}^{2}+m_{2}^{2}-n_{2}^{2} & =1\\ l_{3}^{2}+m_{3}^{2}-n_{3}^{2} & =1\\ l_{1}l_{2}+m_{1}m_{2}-n_{1}n_{2} & =0\\ l_{2}l_{3}+m_{2}m_{3}-n_{2}n_{3} & =0\\ l_{3}l_{1}+m_{3}m_{1}-n_{3}n_{1} & =0\\ \\ l_{1}^{2}+l_{2}^{2}-l_{3}^{2} & =1\\ m_{1}^{2}+m_{2}^{2}-m_{3}^{2} & =1\\ n_{1}^{2}+n_{2}^{2}-n_{3}^{2} & =1\\ l_{1}m_{1}+l_{2}m_{2}-l_{3}m_{3} & =0\\ m_{1}n_{1}+m_{2}n_{2}-m_{3}n_{3} & =0\\ n_{1}l_{1}+n_{2}l_{2}-n_{3}l_{3} & =0 \end{align} }\right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Replacing <math>{\scriptstyle \begin{align}l_{3}^{2}+m_{3}^{2}-n_{3}^{2} & =1\\ n_{1}^{2}+n_{2}^{2}-n_{3}^{2} & =1 \end{align} }</math> with <math>{\scriptstyle \begin{align}l_{3}^{2}+m_{3}^{2}-n_{3}^{2} & =-1\\ n_{1}^{2}+n_{2}^{2}-n_{3}^{2} & =-1 \end{align} }</math>, this becomes Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)'' up to a sign change in the inverse transformation.</p> Cox also gave the Weierstrass coordinates and their transformation in hyperbolic space:<ref group=M>Cox (1881), pp. 199, 206–207</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}w^{2}-x^{2}-y^{2}-z^{2}=1\\ w^{2}-x^{2}-y^{2}-z^{2}=w^{\prime2}-x^{\prime2}-y^{\prime2}-z^{\prime2}\\ \hline \begin{align}x & =l_{1}x'+l_{2}y'+l_{3}z'-l_{4}w'\\ y & =m_{1}x'+m_{2}y'+m_{3}z'-m_{4}w'\\ z & =n_{1}x'+n_{2}y'+n_{3}z'-n_{4}w'\\ w & =r_{1}x'+r_{2}y'+r_{3}z'-r_{4}w'\\ \\ x' & =l_{1}x+m_{1}y+n_{1}z-r_{1}w\\ y' & =l_{2}x+m_{2}y+n_{2}z-r_{2}w\\ z' & =l_{3}x+m_{3}y+n_{3}z-r_{3}w\\ w' & =l_{4}x+m_{4}y+n_{4}z-r_{4}w \end{align} \left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}l_{1}^{2}+m_{1}^{2}+n_{1}^{2}-r_{1}^{2} & =1\\ l_{2}^{2}+m_{2}^{2}+n_{2}^{2}-r_{2}^{2} & =1\\ l_{3}^{2}+m_{3}^{2}+n_{3}^{2}-r_{3}^{2} & =1\\ l_{4}^{2}+m_{4}^{2}+n_{4}^{2}-r_{4}^{2} & =1\\ l_{2}l_{3}+m_{2}m_{3}+n_{2}n_{3}-r_{2}r_{3} & =0\\ l_{3}l_{1}+m_{3}m_{1}+n_{3}n_{1}-r_{3}r_{1} & =0\\ l_{1}l_{4}+m_{1}m_{4}+n_{1}n_{4}-r_{1}r_{4} & =0\\ l_{2}l_{4}+m_{2}m_{4}+n_{2}n_{4}-r_{2}r_{4} & =0\\ l_{3}l_{4}+m_{3}m_{4}+n_{3}n_{4}-r_{3}r_{4} & =0 \end{align} }\right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Replacing <math>{\scriptstyle l_{4}^{2}+m_{4}^{2}+n_{4}^{2}-r_{4}^{2}=1}</math> with <math>{\scriptstyle l_{4}^{2}+m_{4}^{2}+n_{4}^{2}-r_{4}^{2}=-1}</math>, this becomes Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=3)'' up to a sign change in both the first as well as inverse transformation.</p> === {{anchor|Hill}} Hill (1882) – Homogeneous coordinates === Following [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]], [[w:George William Hill]] (1882) formulated the equations<ref group=M>Hill (1882), pp. 323–325</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}k\left(\sin^{2}T+\cos^{2}T-1\right)\\ k\left(\sin^{2}E+\cos^{2}E-1\right)\\ \hline \begin{align} & & \cos E' & =\frac{\alpha+\alpha'\sin T+\alpha''\cos T}{\gamma+\gamma'\sin T+\gamma''\cos T}\\ & \mathbf{(1)} & \sin E' & =\frac{\beta+\beta'\sin T+\beta''\cos T}{\gamma+\gamma'\sin T+\gamma''\cos T}\\ \hline \\ & & x & =\alpha u+\alpha'u'+\alpha''u''\\ & & y & =\beta u+\beta'u'+\beta''u''\\ & & z & =\gamma u+\gamma'u'+\gamma''u''\\ & \mathbf{(2)}\\ & & u & =-\alpha x-\beta y+\gamma z\\ & & u' & =\alpha'x+\beta'y'-\gamma'z\\ & & u'' & =\alpha''x+\beta''y-\gamma''z \end{align} \left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2} & =-1\\ \alpha^{\prime2}+\beta^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime2} & =1\\ \alpha^{\prime\prime2}+\beta^{\prime\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ \alpha\alpha'+\beta\beta'-\gamma\gamma' & =0\\ \alpha\alpha''+\beta\beta''-\gamma\gamma'' & =0\\ \alpha'\alpha''+\beta'\beta''-\gamma'\gamma'' & =0\\ \\ (k=-1)\\ \alpha^{2}-\alpha^{\prime2}-\alpha^{\prime\prime2} & =k\\ \beta^{2}-\beta^{\prime2}-\beta^{\prime\prime2} & =k\\ \gamma^{2}-\gamma^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} & =-k\\ \alpha\beta-\alpha'\beta'-\alpha''\beta'' & =0\\ \alpha\gamma-\alpha'\gamma'-\alpha''\gamma'' & =0\\ \beta\gamma-\beta'\gamma'-\beta''\gamma'' & =0 \end{align} }\right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Transformation system (1) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)'' with <math>[\cos T,\sin T,\cos E',\sin E']=\left[u_{1},u_{2},u_{1}^{\prime},u_{2}^{\prime}\right]</math>. Transformation system (2) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)'' .</p> === {{anchor|Picard}} Picard (1882-1884) – Quadratic forms === [[w:Émile Picard]] (1882) analyzed the invariance of indefinite ternary [[w:Hermitian form|Hermitian quadratic forms]] with integer coefficients and their relation to [[w:Group action (mathematics)|discontinuous groups]], extending Poincaré's Fuchsian functions of one complex variable related to a circle, to "hyperfuchsian" functions of two complex variables related to a [[w:hypersphere]]. He formulated the following special case of an Hermitian form:<ref group=M>Picard (1882), pp. 307–308 first transformation system; pp. 315-317 second transformation system</ref><ref>Dickson (1923), pp. 280-281</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}xx_{0}+yy_{0}-zz_{0}\\ \\ \mathbf{(1)}\ \begin{align}x & =M_{1}X+P_{1}Y+R_{1}Z\\ y & =M_{2}X+P_{2}Y+R_{2}Z\\ z & =M_{3}X+P_{3}Y+R_{3}Z \end{align} \\ \\ \left[\begin{align}[][x,y,z]=\text{complex}\\ \left[x_{0},y_{0},z_{0}\right]=\text{conjugate} \end{align} \right]\\ \\ \hline \\ x^{\prime2}+x^{\prime\prime2}+y^{\prime2}+y^{\prime\prime2}=1\\ x=x'+ix'',\quad y=y'+iy''\\ \\ \mathbf{(2)}\ \begin{align}X & =\frac{M_{1}x+P_{1}y+R_{1}}{M_{3}x+P_{3}y+R_{3}}\\ Y & =\frac{M_{2}x+P_{2}y+R_{2}}{M_{3}x+P_{3}y+R_{3}} \end{align} \end{matrix}\left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}M_{1}\mu_{1}+M_{2}\mu_{2}-M_{3}\mu_{3} & =1\\ P_{1}\pi_{1}+P_{2}\pi_{2}-P_{3}\pi_{3} & =1\\ R_{1}\rho_{1}+R_{2}\rho_{2}-R_{3}\rho_{3} & =-1\\ P_{1}\mu_{1}+P_{2}\mu_{2}-P_{3}\mu_{3} & =0\\ M_{1}\rho_{1}+M_{2}\rho_{2}-M_{3}\rho_{3} & =0\\ P_{1}\rho_{1}+P_{2}\rho_{2}-P_{3}\rho_{3} & =0\\ \\ M_{1}\mu_{1}+P_{1}\pi_{1}-R_{1}\rho_{1} & =1\\ M_{2}\mu_{2}+P_{2}\pi_{2}-R_{2}\rho_{2} & =1\\ M_{3}\mu_{3}+P_{3}\pi_{3}-R_{3}\rho_{3} & =-1\\ \mu_{2}M_{1}+\pi_{2}P_{1}-R_{1}\rho_{2} & =0\\ \mu_{2}M_{3}+\pi_{2}P_{3}-R_{3}\rho_{2} & =0\\ \mu_{3}M_{1}+\pi_{3}P_{1}-R_{1}\rho_{3} & =0\\ \\ \left[\begin{align}[][M,P,R\dots]=\text{complex}\\ \left[\mu,\pi,\rho\dots\right]=\text{conjugate} \end{align} \right] \end{align} }\right.\end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Replacing the imaginary variables and coefficients with real ones, transformation system (1) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)'' producing ''x<sup>2</sup>+y<sup>2</sup>-z<sup>2</sup>=X<sup>2</sup>+Y<sup>2</sup>-Z<sup>2</sup>'' and transformation system (2) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)'' producing ''x<sup>2</sup>+y<sup>2</sup>=X<sup>2</sup>+Y<sup>2</sup>=1''.</p> Or in (1884a) in relation to indefinite binary Hermitian quadratic forms:<ref group=M>Picard (1884a), p. 13</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}UU_{0}-VV_{0}=uu_{0}-vv_{0}\\ \hline \begin{align}U & =\mathcal{A}u+\mathcal{B}v\\ V & =\mathcal{C}u+\mathcal{D}v \end{align} \left|\begin{align}\mathcal{A}\mathcal{A}_{0}-\mathcal{C}\mathcal{C}_{0} & =1\\ \mathcal{A}\mathcal{B}_{0}-\mathcal{C}\mathcal{D}_{0} & =0\\ \mathcal{B}\mathcal{B}_{0}-\mathcal{D}\mathcal{D}_{0} & =-1\\ \mathcal{D}\mathcal{D}_{0}-\mathcal{C}\mathcal{C}_{0} & =1 \end{align} \right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Replacing the imaginary variables and coefficients with real ones, this is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=1)'' producing ''U<sup>2</sup>-V<sup>2</sup>=u<sup>2</sup>-v<sup>2</sup>''.</p> Or in (1884b):<ref group=M>Picard (1884b), p. 416</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}xx_{0}+yy_{0}-1=0\\ \hline \begin{align}X & =\frac{M_{1}x+P_{1}y+R_{1}}{M_{3}x+P_{3}y+R_{3}}\\ Y & =\frac{M_{2}x+P_{2}y+R_{2}}{M_{3}x+P_{3}y+R_{3}} \end{align} \left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}M_{1}\mu_{1}+M_{2}\mu_{2}-M_{3}\mu_{3}=P_{1}\pi_{1}+P_{2}\pi_{2}-P_{3}\pi_{3} & =1\\ R_{1}\rho_{1}+R_{2}\rho_{2}-R_{3}\rho_{3} & =-1\\ P_{1}\mu_{1}+P_{2}\mu_{2}-P_{3}\mu_{3}=M_{1}\rho_{1}+M_{2}\rho_{2}-M_{3}\rho_{3}=P_{1}\rho_{1}+P_{2}\rho_{2}-P_{3}\rho_{3} & =0\\ M_{1}\rho_{1}+M_{2}\rho_{2}-M_{3}\rho_{3} & =0 \end{align} }\right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Replacing the imaginary variables and coefficients with real ones, this is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)'' producing ''x<sup>2</sup>+y<sup>2</sup>=X<sup>2</sup>+Y<sup>2</sup>=1''.</p> Or in (1884c):<ref group=M>Picard (1884c), pp. 123–124; 163</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}UU_{0}+VV_{0}-WW_{0}=uu_{0}+vv_{0}-ww_{0}\\ \hline \mathbf{(1)}\ \begin{align}U & =Mu+Pv+Rw\\ V & =M'u+P'v+R'w\\ W & =M''u+P''v+R''w\\ \\ u & =M_{0}U+M_{0}^{\prime}V-M_{0}^{\prime\prime}W\\ v & =P_{0}U+P_{0}^{\prime}V-P_{0}^{\prime\prime}W\\ w & =-R_{0}U-R_{0}^{\prime}V+R_{0}^{\prime\prime}W \end{align} \left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}MM_{0}+M'M_{0}^{\prime}-M''M_{0}^{\prime\prime} & =1\\ PP_{0}+P'P_{0}^{\prime}-P''P_{0}^{\prime\prime} & =1\\ RR_{0}+R'R_{0}^{\prime}-R''R_{0}^{\prime\prime} & =-1\\ MP_{0}+M'P_{0}^{\prime}-M''P_{0}^{\prime\prime} & =0\\ MR_{0}+M'R_{0}^{\prime}-M''R_{0}^{\prime\prime} & =0\\ PR_{0}+P'R_{0}^{\prime}-P''R_{0}^{\prime\prime} & =0\\ \\ MM_{0}+PP_{0}-RR_{0} & =1\\ M'M_{0}^{\prime}+P'P_{0}^{\prime}-R'R_{0}^{\prime} & =1\\ M''M_{0}^{\prime\prime}+P''P_{0}^{\prime\prime}-R''R_{0}^{\prime\prime} & =-1\\ M_{0}M'+P_{0}P'-R_{0}R' & =0\\ M_{0}M''+P_{0}P''-R_{0}R'' & =0\\ M_{0}^{\prime}M''+P_{0}^{\prime}P''-R_{0}^{\prime}R'' & =0 \end{align} }\right.\\ \hline \text{Invariance of unit hypersphere:}\\ \mathbf{(2)}\ \begin{align}\xi' & =\frac{A\xi+A'\eta+A''}{C\xi+C'\eta+C''}\\ \eta' & =\frac{B\xi+B'\eta+B''}{C\xi+C'\eta+C''} \end{align} \left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}AA_{0}+A'A_{0}^{\prime}-A''A_{0}^{\prime\prime} & =1\\ BB_{0}+B'B_{0}^{\prime}-B''B_{0}^{\prime\prime} & =1\\ CC_{0}+C'C_{0}^{\prime}-C''C_{0}^{\prime\prime} & =-1\\ AB_{0}+A'B_{0}^{\prime}-A''B_{0}^{\prime\prime} & =0\\ AC_{0}+A'C_{0}^{\prime}-A''C_{0}^{\prime\prime} & =0\\ BC_{0}+B'C_{0}^{\prime}-B''C_{0}^{\prime\prime} & =0 \end{align} }\right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Replacing the imaginary variables and coefficients with real ones, transformation system (1) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)'' producing ''U<sup>2</sup>+V<sup>2</sup>-W<sup>2</sup>=u<sup>2</sup>+v<sup>2</sup>-w<sup>2</sup>'' and transformation system (2) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)'' producing <math>\xi^{\prime2}+\eta^{\prime2}=\xi^{2}+\eta^{2}=1</math>.</p> === {{anchor|Callandreau}} Callandreau (1885) – Homography === Following [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]] and [[#Hill|Hill (1882)]], [[w:Octave Callandreau]] (1885) formulated the equations<ref group=M>Callandreau (1885), pp. A.7; A.12</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}k\left(\sin^{2}T+\cos^{2}T-1\right)=\\ {\scriptstyle (\alpha+\alpha'\sin T+\alpha''\cos T)^{2}+(\beta+\beta'\sin T+\beta''\cos T)^{2}-(\gamma+\gamma'\sin T+\gamma''\cos T)^{2}}\\ \hline \begin{align}\cos\varepsilon' & =\frac{\alpha+\alpha'\sin T+\alpha''\cos T}{\gamma+\gamma'\sin T+\gamma''\cos T}\\ \sin\varepsilon' & =\frac{\beta+\beta'\sin T+\beta''\cos T}{\gamma+\gamma'\sin T+\gamma''\cos T} \end{align} \left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align} & \left(k=1\right)\\ \alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2} & =-k & \alpha\alpha'+\beta\beta'-\gamma\gamma' & =0\\ \alpha^{\prime2}+\beta^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime2} & =+k & \alpha\alpha''+\beta\beta''-\gamma\gamma'' & =0\\ \alpha^{\prime\prime2}+\beta^{\prime\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} & =+k & \alpha'\alpha''+\beta'\beta''-\gamma'\gamma'' & =0\\ \\ \alpha^{2}-\alpha^{\prime2}-\alpha^{\prime\prime2} & =-1 & \alpha\beta-\alpha'\beta'-\alpha''\beta'' & =0\\ \beta^{2}-\beta^{\prime2}-\beta^{\prime\prime2} & =-1 & \alpha\gamma-\alpha'\gamma'-\alpha''\gamma'' & =0\\ \gamma^{2}-\gamma^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} & =+1 & \beta\gamma-\beta'\gamma'-\beta''\gamma'' & =0 \end{align} }\right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The transformation system is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)'' with <math>[\cos T,\sin T,\cos\varepsilon',\sin\varepsilon']=\left[u_{1},u_{2},u_{1}^{\prime},u_{2}^{\prime}\right]</math>.</p> ==={{anchor|Lie3}} Lie (1885-1890) – Lie group, hyperbolic motions, and infinitesimal transformations=== In (1885/86), [[w:Sophus Lie]] identified the projective group of a general surface of second degree <math>\sum f_{ik}x_{i}'x_{k}'=0</math> with the group of non-Euclidean motions.<ref group=M>Lie (1885/86), p. 411</ref> In a thesis guided by Lie, [[w:Hermann Werner]] (1889) discussed this projective group by using the equation of a unit hypersphere as the surface of second degree (which was already given before by [[#Killing3|Killing (1887)]]), and also gave the corresponding infinitesimal projective transformations (Lie algebra):<ref group=M>Werner (1889), pp. 4, 28</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}=1\\ \hline x_{i}p_{\varkappa}-x_{\varkappa}p_{i},\quad p_{i}-x_{i}\sum_{1}^{n}{\scriptstyle j}\ x_{j}p_{j}\quad(i,\varkappa=1,\dots, n)\\ \text{where}\\ \left(Q_{i},Q_{\varkappa}\right)=R_{i,\varkappa};\ \left(Q_{i},Q_{j,\varkappa}\right)=\varepsilon_{i,j}Q_{\varkappa}-\varepsilon_{i,\varkappa}Q_{j};\\ \left(R_{i,\varkappa},R_{\mu,\nu}\right)=\varepsilon_{\varkappa,\mu}R_{i,\nu}-\varepsilon_{\varkappa,\nu}R_{i,\mu}-\varepsilon_{,\mu}R_{\varkappa,\nu}+\varepsilon_{i,\nu}R_{\varkappa,\mu}\\ \left[\varepsilon_{i,\varkappa}\equiv0\ \text{for}\ i\ne\varkappa;\ \varepsilon_{i,i}=1\right] \end{matrix}</math> More generally, Lie (1890)<ref group=M>Lie (1890a), p. 295;</ref> defined non-Euclidean motions in terms of two forms <math>x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}\pm1=0</math> in which the imaginary form with <math>+1</math> denotes the group of elliptic motions (in Klein's terminology), the real form with −1 the group of hyperbolic motions, with the latter having the same form as Werner's transformation:<ref group=M>Lie (1890a), p. 311</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}-1=0\\ \hline p_{k}-x_{k}\sum j_{1}^{0}x_{j}p_{j},\quad x_{i}p_{k}-x_{k}p_{i}\quad(i,k=1\dots n) \end{matrix}</math> Summarizing, Lie (1893) discussed the real continuous groups of the conic sections representing non-Euclidean motions, which in the case of hyperbolic motions have the form: :<math>x^{2}+y^{2}-1=0</math><ref group=M>Lie (1893), p. 474</ref> or <math>x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-1=0</math><ref group=M>Lie (1893), p. 479</ref> or <math>x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}-1=0</math>.<ref group=M>Lie (1893), p. 481</ref> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The group of hyperbolic motions is isomorphic to the Lorentz group. The interval <math>x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}-1=0</math> becomes the Lorentz interval <math>x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}-x_{0}^{2}=0</math> by setting <br><math>(x_{1},\dots,\ x_{n},\ 1)=\left(\frac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\dots,\ \frac{x_{n}}{x_{0}},\ \frac{x_{0}}{x_{0}}\right)</math></p> ==={{anchor|Gerard}} Gérard (1892) – Weierstrass coordinates=== [[w:Louis Gérard]] (1892) – in a thesis examined by Poincaré – discussed Weierstrass coordinates (without using that name) in the plane using the following invariant and its Lorentz transformation equivalent to ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)'':<ref group=M>Gérard (1892), pp. 40–41</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}X^{2}+Y^{2}-Z^{2}=1\\ X^{2}+Y^{2}-Z^{2}=X^{\prime2}+Y^{\prime2}-Z^{\prime2}\\ \hline \begin{align}X & =aX'+a'Y'+a''Z'\\ Y & =bX'+b'Y'+b''Z'\\ Z & =cX'+c'Y'+c''Z'\\ \\ X' & =aX+bY-cZ\\ Y' & =a'X+b'Y-c'Z\\ Z' & =-a''X-b''Y+c''Z \end{align} \left|\begin{align}a^{2}+b^{2}-c^{2} & =1\\ a^{\prime2}+b^{\prime2}-c^{\prime2} & =1\\ a^{\prime\prime2}+b^{\prime\prime2}-c^{\prime\prime2} & =-1\\ aa'+bb'-cc' & =0\\ a'a''+b'b''-c'c'' & =0\\ a''a+b''b-c''c & =0 \end{align} \right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)''.</p> He gave the case of translation as follows:<ref group=M name=gerard>Gérard (1892), pp. 40–41</ref> :<math>\begin{align}X & =Z_{0}X'+X_{0}Z'\\ Y & =Y'\\ Z & =X_{0}X'+Z_{0}Z' \end{align} \ \text{with}\ \begin{align}X_{0} & =\operatorname{sh}OO'\\ Z_{0} & =\operatorname{ch}OO' \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Hausdorff}} Hausdorff (1899) – Weierstrass coordinates=== [[w:Felix Hausdorff]] (1899) – citing Killing (1885) – discussed Weierstrass coordinates in the plane using the following invariant and its transformation:<ref group=M>Hausdorff (1899), p. 165, pp. 181-182</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}p^{2}-x^{2}-y^{2}=1\\ \hline \begin{align}x & =a_{1}x'+a_{2}y'+x_{0}p'\\ y & =b_{1}x'+b{}_{2}y'+y_{0}p'\\ p & =e_{1}x'+e_{2}y'+p_{0}p'\\ \\ x' & =a_{1}x+b_{1}y-e_{1}p\\ y' & =a_{2}x+b_{2}y-e_{2}p\\ -p' & =x_{0}x+y_{0}y-p_{0}p \end{align} \left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}a_{1}^{2}+b_{1}^{2}-e_{1}^{2} & =1\\ a_{2}^{2}+b_{2}^{2}-e_{2}^{2} & =1\\ -x_{0}^{2}-y_{0}^{2}+p_{0}^{2} & =1\\ a_{2}x_{0}+b_{2}y_{0}-e_{2}p_{0} & =0\\ a_{1}x_{0}+b_{1}y_{0}-e_{1}p_{0} & =0\\ a_{1}a_{2}+b_{1}b_{2}-e_{1}e_{2} & =0\\ \\ a_{1}^{2}+a_{2}^{2}-x_{0}^{2} & =1\\ b_{1}^{2}+b_{2}^{2}-y_{0}^{2} & =1\\ -e_{1}^{2}-e_{2}^{2}+p_{0}^{2} & =1\\ b_{1}e_{1}+b_{2}e_{2}-y_{0}p_{0} & =0\\ a_{1}e_{1}+a_{2}e_{2}-x_{0}p_{0} & =0\\ a_{1}b_{1}+a_{2}b_{2}-x_{0}y_{0} & =0 \end{align} }\right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)''.</p> ==={{anchor|Woods2}} Woods (1901-05) – Beltrami and Weierstrass coordinates === In (1901/02) [[w:Frederick S. Woods]] defined the following invariant quadratic form and its [[w:projective transformation]] in terms of Beltrami coordinates (he pointed out that this can be connected to hyperbolic geometry by setting <math>k=\sqrt{-1}R</math> with ''R'' as real quantity):<ref group=M>Woods (1901/02), p. 98, 104</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}k^{2}\left(u^{2}+v^{2}+w^{2}\right)+1=0\\ \hline \begin{align}u' & =\frac{\alpha_{1}u+\alpha_{2}v+\alpha_{3}w+\alpha_{4}}{\delta_{1}u+\delta_{2}v+\delta_{3}w+\delta_{4}}\\ v' & =\frac{\beta_{1}u+\beta_{2}v+\beta_{3}w+\beta_{4}}{\delta_{1}u+\delta_{2}v+\delta_{3}w+\delta_{4}}\\ w' & =\frac{\gamma_{1}u+\gamma_{2}v+\gamma_{3}w+\gamma_{4}}{\delta_{1}u+\delta_{2}v+\delta_{3}w+\delta_{4}} \end{align} \left|\begin{align}k^{2}\left(\alpha_{i}^{2}+\beta_{i}^{2}+\gamma_{i}^{2}\right)+\delta_{i}^{2} & =k^{2}\\ (i=1,2,3)\\ k^{2}\left(\alpha_{4}^{2}+\beta_{4}^{2}+\gamma_{4}^{2}\right)+\delta_{4}^{2} & =1\\ \alpha_{i}\alpha_{h}+\beta_{i}\beta_{h}+\gamma_{i}\gamma_{h}+\delta_{i}\delta_{h} & =0\\ (i,h=1,2,3,4;\ i\ne h) \end{align} \right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=3)'' with ''k''<sup>2</sup>=-1.</p> Alternatively, Woods (1903, published 1905) – citing Killing (1885) – used the invariant quadratic form in terms of Weierstrass coordinates and its transformation (with <math>k=\sqrt{-1}k</math> for hyperbolic space):<ref group=M>Woods (1903/05), pp. 45–46; p. 48)</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x_{0}^{2}+k^{2}\left(x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}\right)=1\\ ds^{2}=\frac{1}{k^{2}}dx_{0}^{2}+dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+dx_{3}^{2}\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{1}^{\prime} & =\alpha_{1}x_{1}+\alpha_{2}x_{2}+\alpha_{3}x_{3}+\alpha_{0}x_{0}\\ x_{2}^{\prime} & =\beta_{1}x_{1}+\beta_{2}x_{2}+\beta_{3}x_{3}+\beta_{0}x_{0}\\ x_{3}^{\prime} & =\gamma_{1}x_{1}+\gamma_{2}x_{2}+\gamma_{3}x_{3}+\gamma_{0}x_{0}\\ x_{0}^{\prime} & =\delta_{1}x_{1}+\delta_{2}x_{2}+\delta_{3}x_{3}+\delta_{0}x_{0} \end{align} \left|\begin{align}\delta_{0}^{2}+k^{2}\left(\alpha_{0}^{2}+\beta_{0}^{2}+\gamma_{0}^{2}\right) & =1\\ \delta_{i}^{2}+k^{2}\left(\alpha_{i}^{2}+\beta_{i}^{2}+\gamma_{i}^{2}\right) & =k^{2}\\ (i=1,2,3)\\ \delta_{i}\delta_{h}+k^{2}\left(\alpha_{i}\alpha_{h}+\beta_{i}\beta_{h}+\gamma_{i}\gamma_{h}\right) & =0\\ (i,h=0,1,2,3;\ i\ne h) \end{align} \right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=3)'' with ''k''<sup>2</sup>=-1.</p> ==={{anchor|Liebmann}} Liebmann (1904–05) – Weierstrass coordinates=== [[w:Heinrich Liebmann]] (1904/05) – citing Killing (1885), Gérard (1892), Hausdorff (1899) – used the invariant quadratic form and its Lorentz transformation equivalent to ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)''<ref group=M>Liebmann (1904/05), p. 168; pp. 175–176</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}p^{\prime2}-x^{\prime2}-y^{\prime2}=1\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{1} & =\alpha_{11}x+\alpha_{12}y+\alpha_{13}p\\ y_{1} & =\alpha_{21}x+\alpha_{22}y+\alpha_{23}p\\ x_{1} & =\alpha_{31}x+\alpha_{32}y+\alpha_{33}p\\ \\ x & =\alpha_{11}x_{1}+\alpha_{21}y_{1}-\alpha_{31}p_{1}\\ y & =\alpha_{12}x_{1}+\alpha_{22}y_{1}-\alpha_{32}p_{1}\\ p & =-\alpha_{13}x_{1}-\alpha_{23}y_{1}+\alpha_{33}p_{1} \end{align} \left|\begin{align}\alpha_{33}^{2}-\alpha_{13}^{2}-\alpha_{23}^{2} & =1\\ -\alpha_{31}^{2}+\alpha_{11}^{2}+\alpha_{21}^{2} & =1\\ -\alpha_{32}^{2}+\alpha_{12}^{2}+\alpha_{22}^{2} & =1\\ \alpha_{31}\alpha_{32}-\alpha_{11}\alpha_{12}-\alpha_{21}\alpha_{22} & =0\\ \alpha_{32}\alpha_{33}-\alpha_{12}\alpha_{13}-\alpha_{22}\alpha_{23} & =0\\ \alpha_{33}\alpha_{31}-\alpha_{23}\alpha_{11}-\alpha_{23}\alpha_{21} & =0 \end{align} \right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)''.</p> ==References== ===Historical mathematical sources=== {{reflist|3|group=M}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|apo}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bour56att}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|chal82sec}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|chas29}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cox81hom}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cox82hom}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|fris76}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|gau98}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|gau18}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|ger92}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|gud30}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|haus99}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|hill82}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|jac27}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|jac32a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|jac32b}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|jac33}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil77}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil79}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil84}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil85}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil93}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil97}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei71}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei73}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lag73}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|leb37}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lie85}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lie90}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lie93}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lieb04}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|pic82}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|pic84a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|pic84b}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|pic84c}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|poin81a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|poin81b}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|poin87}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|sal62}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|som63}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|wedd47}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|wern89}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo01}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo03}} ===Secondary sources=== {{reflist|3}} {{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/secsource|L1}} [[Category:Special Relativity]] [[Category:History of Physics]] ox2ajvhm4l6l9zk0czmwy9t8jkhwrtk 2415776 2415774 2022-08-17T08:22:28Z D.H 52339 /* {{anchor|Apo}} Apollonius (BC) – Conjugate diameters of hyperbolas */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{../Lorentz transformation (header)}} ==Most general Lorentz transformations== ===General quadratic form=== The general [[w:quadratic form]] ''q(x)'' with coefficients of a [[w:symmetric matrix]] '''A''', the associated [[w:bilinear form]] ''b(x,y)'', and the [[w:linear transformation]]s of ''q(x)'' and ''b(x,y)'' into ''q(x′)'' and ''b(x′,y′)'' using the [[w:transformation matrix]] '''g''', can be written as<ref>Bôcher (1907), chapter X</ref> {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{align}\begin{align}q=\sum_{0}^{n}A_{ij}x_{i}x_{j}=\mathbf{x}^{\mathrm{T}}\cdot\mathbf{A}\cdot\mathbf{x}\end{align} & =q'=\mathbf{x}^{\mathrm{\prime T}}\cdot\mathbf{A}'\cdot\mathbf{x}'\\ b=\sum_{0}^{n}A_{ij}x_{i}y_{j}=\mathbf{x}^{\mathrm{T}}\cdot\mathbf{A}\cdot\mathbf{y} & =b'=\mathbf{x}^{\mathrm{\prime T}}\cdot\mathbf{A}'\cdot\mathbf{y}' \end{align} \quad\left(A_{ij}=A_{ji}\right)\\ \hline \left.\begin{align}x_{i}^{\prime} & =\sum_{j=0}^{n}g_{ij}x_{j}=\mathbf{g}\cdot\mathbf{x}\\ x_{i} & =\sum_{j=0}^{n}g_{ij}^{(-1)}x_{j}^{\prime}=\mathbf{g}^{-1}\cdot\mathbf{x}' \end{align} \right|\mathbf{g}^{{\rm T}}\cdot\mathbf{A}\cdot\mathbf{g}=\mathbf{A}' \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|Q1}}}} The case ''n=1'' is the [[w:binary quadratic form]] introduced by [[#Lagrange|Lagrange (1773)]] and [[#Gauss|Gauss (1798/1801)]], ''n=2'' is the ternary quadratic form introduced by [[#Gauss2|Gauss (1798/1801)]], ''n=3'' is the quaternary quadratic form etc. ===Most general Lorentz transformation=== The general Lorentz transformation follows from ({{equationNote|Q1}}) by setting '''A'''='''A′'''=diag(-1,1,...,1) and det '''g'''=±1. It forms an [[w:indefinite orthogonal group]] called the [[w:Lorentz group]] O(1,n), while the case det '''g'''=+1 forms the restricted [[w:Lorentz group]] SO(1,n). The quadratic form ''q(x)'' becomes the [[w:Lorentz interval]] in terms of an [[w:indefinite quadratic form]] of [[w:Minkowski space]] (being a special case of [[w:pseudo-Euclidean space]]), and the associated bilinear form ''b(x)'' becomes the [[w:Minkowski inner product]]:<ref name=ratcliffe>Ratcliffe (1994), 3.1 and Theorem 3.1.4 and Exercise 3.1</ref><ref>Naimark (1964), 2 in four dimensions</ref> {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{align}-x_{0}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2} & =-x_{0}^{\prime2}+\dots+x_{n}^{\prime2}\\ -x_{0}y_{0}+\cdots+x_{n}y_{n} & =-x_{0}^{\prime}y_{0}^{\prime}+\cdots+x_{n}^{\prime}y_{n}^{\prime} \end{align} \\ \hline \left.\begin{matrix}\mathbf{x}'=\mathbf{g}\cdot\mathbf{x}\\ \downarrow\\ \begin{align}x_{0}^{\prime} & =x_{0}g_{00}+x_{1}g_{01}+\dots+x_{n}g_{0n}\\ x_{1}^{\prime} & =x_{0}g_{10}+x_{1}g_{11}+\dots+x_{n}g_{1n}\\ & \dots\\ x_{n}^{\prime} & =x_{0}g_{n0}+x_{1}g_{n1}+\dots+x_{n}g_{nn} \end{align} \\ \\ \mathbf{x}=\mathbf{g}^{-1}\cdot\mathbf{x}'\\ \downarrow\\ \begin{align}x_{0} & =x_{0}^{\prime}g_{00}-x_{1}^{\prime}g_{10}-\dots-x_{n}^{\prime}g_{n0}\\ x_{1} & =-x_{0}^{\prime}g_{01}+x_{1}^{\prime}g_{11}+\dots+x_{n}^{\prime}g_{n1}\\ & \dots\\ x_{n} & =-x_{0}^{\prime}g_{0n}+x_{1}^{\prime}g_{1n}+\dots+x_{n}^{\prime}g_{nn} \end{align} \end{matrix}\right|\begin{matrix}\begin{align}\mathbf{A}\cdot\mathbf{g}^{\mathrm{T}}\cdot\mathbf{A} & =\mathbf{g}^{-1}\\ \mathbf{g}^{{\rm T}}\cdot\mathbf{A}\cdot\mathbf{g} & =\mathbf{A}\\ \mathbf{g}\cdot\mathbf{A}\cdot\mathbf{g}^{\mathrm{T}} & =\mathbf{A}\\ \\ \end{align} \\ \begin{align}\sum_{i=1}^{n}g_{ij}g_{ik}-g_{0j}g_{0k} & =\left\{ \begin{align}-1\quad & (j=k=0)\\ 1\quad & (j=k>0)\\ 0\quad & (j\ne k) \end{align} \right.\\ \sum_{j=1}^{n}g_{ij}g_{kj}-g_{i0}g_{k0} & =\left\{ \begin{align}-1\quad & (i=k=0)\\ 1\quad & (i=k>0)\\ 0\quad & (i\ne k) \end{align} \right. \end{align} \end{matrix} \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|1a}}}} The invariance of the Lorentz interval with ''n''=1 between axes and conjugate diameters of hyperbolas was known for a long time since [[#Apo|Apollonius (ca. 200 BC)]]. Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|1a}}) for various dimensions were used by [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]], [[#Jacobi|Jacobi (1827, 1833)]], [[#Lebesgue|Lebesgue (1837)]], [[#Bour|Bour (1856)]], [[#Somov|Somov (1863)]], [[#Hill|Hill (1882)]] in order to simplify computations of [[w:elliptic function]]s and integrals.<ref>Musen (1970) pointed out the intimate connection of Hill's scalar development and Minkowski's pseudo-Euclidean 3D space.</ref><ref>Touma et al. (2009) showed the analogy between Gauss and Hill's equations and Lorentz transformations, see eq. 22-29.</ref> They were also used by [[#Chasles|Chasles (1829)]] and [[#Weddle|Weddle (1847)]] to describe relations on hyperboloids, as well as by [[#Poincare|Poincaré (1881)]], [[#Cox|Cox (1881/82)]], [[#Picard|Picard (1882, 1884)]], [[#Killing|Killing (1885, 1893)]], [[#Gerard|Gérard (1892)]], [[#Hausdorff|Hausdorff (1899)]], [[#Woods2|Woods (1901, 1903)]], [[#Liebmann|Liebmann (1904/05)]] to describe [[w:hyperbolic motion]]s (i.e. rigid motions in the [[w:hyperbolic plane]] or [[w:hyperbolic space]]), which were expressed in terms of Weierstrass coordinates of the [[w:hyperboloid model]] satisfying the relation <math>-x_{0}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}=-1</math> or in terms of the [[w:Cayley–Klein metric]] of [[w:projective geometry]] using the "absolute" form <math>-x_{0}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}=0</math> as discussed by [[#Klein|Klein (1871-73)]].<ref group=M>Killing (1885), p. 71</ref><ref>Müller (1910), p. 661, in particular footnote 247.</ref><ref>Sommerville (1911), p. 286, section K6.</ref> In addition, [[w:infinitesimal transformation]]s related to the [[w:Lie algebra]] of the group of hyperbolic motions were given in terms of Weierstrass coordinates <math>-x_{0}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}=-1</math> by [[#Killing3|Killing (1888-1897)]]. ===Most general Lorentz transformation of velocity=== If <math>x_{i},\ x_{i}^{\prime}</math> in ({{equationNote|1a}}) are interpreted as [[w:homogeneous coordinates]], then the corresponding inhomogenous coordinates <math>u_{s},\ u_{s}^{\prime}</math> follow by :<math>\frac{x_{s}}{x_{0}}=u_{s},\ \frac{x_{s}^{\prime}}{x_{0}^{\prime}}=u_{s}^{\prime}\ (s=1,2\dots n)</math> defined by <math>u_{1}^{2}+u_{2}^{2}+\dots+u_{n}^{2}\le1</math> so that the Lorentz transformation becomes a [[w:homography]] inside the [[w:unit hypersphere]], which [[w:John Lighton Synge]] called "the most general formula for the composition of velocities" in terms of special relativity<ref>Synge (1955), p. 129 for ''n''=3</ref> (the transformation matrix '''g''' stays the same as in ({{equationNote|1a}})): {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{align}u_{s}^{\prime} & =\frac{g_{s0}+g_{s1}u_{1}+\dots+g_{sn}u_{n}}{g_{00}+g_{01}u_{1}+\dots+g_{0n}u_{n}}\\ \\ u_{s} & =\frac{-g_{0s}+g_{1s}u_{1}^{\prime}+\dots+g_{ns}u_{n}^{\prime}}{g_{00}-g_{10}u_{1}^{\prime}-\dots-g_{n0}u_{n}^{\prime}} \end{align} \left|\begin{align}\sum_{i=1}^{n}g_{ij}g_{ik}-g_{0j}g_{0k} & =\left\{ \begin{align}-1\quad & (j=k=0)\\ 1\quad & (j=k>0)\\ 0\quad & (j\ne k) \end{align} \right.\\ \sum_{j=1}^{n}g_{ij}g_{kj}-g_{i0}g_{k0} & =\left\{ \begin{align}-1\quad & (i=k=0)\\ 1\quad & (i=k>0)\\ 0\quad & (i\ne k) \end{align} \right. \end{align} \right.</math>|{{equationRef|1b}}}} Such Lorentz transformations for various dimensions were used by [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]], [[#Jacobi|Jacobi (1827–1833)]], [[#Lebesgue|Lebesgue (1837)]], [[#Bour|Bour (1856)]], [[#Somov|Somov (1863)]], [[#Hill|Hill (1882)]], [[#Callandreau|Callandreau (1885)]] in order to simplify computations of elliptic functions and integrals, by [[#Picard|Picard (1882-1884)]] in relation to [[w:Hermitian form|Hermitian quadratic form]]s, or by [[#Woods2|Woods (1901, 1903)]] in terms of the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model]] of hyperbolic geometry. In addition, infinitesimal transformations in terms of the [[w:Lie algebra]] of the group of hyperbolic motions leaving invariant the unit sphere <math>-1+u_{1}^{\prime2}+\cdots+u_{n}^{\prime2}=0</math> were given by [[#Lie3|Lie (1885-1893) and Werner (1889)]] and [[#Killing3|Killing (1888-1897)]]. ==Historical notation== ==={{anchor|Apo}} Apollonius (BC) – Conjugate diameters of hyperbolas === [[w:Apollonius of Perga]] (c. 240–190 BC) defined propositions related to conjugate diameters of hyperbolas, which was translated and adapted to the modern reader by [[w:Thomas Heath (classicist)|w:Thomas Heath]] as follows:<ref group=M>Apollonius/Heath (1896), Proposition 129; (Apollonius, Book VII, Prop. 13).</ref> :[..] in every hyperbola the difference of the squares on any two conjugate diameters is equal to the [..] difference [..] of the squares on the axes. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Apollonius' result indicates the invariance of the Lorentz interval <math>-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}=-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}</math>, by which Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=1)'' can be interpreted as mapping from one pair of axes of a hyperbola to a pair of conjugate diameters.</p> ===Lagrange (1773) – Binary quadratic forms {{anchor|Lagrange}}=== After the invariance of the sum of squares under linear substitutions was discussed by [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#Euler|E:Euler (1771)]], the general expressions of a [[w:binary quadratic form]] and its transformation was formulated by [[w:Joseph-Louis Lagrange]] (1773/75) as follows<ref group=M>Lagrange (1773/75), section 22</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}py^{2}+2qyz+rz^{2}=Ps^{2}+2Qsx+Rx^{2}\\ \hline \begin{align}y & =Ms+Nx\\ z & =ms+nx \end{align} \left|\begin{matrix}\begin{align}P & =pM^{2}+2qMm+rm^{2}\\ Q & =pMN+q(Mn+Nm)+rmn\\ R & =pN^{2}+2qNn+rn^{2} \end{align} \\ \downarrow\\ PR-Q^{2}=\left(pr-q^{2}\right)(Mn-Nm)^{2} \end{matrix}\right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to ({{equationNote|Q1}}) ''(n=1)''. The Lorentz interval <math>-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}</math> and the Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=1)'' are a special case of the binary quadratic form by setting ''(p,q,r)=(P,Q,R)=(1,0,-1)''.</p> ==={{anchor|Gauss}} Gauss (1798–1818)=== ===={{anchor|Gauss1}} Binary quadratic forms==== The theory of binary quadratic forms was considerably expanded by [[w:Carl Friedrich Gauss]] (1798, published 1801) in his [[w:Disquisitiones Arithmeticae]]. He rewrote Lagrange's formalism as follows using integer coefficients α,β,γ,δ:<ref group=M>Gauss (1798/1801), articles 157–158;</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}F=ax^{2}+2bxy+cy^{2}=(a,b,c)\\ F'=a'x^{\prime2}+2b'x'y'+c'y^{\prime2}=(a',b',c')\\ \hline \begin{align}x & =\alpha x'+\beta y'\\ y & =\gamma x'+\delta y'\\ \\ x' & =\delta x-\beta y\\ y' & =-\gamma x+\alpha y \end{align} \left|\begin{matrix}\begin{align}a' & =a\alpha^{2}+2b\alpha\gamma+c\gamma^{2}\\ b' & =a\alpha\beta+b(\alpha\delta+\beta\gamma)+c\gamma\delta\\ c' & =a\beta^{2}+2b\beta\delta+c\delta^{2} \end{align} \\ \downarrow\\ b^{2}-a'c'=\left(b^{2}-ac\right)(\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma)^{2} \end{matrix}\right. \end{matrix}</math> which is equivalent to ({{equationNote|Q1}}) ''(n=1)''. As pointed out by Gauss, ''F'' and ''F′'' are called "proper equivalent" if αδ-βγ=1, so that ''F'' is contained in ''F′'' as well as ''F′'' is contained in ''F''. In addition, if another form ''F″'' is contained by the same procedure in ''F′'' it is also contained in ''F'' and so forth.<ref group=M>Gauss (1798/1801), section 159</ref> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The Lorentz interval <math>-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}</math> and the Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=1)'' are a special case of the binary quadratic form by setting ''(a,b,c)=(a',b',c')=(1,0,-1)''.</p> ===={{anchor|Gauss2}} Ternary quadratic forms==== Gauss (1798/1801)<ref group=M>Gauss (1798/1801), articles 266–285</ref> also discussed ternary quadratic forms with the general expression :<math>\begin{matrix}f=ax^{2}+a'x^{\prime2}+a''x^{\prime\prime2}+2bx'x''+2b'xx''+2b''xx'=\left(\begin{matrix}a, & a', & a''\\ b, & b', & b'' \end{matrix}\right)\\ g=my^{2}+m'y^{\prime2}+m''y^{\prime\prime2}+2ny'y''+2n'yy''+2n''yy'=\left(\begin{matrix}m, & m', & m''\\ n, & n', & n'' \end{matrix}\right)\\ \hline \begin{align}x & =\alpha y+\beta y'+\gamma y''\\ x' & =\alpha'y+\beta'y'+\gamma'y''\\ x'' & =\alpha''y+\beta''y'+\gamma''y'' \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> which is equivalent to ({{equationNote|Q1}}) ''(n=2)''. Gauss called these forms definite when they have the same sign such as ''x<sup>2</sup>+y<sup>2</sup>+z<sup>2</sup>'', or indefinite in the case of different signs such as ''x<sup>2</sup>+y<sup>2</sup>-z<sup>2</sup>''. While discussing the classification of ternary quadratic forms, Gauss (1801) presented twenty special cases, among them these six variants:<ref group=M>Gauss (1798/1801), article 277</ref> :<math>\left(\begin{matrix}a, & a', & a''\\ b, & b', & b'' \end{matrix}\right)\Rightarrow\begin{matrix}\left(\begin{matrix}1, & -1, & 1\\ 0, & 0, & 0 \end{matrix}\right),\ \left(\begin{matrix}-1, & 1, & 1\\ 0, & 0, & 0 \end{matrix}\right),\ \left(\begin{matrix}1, & 1, & -1\\ 0, & 0, & 0 \end{matrix}\right),\\ \left(\begin{matrix}1, & -1, & -1\\ 0, & 0, & 0 \end{matrix}\right),\ \left(\begin{matrix}-1, & 1, & -1\\ 0, & 0, & 0 \end{matrix}\right),\ \left(\begin{matrix}-1, & -1, & 1\\ 0, & 0, & 0 \end{matrix}\right) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">These are all six types of Lorentz interval in 2+1 dimensions that can be produced as special cases of a ternary quadratic form. In general: The Lorentz interval <math>x^{2}+x^{\prime2}-x^{\prime\prime2}</math> and the Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)'' is an indefinite ternary quadratic form, which follows from the general ternary form by setting: <br><math>\left(\begin{matrix}a, & a', & a''\\ b, & b', & b'' \end{matrix}\right)=\left(\begin{matrix}m, & m', & m''\\ n, & n', & n'' \end{matrix}\right)=\left(\begin{matrix}1, & 1, & -1\\ 0, & 0, & 0 \end{matrix}\right)</math></p> ===={{anchor|Gauss4}} Homogeneous coordinates==== Gauss (1818) discussed planetary motions together with formulating [[w:elliptic function]]s. In order to simplify the integration, he transformed the expression :<math>(AA+BB+CC)tt+aa(t\cos E)^{2}+bb(t\sin E)^{2}-2aAt\cdot t\cos E-2bBt\cdot t\sin E</math> into :<math>G+G'\cos T^{2}+G''\sin T^{2}</math> in which the [[w:eccentric anomaly]] ''E'' is connected to the new variable ''T'' by the following transformation including an arbitrary constant ''k'', which Gauss then rewrote by setting ''k''=1:<ref group=M>Gauss (1818), pp. 5–10</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}{\scriptstyle \left(\alpha+\alpha'\cos T+\alpha''\sin T\right)^{2}+\left(\beta+\beta'\cos T+\beta''\sin T\right)^{2}-\left(\gamma+\gamma'\cos T+\gamma''\sin T\right)^{2}}=0\\ k\left(\cos^{2}T+\sin^{2}T-1\right)=0\\ \hline \begin{align}\cos E & =\frac{\alpha+\alpha'\cos T+\alpha''\sin T}{\gamma+\gamma'\cos T+\gamma''\sin T}\\ \sin E & =\frac{\beta+\beta'\cos T+\beta''\sin T}{\gamma+\gamma'\cos T+\gamma''\sin T} \end{align} \left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}-\alpha\alpha-\beta\beta+\gamma\gamma & =k & \alpha\alpha-\alpha'\alpha'-\alpha''\alpha'' & =-k\\ -\alpha'\alpha'-\beta'\beta'+\gamma'\gamma' & =-k & \beta\beta-\beta'\beta'-\beta''\beta'' & =-k\\ -\alpha''\alpha''-\beta''\beta''+\gamma''\gamma'' & =-k & \gamma\gamma-\gamma'\gamma'-\gamma''\gamma'' & =+k\\ -\alpha'\alpha''-\beta'\beta''+\gamma'\gamma'' & =0 & \beta\gamma-\beta'\gamma'-\beta''\gamma'' & =0\\ -\alpha''\alpha-\beta''\beta+\gamma''\gamma & =0 & \gamma\alpha-\gamma'\alpha'-\gamma''\alpha'' & =0\\ -\alpha\alpha'-\beta\beta'+\gamma\gamma' & =0 & \alpha\beta-\alpha'\beta'-\alpha''\beta'' & =0 \end{align} }\right.\\ \hline k=1\\ \begin{align}t\cos E & =\alpha+\alpha'\cos T+\alpha''\sin T\\ t\sin E & =\beta+\beta'\cos T+\beta''\sin T\\ t & =\gamma+\gamma'\cos T+\gamma''\sin T \end{align} \left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}-\alpha\alpha-\beta\beta+\gamma\gamma & =1\\ -\alpha'\alpha'-\beta'\beta'+\gamma'\gamma' & =-1\\ -\alpha''\alpha''-\beta''\beta''+\gamma''\gamma'' & =-1\\ -\alpha'\alpha''-\beta'\beta''+\gamma'\gamma'' & =0\\ -\alpha''\alpha-\beta''\beta+\gamma''\gamma & =0\\ -\alpha\alpha'-\beta\beta'+\gamma\gamma' & =0 \end{align} }\right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The coefficients α,β,γ,... of Gauss' case ''k''=1 are equivalent to the coefficient system in Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|1a}}) and ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)''. Further setting <math>[\cos T,\sin T,\cos E,\sin E]=\left[u_{1},\ u_{2},\ u_{1}^{\prime},\ u_{2}^{\prime}\right]</math>, Gauss' transformation becomes Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)''.</p> Subsequently, he showed that these relations can be reformulated using three variables ''x,y,z'' and ''u,u′,u″'', so that :<math>aaxx+bbyy+(AA+BB+CC)zz-2aAxz-2bByz</math> can be transformed into :<math>Guu+G'u'u'+G''u''u''</math>, in which ''x,y,z'' and ''u,u′,u″'' are related by the transformation:<ref group=M>Gauss (1818), pp. 9–10</ref> :<math>\begin{align}x & =\alpha u+\alpha'u'+\alpha''u''\\ y & =\beta u+\beta'u'+\beta''u''\\ z & =\gamma u+\gamma'u'+\gamma''u''\\ \\ u & =-\alpha x-\beta y+\gamma z\\ u' & =\alpha'x+\beta'y-\gamma'z\\ u'' & =\alpha''x+\beta''y-\gamma''z \end{align} \left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}-\alpha\alpha-\beta\beta+\gamma\gamma & =1\\ -\alpha'\alpha'-\beta'\beta'+\gamma'\gamma' & =-1\\ -\alpha''\alpha''-\beta''\beta''+\gamma''\gamma'' & =-1\\ -\alpha'\alpha''-\beta'\beta''+\gamma'\gamma'' & =0\\ -\alpha''\alpha-\beta''\beta+\gamma''\gamma & =0\\ -\alpha\alpha'-\beta\beta'+\gamma\gamma' & =0 \end{align} }\right.</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)'' satisfying <math>x^{2}+y^{2}-z^{2}=u^{\prime2}+u^{\prime\prime2}-u^{2}</math>, and can be related to Gauss' previous equations in terms of homogeneous coordinates <math>\left[\cos T,\sin T,\cos E,\sin E\right]=\left[\tfrac{x}{z},\ \tfrac{y}{z},\ \tfrac{u'}{u},\ \tfrac{u''}{u}\right]</math>.</p> ==={{anchor|Jacobi}} Jacobi (1827, 1833/34) – Homogeneous coordinates=== Following [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]], [[w:Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi]] extended Gauss' transformation in 1827:<ref group=M>Jacobi (1827), p. 235, 239–240</ref> :<math>{\scriptstyle \begin{matrix}\cos P^{2}+\sin P^{2}\cos\vartheta^{2}+\sin P^{2}\sin\vartheta^{2}=1\\ k\left(\cos\psi^{2}+\sin\psi^{2}\cos\varphi^{2}+\sin\psi^{2}\sin\varphi^{2}-1\right)=0\\ \hline {\left.\begin{matrix}\mathbf{(1)}\begin{align}\cos P & =\frac{\alpha+\alpha'\cos\psi+\alpha''\sin\psi\cos\varphi+\alpha'''\sin\psi\sin\varphi}{\delta+\delta'\cos\psi+\delta''\sin\psi\cos\varphi+\delta'''\sin\psi\sin\varphi}\\ \sin P\cos\vartheta & =\frac{\beta+\beta'\cos\psi+\beta''\sin\psi\cos\varphi+\beta'''\sin\psi\sin\varphi}{\delta+\delta'\cos\psi+\delta''\sin\psi\cos\varphi+\delta'''\sin\psi\sin\varphi}\\ \sin P\sin\vartheta & =\frac{\gamma+\beta'\cos\psi+\gamma''\sin\psi\cos\varphi+\gamma'''\sin\psi\sin\varphi}{\delta+\delta'\cos\psi+\delta''\sin\psi\cos\varphi+\delta'''\sin\psi\sin\varphi}\\ \\ \cos\psi & =\frac{-\delta'+\alpha'\cos P+\beta'\sin P\cos\vartheta+\gamma'\sin P\sin\vartheta}{\delta-\alpha\cos P-\beta\sin P\cos\vartheta-\gamma\sin P\sin\vartheta}\\ \sin\psi\cos\varphi & =\frac{-\delta''+\alpha''\cos P+\beta''\sin P\cos\vartheta+\gamma''\sin P\sin\vartheta}{\delta-\alpha\cos P-\beta\sin P\cos\vartheta-\gamma\sin P\sin\vartheta}\\ \sin\psi\sin\varphi & =\frac{-\delta'''+\alpha'''\cos P+\beta'''\sin P\cos\vartheta+\gamma'''\sin P\sin\vartheta}{\delta-\alpha\cos P-\beta\sin P\cos\vartheta-\gamma\sin P\sin\vartheta} \end{align} \\ \\ \hline \mathbf{(2)}\begin{align}\alpha\mu+\beta x+\gamma y+\delta z & =m\\ \alpha'\mu+\beta'x+\gamma'y+\delta'z & =m'\\ \alpha''\mu+\beta''x+\gamma''y+\delta''z & =m''\\ \alpha'''\mu+\beta'''x+\gamma'''y+\delta'''z & =m'''\\ \\ Am+A'm'+A''m''+A'''m''' & =\mu\\ Bm+B'm'+B''m''+B'''m''' & =x\\ Cm+C'm'+C''m''+C'''m''' & =y\\ Dm+D'm'+D''m''+D'''m''' & =z\\ \\ \end{align} \\ \begin{align}\alpha & =-kA, & \beta & =-kB, & \gamma & =-kC, & \delta & =kD,\\ \alpha' & =kA', & \beta' & =kB', & \gamma' & =kC', & \delta' & =-kD',\\ \alpha'' & =kA'', & \beta'' & =kB'', & \gamma'' & =kC'', & \delta'' & =-kD'',\\ \alpha''' & =kA''', & \beta''' & =kB''', & \gamma''' & =kC''', & \delta''' & =-kD''', \end{align} \end{matrix}\right|\begin{matrix}\begin{align}\alpha\alpha+\beta\beta+\gamma\gamma-\delta\delta & =-k\\ \alpha'\alpha'+\beta'\beta'+\gamma'\gamma'-\delta'\delta' & =k\\ \alpha''\alpha''+\beta''\beta''+\gamma''\gamma''-\delta''\delta'' & =k\\ \alpha'''\alpha'''+\beta'''\beta'''+\gamma'''\gamma'''-\delta'''\delta''' & =k\\ \alpha\alpha'+\beta\beta'+\gamma\gamma'-\delta\delta' & =0\\ \alpha\alpha''+\beta\beta''+\gamma\gamma''-\delta\delta'' & =0\\ \alpha\alpha'''+\beta\beta'''+\gamma\gamma'''-\delta\delta''' & =0\\ \alpha''\alpha'''+\beta''\beta'''+\gamma''\gamma'''-\delta''\delta''' & =0\\ \alpha'''\alpha'+\beta'''\beta'+\gamma'''\gamma'-\delta'''\delta' & =0\\ \alpha'\alpha''+\beta'\beta''+\gamma'\gamma''-\delta'\delta'' & =0\\ \\ -\alpha\alpha+\alpha'\alpha'+\alpha''\alpha''+\alpha'''\alpha''' & =k\\ -\beta\beta+\beta'\beta'+\beta''\beta''+\beta'''\beta''' & =k\\ -\gamma\gamma+\gamma'\gamma'+\gamma''\gamma''+\gamma'''\gamma''' & =k\\ -\delta\delta+\delta'\delta'+\delta''\delta''+\delta'''\delta''' & =-k\\ -\alpha\beta+\alpha'\beta'+\alpha''\beta''+\alpha'''\beta''' & =0\\ -\alpha\gamma+\alpha'\gamma'+\alpha''\gamma''+\alpha'''\gamma''' & =0\\ -\alpha\delta+\alpha'\delta'+\alpha''\delta''+\alpha'''\delta''' & =0\\ -\beta\gamma+\beta'\gamma'+\beta''\gamma''+\beta'''\gamma''' & =0\\ -\gamma\delta+\gamma'\delta'+\gamma''\delta''+\gamma'''\delta''' & =0\\ -\delta\beta+\delta'\beta'+\delta''\beta''+\delta'''\beta''' & =0 \end{align} \end{matrix}} \end{matrix}}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">By setting <math>{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\left[\cos P,\ \sin P\cos\varphi,\ \sin P\sin\varphi\right] & =\left[u_{1},\ u_{2},\ u_{3}\right]\\{} [\cos\psi,\ \sin\psi\cos\vartheta,\ \sin\psi\sin\vartheta] & =\left[u_{1}^{\prime},\ u_{2}^{\prime},\ u_{3}^{\prime}\right] \end{align} }</math> and ''k''=1 in the (1827) formulas, transformation system (1) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=3)'', and by setting ''k''=1 in transformation system (2) it becomes equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=3)'' producing <math>m^{2}+m^{\prime2}+m^{\prime\prime2}-m^{\prime\prime\prime2}=\mu^{2}+x^{2}+y^{2}-z^{2}</math>.</p> Alternatively, in two papers from 1832 Jacobi started with an ordinary orthogonal transformation, and by using an imaginary substitution he arrived at Gauss' transformation (up to a sign change):<ref group=M>The orthogonal substitution and the imaginary transformation was defined in Jacobi (1832a), pp. 257, 265–267; Transformation system (2) and (3) and coefficients in Jacobi (1832b), pp. 321-325.</ref> :<math>{\scriptstyle \begin{matrix}xx+yy+zz=ss+s's'+s''s''=0\\ \mathbf{(1)}\begin{align}x & =\alpha s+\alpha's'+\alpha''s''\\ y & =\beta s+\beta's'+\beta''s''\\ z & =\gamma s+\gamma's'+\gamma''s''\\ \\ s & =\alpha x+\beta y+\gamma z\\ s' & =\alpha'x+\beta'y+\gamma'z\\ s'' & =\alpha''x+\beta''y+\gamma''z \end{align} \left|\begin{align}\alpha\alpha+\beta\beta+\gamma\gamma & =1 & \alpha\alpha+\alpha'\alpha'+\alpha''\alpha'' & =1\\ \alpha'\alpha'+\beta'\beta'+\gamma'\gamma' & =1 & \beta\beta+\beta'\beta'+\beta''\beta'' & =1\\ \alpha''\alpha''+\beta''\beta''+\gamma''\gamma'' & =1 & \gamma\gamma+\gamma'\gamma'+\gamma''\gamma'' & =1\\ \alpha'\alpha''+\beta'\beta''+\gamma'\gamma'' & =0 & \beta\gamma+\beta'\gamma'+\beta''\gamma'' & =0\\ \alpha''\alpha+\beta''\beta+\gamma''\gamma & =0 & \gamma\alpha+\gamma'\alpha'+\gamma''\alpha'' & =0\\ \alpha\alpha'+\beta\beta'+\gamma\gamma' & =0 & \alpha\beta+\alpha'\beta'+\alpha''\beta'' & =0 \end{align} \right.\\ \hline \left[\frac{y}{x},\ \frac{z}{x},\ \frac{s'}{s},\ \frac{s''}{s}\right]=\left[-i\cos\varphi,\ -i\sin\varphi,\ i\cos\eta,\ i\sin\eta\right]\\ \left[\alpha',\ \alpha'',\ \beta,\ \gamma\right]=\left[i\alpha',\ i\alpha'',\ -i\beta,\ -i\gamma\right]\\ \hline \begin{matrix}\mathbf{(2)}\begin{matrix}\left(\alpha-\alpha'\cos\eta-\alpha''\sin\eta\right)^{2}=\left(\beta-\beta'\cos\eta-\beta''\sin\eta\right)^{2}+\left(\gamma-\gamma'\cos\eta-\gamma''\sin\eta\right)^{2}\\ \left(\alpha-\beta\cos\phi-\gamma\sin\phi\right)^{2}=\left(\alpha'-\beta'\cos\phi-\gamma'\sin\phi\right)^{2}+\left(\alpha''-\beta''\cos\phi-\gamma''\sin\phi\right)^{2}\\ \hline \begin{align}\cos\phi & =\frac{\beta-\beta'\cos\eta-\beta''\sin\eta}{\alpha-\alpha'\cos\eta-\alpha''\sin\eta}, & \cos\eta & =\frac{\alpha'-\beta'\cos\phi-\gamma'\sin\phi}{\alpha-\beta\cos\phi-\gamma\sin\phi}\\ \sin\phi & =\frac{\gamma-\gamma'\cos\eta-\gamma''\sin\eta}{\alpha-\alpha'\cos\eta-\alpha''\sin\eta}, & \sin\eta & =\frac{\alpha''-\beta''\cos\phi-\gamma''\sin\phi}{\alpha-\beta\cos\phi-\gamma\sin\phi} \end{align} \end{matrix}\\ \hline \\ \mathbf{(3)}\begin{matrix}1-zz-yy=\frac{1-s's'-s''s''}{\left(\alpha-\alpha's'-\alpha''s''\right)^{2}}\\ \hline \begin{align}y & =\frac{\beta-\beta's'-\beta''s''}{\alpha-\alpha's'-\alpha''s''}, & s' & =\frac{\alpha'-\beta'y-\gamma'z}{\alpha-\beta y-\gamma z},\\ z & =\frac{\gamma-\gamma's'-\gamma''s''}{\alpha-\alpha's'-\alpha''s'''}, & s'' & =\frac{\alpha''-\beta''y-\gamma''z}{\alpha-\beta y-\gamma z}, \end{align} \end{matrix} \end{matrix}\left|\begin{align}\alpha\alpha-\beta\beta-\gamma\gamma & =1\\ \alpha'\alpha'-\beta'\beta'-\gamma'\gamma' & =-1\\ \alpha''\alpha''-\beta''\beta''-\gamma''\gamma'' & =-1\\ \alpha'\alpha''-\beta'\beta''-\gamma'\gamma'' & =0\\ \alpha''\alpha-\beta''\beta-\gamma''\gamma & =0\\ \alpha\alpha'-\beta\beta'-\gamma\gamma' & =0\\ \\ \alpha\alpha-\alpha'\alpha'-\alpha''\alpha'' & =1\\ \beta\beta-\beta'\beta'-\beta''\beta'' & =-1\\ \gamma\gamma-\gamma'\gamma'-\gamma''\gamma'' & =-1\\ \beta\gamma-\beta'\gamma'-\beta''\gamma'' & =0\\ \gamma\alpha-\gamma'\alpha'-\gamma''\alpha'' & =0\\ \alpha\beta-\alpha'\beta'-\alpha''\beta'' & =0 \end{align} \right. \end{matrix}}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">By setting <math>[\cos\phi,\ \sin\phi,\ \cos\eta,\ \sin\eta]=\left[u_{1},\ u_{2},\ u_{1}^{\prime},\ u_{2}^{\prime}\right]</math>, transformation system (2) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)''. Also transformation system (3) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)'' up to a sign change.</p> Extending his previous result, Jacobi (1833) started with [[#Cauchy|Cauchy's (1829)]] orthogonal transformation for ''n'' dimensions, and by using an imaginary substitution he formulated Gauss' transformation (up to a sign change) in the case of ''n'' dimensions:<ref group =M>Jacobi (1833/34), pp. 7–8, 34–35, 41; Some misprints were corrected in Jacobi's collected papers, vol 3, pp. 229–230.</ref> :<math>{\scriptstyle \begin{matrix}x_{1}x_{1}+x_{2}x_{2}+\dots+x_{n}x_{n}=y_{1}y_{1}+y_{2}y_{2}+\dots+y_{n}y_{n}\\ \hline \mathbf{(1)\ }\begin{align}y_{\varkappa} & =\alpha_{1}^{(\varkappa)}x_{1}+\alpha_{2}^{(\varkappa)}x_{2}+\dots+\alpha_{n}^{(\varkappa)}x_{n}\\ x_{\varkappa} & =\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}y_{1}+\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}y_{2}+\dots+\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n)}y_{n}\\ \\ \frac{y_{\varkappa}}{y_{n}} & =\frac{\alpha_{1}^{(\varkappa)}x_{1}+\alpha_{2}^{(\varkappa)}x_{2}+\dots+\alpha_{n}^{(\varkappa)}x_{n}}{\alpha_{1}^{(n)}x_{1}+\alpha_{2}^{(n)}x_{2}+\dots+\alpha_{n}^{(n)}x_{n}}\\ \frac{x_{\varkappa}}{x_{n}} & =\frac{\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}y_{1}+\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}y_{2}+\dots+\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n)}y_{n}}{\alpha_{1}^{(n)}x_{1}+\alpha_{2}^{(n)}x_{2}+\dots+\alpha_{n}^{(n)}x_{n}} \end{align} \left|\begin{align}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}\alpha_{\lambda}^{\prime}+\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}\alpha_{\lambda}^{\prime\prime}+\dots+\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n)}\alpha_{\lambda}^{(n)} & =0\\ \alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}+\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}+\dots+\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n)}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n)} & =1\\ \\ \alpha_{1}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{1}^{(\lambda)}+\alpha_{2}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{2}^{(\lambda)}+\dots+\alpha_{n}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{n}^{(\lambda)} & =0\\ \alpha_{1}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{1}^{(\varkappa)}+\alpha_{2}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{2}^{(\varkappa)}+\dots+\alpha_{n}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{n}^{(\varkappa)} & =1 \end{align} \right.\\ \hline \frac{x_{\varkappa}}{x_{n}}=-i\xi_{\varkappa},\ \frac{y_{\varkappa}}{y_{n}}=i\nu_{\varkappa}\\ 1-\xi_{1}\xi_{1}-\xi_{2}\xi_{2}-\dots-\xi_{n-1}\xi_{n-1}=\frac{y_{n}y_{n}}{x_{n}x_{n}}\left(1-\nu_{1}\nu_{1}-\nu_{2}\nu_{2}-\dots-\nu_{n-1}\nu_{n-1}\right)\\ \alpha_{n}^{(\varkappa)}=i\alpha^{(\varkappa)},\ \alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n)}=-i\alpha_{\varkappa},\ \alpha_{n}^{(n)}=\alpha\\ 1-\xi_{1}\xi_{1}-\xi_{2}\xi_{2}-\dots-\xi_{n-1}\xi_{n-1}=\frac{1-\nu_{1}\nu_{1}-\nu_{2}\nu_{2}-\dots-\nu_{n-1}\nu_{n-1}}{\left[\alpha-\alpha^{\prime}\nu_{1}-\alpha^{\prime\prime}\nu_{2}\dots-\alpha^{(n-1)}\nu_{n-1}\right]^{2}}\\ \hline \mathbf{(2)\ }\begin{align}\nu_{\varkappa} & =\frac{\alpha^{(\varkappa)}-\alpha_{1}^{(\varkappa)}\xi_{1}-\alpha_{2}^{(\varkappa)}\xi_{2}\dots-\alpha_{n-1}^{(\varkappa)}\xi_{n-1}}{\alpha-\alpha_{1}\xi_{1}-\alpha_{2}\xi_{2}\dots-\alpha_{n-1}\xi_{n-1}}\\ \\ \xi_{\varkappa} & =\frac{\alpha_{\varkappa}-\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}\nu_{1}-\alpha_{2}^{\prime\prime}\nu_{2}\dots-\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n-1)}\nu_{n-1}}{\alpha-\alpha^{\prime}\nu_{1}-\alpha^{\prime\prime}\nu_{2}\dots-\alpha^{(n-1)}\nu_{n-1}} \end{align} \\ \hline \xi_{1}\xi_{1}-\xi_{2}\xi_{2}-\dots-\xi_{n-1}\xi_{n-1}=1\ \Rightarrow\ \nu_{1}\nu_{1}-\nu_{2}\nu_{2}-\dots-\nu_{n-1}\nu_{n-1}=1 \end{matrix}}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Transformation system (2) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) up to a sign change.</p> He also stated the following transformation leaving invariant the Lorentz interval:<ref group=M>Jacobi (1833/34), p. 37. Some misprints were corrected in Jacobi's collected papers, vol 3, pp. 232–233.</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}uu-u_{1}u_{1}-u_{2}u_{2}-\dots-u_{n-1}u_{n-1}=ww-w_{1}w_{1}-w_{2}w_{2}-\dots-w_{n-1}w_{n-1}\\ \hline {\scriptstyle \begin{align}u & =\alpha w-\alpha'w_{1}-\alpha''w_{2}-\dots-\alpha^{(n-1)}w_{n-1}\\ u_{1} & =\alpha_{1}w-\alpha_{1}^{\prime}w_{1}-\alpha_{1}^{\prime\prime}w_{2}-\dots-\alpha_{1}^{(n-1)}w_{n-1}\\ & \dots\\ u_{n-1} & =\alpha_{n-1}w-\alpha_{n-1}^{\prime}w_{1}-\alpha_{n-1}^{\prime\prime}w_{2}-\dots-\alpha_{n-1}^{(n-1)}w_{n-1}\\ \\ w & =\alpha u-\alpha_{1}u_{1}-\alpha_{2}^{\prime\prime}u_{2}-\dots-\alpha_{n-1}u_{n-1}\\ w_{1} & =\alpha'u-\alpha_{1}^{\prime}u_{1}-\alpha_{2}^{\prime}u_{2}-\dots-\alpha_{n-1}^{\prime}u_{n-1}\\ & \dots\\ w_{n-1} & =\alpha^{(n-1)}u-\alpha_{1}^{(n-1)}u_{1}-\alpha_{2}^{(n-1)}u_{2}-\dots-\alpha_{n-1}^{(n-1)}u_{n-1} \end{align} \left|\begin{align}\alpha\alpha-\alpha'\alpha'-\alpha''\alpha''\dots-\alpha^{(n-1)}\alpha^{(n-1)} & =+1\\ \alpha_{\varkappa}\alpha_{\varkappa}-\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}-\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}\dots-\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n-1)}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n-1)} & =-1\\ \alpha\alpha_{\varkappa}-\alpha^{\prime}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}-\alpha^{\prime\prime}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}\dots-\alpha^{(n-1)}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n-1)} & =0\\ \alpha_{\varkappa}\alpha_{\lambda}-\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}\alpha_{\lambda}^{\prime}-\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}\alpha_{\lambda}^{\prime\prime}\dots-\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n-1)}\alpha_{\lambda}^{(n-1)} & =0\\ \\ \alpha\alpha-\alpha_{1}\alpha_{1}-\alpha_{2}\alpha_{2}\dots-\alpha_{n-1}\alpha_{n-1} & =+1\\ \alpha_{\varkappa}\alpha_{\varkappa}-\alpha_{1}^{\varkappa}\alpha_{1}^{\varkappa}-\alpha_{2}^{\prime\prime}\alpha_{2}^{\prime\prime}\dots-\alpha_{n-1}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{n-1}^{(\varkappa)} & =-1\\ \alpha\alpha^{(\varkappa)}-\alpha_{1}\alpha_{1}^{(\varkappa)}-\alpha_{2}\alpha_{2}^{(\varkappa)}\dots-\alpha_{n-1}\alpha_{n-1}^{(\varkappa)} & =0\\ \alpha^{(\varkappa)}\alpha^{(\lambda)}-\alpha_{1}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{1}^{\lambda l)}-\alpha_{2}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{2}^{(\lambda)}\dots-\alpha_{n-1}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{n-1}^{(\lambda)} & =0 \end{align} \text{ }\right.} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) up to a sign change.</p> ==={{anchor|Chasles}} Chasles (1829) – Conjugate hyperboloids === [[w:Michel Chasles]] (1829) independently introduced the same equation systems as [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]] and [[#Jacobi|Jacobi (1827)]], albeit in the different context of conjugate hyperboloids. He started with two equation systems (a) and (b) from which he derived systems (c), (d) and others:<ref group=M>Chasles (1829), p. 139</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\left.\begin{align}\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2} & =1\\ \alpha^{\prime2}+\beta^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime2} & =1\\ \alpha^{\prime\prime2}+\beta^{\prime\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} & =-1 \end{align} \right\} & \dots(a)\\ \\ \left.\begin{align}\alpha\alpha'+\beta\beta'-\gamma\gamma' & =0\\ \alpha\alpha''+\beta\beta''-\gamma\gamma'' & =0\\ \alpha'\alpha''+\beta'\beta''-\gamma'\gamma' & =0 \end{align} \right\} & \dots(b)\\ \\ \left.\begin{align}\alpha^{2}+\alpha^{\prime2}-\alpha^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ \beta^{2}+\beta^{\prime2}-\beta^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ \gamma^{2}+\gamma^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} & =-1 \end{align} \right\} & \dots(c)\\ \\ \left.\begin{align}\alpha\beta+\alpha'\beta'-\alpha''\beta'' & =0\\ \alpha\gamma+\alpha'\gamma'-\alpha''\gamma'' & =0\\ \beta\gamma+\beta'\gamma'-\beta''\gamma'' & =0 \end{align} \right\} & \dots(d) \end{matrix}</math> He noted that those quantities become the “frequently employed” formulas of Lagrange [i.e. the coefficients of the Euclidean orthogonal transformation first given by [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#Euler|E:Euler (1771)]]] by setting:<ref group=M>Chasles (1829), p. 141</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\gamma\quad\Rightarrow\quad-\gamma\sqrt{-1}\\ \gamma'\quad\Rightarrow\quad-\gamma'\sqrt{-1}\\ \alpha''\quad\Rightarrow\quad\alpha''\sqrt{-1}\\ \beta''\quad\Rightarrow\quad\beta''\sqrt{-1} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Equations (a,b,c,d) are the coefficients of Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}, n=2).</p> Chasles now showed that equation systems (a,b,c,d) are of importance when discussing the relations between conjugate diameters of hyperboloids. He used the equations of a one-sheet hyperboloid and of a two-sheet hyperboloid having the same principal axes (x,y,z), thus sharing the same conjugate axes, and having the common asymptotic cone <math>\tfrac{x^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\tfrac{y^{2}}{b^{2}}-\tfrac{z^{2}}{c^{2}}=0</math>. He then transformed those two hyperboloids to new axes (x',y',z') sharing the property of conjugacy:<ref group=M>Chasles (1829), pp. 143-144</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\frac{x^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z^{2}}{c^{2}}=1\\ \frac{x^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z^{2}}{c^{2}}=-1\\ \hline \begin{align}x & =lx'+l'y'+l''z'\\ y & =mx'+m'y'+m''z'\\ z & =nx'+n'y'+n''z' \end{align} \\ \left\{ \begin{align}\frac{ll'}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{mm'}{b^{2}}-\frac{nn'}{c^{2}} & =0\\ \frac{ll''}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{mm''}{b^{2}}-\frac{nn''}{c^{2}} & =0\\ \frac{l'l''}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{m'm''}{b^{2}}-\frac{n'n''}{c^{2}} & =0 \end{align} \right\} \\ \hline \left(\frac{l^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{m^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{n^{2}}{c^{2}}\right)x^{\prime2}+\left(\frac{l^{\prime2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{m^{\prime2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{n^{\prime2}}{c^{2}}\right)y^{\prime2}+\left(\frac{l^{\prime\prime2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{m^{\prime\prime2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{n^{\prime\prime2}}{c^{2}}\right)z^{\prime2}=1\\ \left(\frac{l^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{m^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{n^{2}}{c^{2}}\right)x^{\prime2}+\left(\frac{l^{\prime2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{m^{\prime2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{n^{\prime2}}{c^{2}}\right)y^{\prime2}+\left(\frac{l^{\prime\prime2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{m^{\prime\prime2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{n^{\prime\prime2}}{c^{2}}\right)z^{\prime2}=-1 \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Chasles defined the conditional equations of ''l,m,n'' in the same way as those of <math>\alpha,\beta,\gamma</math> in equation system (b) above, so his transformation of x,y,z into x',y',z' represents Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}, n=2) by applying equation system (a) as well.</p> He went on to use two semi-diameters of the one-sheet hyperboloid and one semi-diameter of the two-sheet hyperboloid in order to define equation system (A), and went on to suggest that the other equations related to this system can be obtained using the above transformation from oblique coordinates to other oblique ones, but he deemed it more simple to use a geometric argument to obtain system (B), which together with (A) then allowed him to algebraically determine systems (C), (D) and additional ones, leading Chasles to announce that “''from these formulas one can very easily conclude the various properties of conjugated diameters of hyperboloids''”:<ref group=M>Chasles (1829), pp. 145-146</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\left.\begin{align}\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2} & =a^{2}\\ \alpha^{\prime2}+\beta^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime2} & =b^{2}\\ \alpha^{\prime\prime2}+\beta^{\prime\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} & =-c^{2} \end{align} \right\} & \dots(A)\\ \left.\begin{align}\alpha\alpha'+\beta\beta'-\gamma\gamma' & =0\\ \alpha\alpha''+\beta\beta''-\gamma\gamma'' & =0\\ \alpha'\alpha''+\beta'\beta''-\gamma'\gamma' & =0 \end{align} \right\} & \dots(B)\\ \left.\begin{align}\alpha^{2}+\alpha^{\prime2}-\alpha^{\prime\prime2} & =a^{2}\\ \beta^{2}+\beta^{\prime2}-\beta^{\prime\prime2} & =b^{2}\\ \gamma^{2}+\gamma^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} & =-c^{2} \end{align} \right\} & \dots(C)\\ \left.\begin{align}\alpha\beta+\alpha'\beta'-\alpha''\beta'' & =0\\ \alpha\gamma+\alpha'\gamma'-\alpha''\gamma'' & =0\\ \beta\gamma+\beta'\gamma'-\beta''\gamma'' & =0 \end{align} \right\} & \dots(D) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Equation systems (A,B,C,D), being equivalent to systems (a,b,c,d) above, are the coefficients of Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}, n=2) by setting ''a=b=c=1''.</p> ==={{anchor|Lebesgue}} Lebesgue (1837) – Homogeneous coordinates=== [[w:Victor-Amédée Lebesgue]] (1837) summarized the previous work of [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]], [[#Jacobi|Jacobi (1827, 1833)]], [[#Cauchy|Cauchy (1829)]]. He started with the orthogonal transformation<ref group=M>Lebesgue (1837), pp. 338-341</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}=y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n}^{2}\ (9)\\ \hline {\scriptstyle \begin{align}x_{1} & =a_{1,1}y_{1}+a_{1,2}y_{2}+\dots+a_{1,n}y_{n}\\ x_{2} & =a_{2,1}y_{1}+a_{2,2}y_{2}+\dots+a_{2,n}y_{n}\\ \dots\\ x_{n} & =a_{n,1}x_{1}+a_{n,2}x_{2}+\dots+a_{n,n}x_{n}\\ \\ y_{1} & =a_{1,1}x_{1}+a_{2,1}x_{2}+\dots+a_{n,1}x_{n}\\ y_{2} & =a_{1,2}x_{1}+a_{2,2}x_{2}+\dots+a_{n,2}x_{n}\ (12)\ \\ \dots\\ y_{n} & =a_{1,n}x_{1}+a_{2,n}x_{2}+\dots+a_{n,n}x_{n} \end{align} \left|\begin{align}a_{1,\alpha}^{2}+a_{2,\alpha}^{2}+\dots+a_{n,\alpha}^{2} & =1 & (10)\\ a_{1,\alpha}a_{1,\beta}+a_{2,\alpha}a_{2,\beta}+\dots+a_{n,\alpha}a_{n,\beta} & =0 & (11)\\ a_{\alpha,1}^{2}+a_{\alpha,2}^{2}+\dots+a_{\alpha,n}^{2} & =1 & (13)\\ a_{\alpha,1}a_{\beta,1}+a_{\alpha,2}a_{\beta,2}+\dots+a_{\alpha,n}a_{\beta,n} & =0 & (14) \end{align} \right.} \end{matrix}</math> In order to achieve the invariance of the Lorentz interval<ref group=M>Lebesgue (1837), pp. 353–354</ref> :<math>x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\dots+x_{n-1}^{2}-x_{n}^{2}=y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n-1}^{2}-y_{n}^{2}</math> he gave the following instructions as to how the previous equations shall be modified: In equation (9) change the sign of the last term of each member. In the first ''n-1'' equations of (10) change the sign of the last term of the left-hand side, and in the one which satisfies α=''n'' change the sign of the last term of the left-hand side as well as the sign of the right-hand side. In all equations (11) the last term will change sign. In equations (12) the last terms of the right-hand side will change sign, and so will the left-hand side of the ''n''-th equation. In equations (13) the signs of the last terms of the left-hand side will change, moreover in the ''n''-th equation change the sign of the right-hand side. In equations (14) the last terms will change sign. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">These instructions give Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) in the form: <br><math>{\scriptstyle \begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\dots+x_{n-1}^{2}-x_{n}^{2}=y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n-1}^{2}-y_{n}^{2}\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{1} & =a_{1,1}y_{1}+a_{1,2}y_{2}+\dots+a_{1,n}y_{n}\\ x_{2} & =a_{2,1}y_{1}+a_{2,2}y_{2}+\dots+a_{2,n}y_{n}\\ \dots\\ x_{n} & =a_{n,1}x_{1}+a_{n,2}x_{2}+\dots+a_{n,n}x_{n}\\ \\ y_{1} & =a_{1,1}x_{1}+a_{2,1}x_{2}+\dots+a_{n-1,1}x_{n-1}-a_{n,1}x_{n}\\ y_{2} & =a_{1,2}x_{1}+a_{2,2}x_{2}+\dots+a_{n-1,2}x_{n-1}-a_{n,2}x_{n}\\ \dots\\ -y_{n} & =a_{1,n}x_{1}+a_{2,n}x_{2}+\dots+a_{n-1,n}x_{n-1}-a_{n,n}x_{n} \end{align} \left|\begin{align}a_{1,\alpha}^{2}+a_{2,\alpha}^{2}+\dots+a_{n-1,\alpha}^{2}-a_{n,\alpha}^{2} & =1\\ a_{1,n}^{2}+a_{2,n}^{2}+\dots+a_{n-1,n}^{2}-a_{n,n}^{2} & =-1\\ a_{1,\alpha}a_{1,\beta}+a_{2,\alpha}a_{2,\beta}+\dots+a_{n-1,\alpha}a_{n-1,\beta}-a_{n,\alpha}a_{n,\beta} & =0\\ a_{\alpha,1}^{2}+a_{\alpha,2}^{2}+\dots+a_{\alpha,n-1}^{2}-a_{\alpha,n}^{2} & =1\\ a_{n,1}^{2}+a_{n,2}^{2}+\dots+a_{n,n-1}^{2}-a_{n,n}^{2} & =-1\\ a_{\alpha,1}a_{\beta,1}+a_{\alpha,2}a_{\beta,2}+\dots+a_{\alpha,n-1}a_{\beta,n-1}-a_{\alpha,n}a_{\beta,n} & =0 \end{align} \right. \end{matrix}}</math></p> He went on to redefine the variables of the Lorentz interval and its transformation:<ref group=M>Lebesgue (1837), pp. 353–355</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\dots+x_{n-1}^{2}-x_{n}^{2}=y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n-1}^{2}-y_{n}^{2}\\ \downarrow\\ \begin{align}x_{1} & =x_{n}\cos\theta_{1}, & x_{2} & =x_{n}\cos\theta_{2},\dots & x_{n-1} & =x_{n}\cos\theta_{n-1}\\ y_{1} & =y_{n}\cos\phi_{1}, & y_{2} & =y_{n}\cos\phi_{2},\dots & y_{n-1} & =y_{n}\cos\phi_{n-1} \end{align} \\ \downarrow\\ \cos^{2}\theta_{1}+\cos^{2}\theta_{2}+\dots+\cos^{2}\theta_{n-1}=1\\ \cos^{2}\phi_{1}+\cos^{2}\phi_{2}+\dots+\cos^{2}\phi_{n-1}=1\\ \hline \\ \cos\theta_{i}=\frac{a_{i,1}\cos\phi_{1}+a_{i,2}\cos\phi_{2}+\dots+a_{i,n-1}\cos\phi_{n-1}+a_{i,n}}{a_{n,1}\cos\phi_{1}+a_{n,2}\cos\phi_{2}+\dots+a_{n,n-1}\cos\phi_{n-1}+a_{n,n}}\\ (i=1,2,3\dots n) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Setting <math>[\cos\theta_{i},\ \cos\phi_{i}]=\left[u_{s},\ u_{s}^{\prime}\right]</math> it is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Weddle}} Weddle (1847) – Conjugate hyperboloids=== Very similar to [[#Chasles|Chasles (1829)]], though without reference to him, [[w:Thomas Weddle]] discussed conjugate hyperboloids using the following equation system (&alpha;), from which he derived equations (&beta;) and others:<ref group=M>Weddle (1847), p. 274</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\left.\begin{align}l_{1}^{2}+m_{1}^{2}-n_{1}^{2} & =1, & l_{1}l_{2}+m_{1}m_{2}-n_{1}n_{2} & =0\\ l_{2}^{2}+m_{2}^{2}-n_{2}^{2} & =1, & l_{1}l_{3}+m_{1}m_{3}-n_{1}n_{3} & =0\\ l_{3}^{2}+m_{3}^{2}-n_{3}^{2} & =-1, & l_{2}l_{3}+m_{2}m_{3}-n_{2}n_{3} & =0 \end{align} \right\} & \dots(\alpha)\\ \\ \left.\begin{align}l_{1}^{2}+l_{2}^{2}-l_{3}^{2} & =1, & l_{1}m_{1}+l_{2}m_{2}-l_{3}m_{3} & =0\\ m_{1}^{2}+m_{2}^{2}-m_{3}^{2} & =1, & l_{1}n_{1}+l_{2}n_{2}-l_{3}n_{3} & =0\\ n_{1}^{2}+n_{2}^{2}-n_{3}^{2} & =-1, & m_{1}n_{1}+m_{2}n_{2}-m_{3}n_{3} & =0 \end{align} \right\} & \dots(\beta) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">These are the coefficients of Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}, n=2).</p> Using the equations of a one-sheet hyperboloid and of a two-sheet hyperboloid sharing the same conjugate axes, and having the common asymptotic cone <math>\tfrac{x^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\tfrac{y^{2}}{b^{2}}-\tfrac{z^{2}}{c^{2}}=0</math>, he defined three conjugate points <math>(x_{1}\dots,y_{1}\dots,z_{1}\dots)</math> on those two conjugate hyperboloids, related to each other in the same way as equations (&alpha;, &beta;) stated above:<ref group=M>Weddle (1847), pp. 275-276</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\frac{x^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z^{2}}{c^{2}}=1\\ \frac{x^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z^{2}}{c^{2}}=-1\\ \hline \begin{align}\frac{x_{1}x_{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y_{1}y_{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z_{1}z_{2}}{c^{2}} & =0\\ \frac{x_{1}x_{3}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y_{1}y_{3}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z_{1}z_{3}}{c^{2}} & =0\\ \frac{x_{2}x_{3}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y_{2}y_{3}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z_{2}z_{3}}{c^{2}} & =0 \end{align} \quad\begin{align}\frac{x_{1}^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y_{1}^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z_{1}^{2}}{c^{2}} & =1\\ \frac{x_{2}^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y_{2}^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z_{2}^{2}}{c^{2}} & =1\\ \frac{x_{3}^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y_{3}^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z_{3}^{2}}{c^{2}} & =-1 \end{align} \\ \begin{align}x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}-x_{3}^{2} & =a^{2}\\ y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}-y_{3}^{2} & =b^{2}\\ z_{1}^{2}+z_{2}^{2}-z_{3}^{2} & =-c^{2} \end{align} \quad\begin{align}x_{1}y_{1}+x_{2}y_{2}-x_{3}y_{3} & =0\\ x_{1}z_{1}+x_{2}z_{2}-x_{3}z_{3} & =0\\ y_{1}z_{1}+y_{2}z_{2}-y_{3}z_{3} & =0 \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black"> These are the coefficients of Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}, n=2) by setting ''a=b=c=1''.</p> ==={{anchor|Bour}} Bour (1856) – Homogeneous coordinates=== Following [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]], [[w:Edmond Bour]] (1856) wrote the transformations:<ref group=M>Bour (1856), pp. 61; 64–65</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\cos^{2}E+\sin^{2}E-1=k\left(\cos^{2}T+\sin^{2}T-1\right)\\ \hline \left.\begin{matrix}\mathbf{(1)}\ \begin{align}\cos E & =\frac{\alpha+\alpha'\cos T+\alpha''\sin T}{\gamma+\gamma'\cos T+\gamma''\sin T}\\ \sin E & =\frac{\beta+\beta'\cos T+\beta''\sin T}{\gamma+\gamma'\cos T+\gamma''\sin T} \end{align} \\ \hline \\ k=+1\\ t=\gamma+\gamma'\cos T+\gamma''\sin T,\\ 1=u,\ \cos T=u',\ \sin T=u',\\ t=z,\ t\cos E=x,\ t\sin E=y\\ \downarrow\\ \mathbf{(2)}\begin{align}x & =\alpha u+\alpha'u'+\alpha''u''\\ y & =\beta u+\beta'u'+\beta''u''\\ z & =\gamma u+\gamma'u'+\gamma''u''\\ \\ u & =\gamma z-\alpha x-\beta y\\ u' & =\alpha'x+\beta'y'-\gamma'z\\ u'' & =\alpha''x+\beta''y-\gamma''z \end{align} \end{matrix}\right|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}-\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2} & =k\\ -\alpha^{\prime2}-\beta^{\prime2}+\gamma^{\prime2} & =-k\\ -\alpha^{\prime\prime2}-\beta^{\prime\prime2}+\gamma^{\prime\prime2} & =-k\\ \alpha\alpha'+\beta\beta'-\gamma\gamma' & =0\\ \alpha\alpha''+\beta\beta''-\gamma\gamma'' & =0\\ \alpha'\alpha''+\beta'\beta''-\gamma'\gamma'' & =0\\ \\ \alpha^{2}-\alpha^{\prime2}-\alpha^{\prime\prime2} & =-k\\ \beta^{2}-\beta^{\prime2}-\beta^{\prime\prime2} & =-k\\ \gamma^{2}-\gamma^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} & =k\\ \beta\gamma-\beta'\gamma'-\beta''\gamma'' & =0\\ \alpha\gamma-\alpha'\gamma'-\alpha''\gamma'' & =0\\ \alpha\beta-\alpha'\beta'-\alpha''\beta'' & =0 \end{align} } \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Transformation system (2) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)'', implying <math>x^{2}+y^{2}-z^{2}=u^{\prime2}+u^{\prime\prime2}-u^{2}</math>. Furthermore, setting <math>[k,\cos T,\sin T,\cos E,\sin E]=\left[1,u_{1},u_{2},u_{1}^{\prime},u_{2}^{\prime}\right]</math> in transformation system (1) produces Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)''.</p> === {{anchor|Somov}} Somov (1863) – Homogeneous coordinates === Following [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]], [[#Jacobi|Jacobi (1827, 1833)]], and [[#Bour|Bour (1856)]], [[w:Osip Ivanovich Somov]] (1863) wrote the transformation systems:<ref group=M>Somov (1863), pp. 12–14; p. 18 for differentials.</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\left.\begin{align}\cos\phi & =\frac{m\cos\psi+n\sin\psi+s}{m''\cos\psi+n''\sin\psi+s''}\\ \sin\phi & =\frac{m'\cos\psi+n'\sin\psi+s'}{m''\cos\psi+n''\sin\psi+s''} \end{align} \right|\begin{matrix}\cos^{2}\phi+\cos^{2}\phi=1\\ \cos^{2}\psi+\cos^{2}\psi=1 \end{matrix}\\ \hline \mathbf{(1)}\ \begin{align}\cos\phi & =x, & \cos\psi & =x'\\ \sin\phi & =y, & \sin\psi & =y' \end{align} \ \left|\begin{align}x & =\frac{mx'+ny'+s}{m''x'+n''y'+s''}\\ y & =\frac{m'x'+n'y'+s'}{m''x'+n''y'+s''} \end{align} \right|\ \begin{matrix}x^{2}+y^{2}=1\\ x^{\prime2}+y^{\prime2}=1 \end{matrix}\\ \hline \begin{align}\cos\phi & =\frac{x}{z}, & \cos\psi & =\frac{x'}{z'}\\ \sin\phi & =\frac{y}{z}, & \sin\psi & =\frac{y'}{z'} \end{align} \ \left|\begin{align}\frac{x}{z} & =\frac{mx'+ny'+sz'}{m''x'+n''y'+s''z'}\\ \frac{y}{z} & =\frac{m'x'+n'y'+s'z'}{m''x'+n''y'+s''z'} \end{align} \right|\ \begin{matrix}x^{2}+y^{2}=z^{2}\\ x^{\prime2}+y^{\prime2}=z^{\prime2} \end{matrix}\\ \hline \mathbf{(2)}\ \left.\begin{align}x & =mx'+ny'+sz'\\ y & =m'x'+n'y'+s'z'\\ z & =m''x'+n''y'+s''z'\\ \\ x' & =mx+m'y-m''z\\ y' & =nx+n'y-n''z\\ z' & =-sx-s'y+s''z\\ \\ dx & =mdx'+ndy'+sdz'\\ dy & =m'dx'+n'dy'+s'dz'\\ dz & =m''dx'+n''dy'+s''dz' \end{align} \right|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}m^{2}+m^{\prime2}-m^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ n^{2}+n^{\prime2}-n^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ -s^{2}-s^{\prime2}+s^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ ns+n's'-n''s'' & =0\\ sm+s'm'-s''m'' & =0\\ mn+m'n'-m''n'' & =0\\ \\ m^{2}+n^{2}-s^{2} & =1\\ m^{\prime2}+n^{\prime2}-s^{\prime2} & =1\\ -m^{\prime\prime2}-n^{\prime\prime2}+s^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ -m'm''-n'n''+s's'' & =0\\ -m''m-n''n+s''s & =0\\ mm'+nn'-ss' & =0 \end{align} }\\ dx^{2}+dy^{2}-dz^{2}=dx^{\prime2}+dy^{\prime2}-dz^{\prime2} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Transformation system (1) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)''. Transformation system (2) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)''.</p> ==={{anchor|Klein}} Klein (1871-73) – Cayley absolute and non-Euclidean geometry=== Elaborating on [[w:Arthur Cayley]]'s (1859) definition of an "absolute" ([[w:Cayley–Klein metric]]), [[w:Felix Klein]] (1871) defined a "fundamental [[w:conic section]]" in order to discuss motions such as rotation and translation in the non-Euclidean plane.<ref group=M>Klein (1871), pp. 601–602</ref> This was elaborated in (1873) when he pointed out that hyperbolic geometry in terms of a surface of constant negative curvature can be related to a quadratic equation, which can be transformed into a sum of squares of which one square has a different sign, and can also be related to the interior of a surface of second degree corresponding to a two-sheet [[w:hyperboloid]].<ref group=M>Klein (1873), pp. 127-128</ref> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Klein's representation of hyperbolic space in terms of a two-sheet hyperboloid and its accompanied quadratic form suggests that Lorentz transformations can be geometrically interpreted as motions or isometries in hyperbolic space.</p> ==={{anchor|Killing}} Killing (1878–1893)=== ===={{anchor|Killing1}} Weierstrass coordinates==== [[w:Wilhelm Killing]] (1878–1880) described non-Euclidean geometry by using [[w:hyperboloid model|Weierstrass coordinates]] (named after [[w:Karl Weierstrass]] who described them in lectures in 1872 which Killing attended) obeying the form :<math>k^{2}t^{2}+u^{2}+v^{2}+w^{2}=k^{2}</math><ref group=M>Killing (1877/78), p. 74; Killing (1880), p. 279</ref> with <math>ds^{2}=k^{2}dt^{2}+du^{2}+dv^{2}+dw^{2}</math><ref group=M>Killing (1880), eq. 25 on p. 283</ref> or<ref group=M>Killing (1880), p. 283</ref> :<math>k^{2}x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}=k^{2}</math> where ''k'' is the reciprocal measure of curvature, <math>k^{2}=\infty</math> denotes [[w:Euclidean geometry]], <math>k^{2}>0</math> [[w:elliptic geometry]], and <math>k^{2}<0</math> hyperbolic geometry. In (1877/78) he pointed out the possibility and some characteristics of a transformation (indicating rigid motions) preserving the above form.<ref group=M>Killing (1877/78), eq. 25 on p. 283</ref> In (1879/80) he tried to formulate the corresponding transformations by plugging <math>k^{2}</math> into a [[w:Rotation matrix#Rotation matrix from axis and angle|general rotation matrix]]:<ref group=M>Killing (1879/80), p. 274</ref> <math>\begin{matrix}k^{2}u^{2}+v^{2}+w^{2}=k^{2}\\ \hline \begin{matrix}\cos\eta\tau+\lambda^{2}\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}}, & \nu\frac{\sin\eta\tau}{\eta}+\lambda\mu\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}}, & -\mu\frac{\sin\eta\tau}{\eta}+\nu\lambda\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}}\\ -k^{2}\nu\frac{\sin\eta\tau}{\eta}+k^{2}\lambda\mu\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}}, & \cos\eta\tau+\mu^{2}\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}}, & \lambda\frac{\sin\eta\tau}{\eta}+k^{2}\mu\nu\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}}\\ k^{2}\mu\frac{\sin\eta\tau}{\eta}+k^{2}\nu\lambda\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}}, & -\lambda\frac{\sin\eta\tau}{\eta}+k^{2}\mu\nu\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}}, & \cos\eta\tau+\nu^{2}\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}} \end{matrix}\\ \left(\lambda^{2}+k^{2}\mu^{2}+k^{2}\nu^{2}=\eta^{2}\right) \end{matrix}</math> In (1885) he wrote the Weierstrass coordinates and their transformation as follows:<ref group=M>Killing (1885), pp. 18, 28–30, 53</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}k^{2}p^{2}+x^{2}+y^{2}=k^{2}\\ k^{2}p^{2}+x^{2}+y^{2}=k^{2}p^{\prime2}+x^{\prime2}+y^{\prime2}\\ ds^{2}=k^{2}dp^{2}+dx^{2}+dy^{2}\\ \hline \begin{align}k^{2}p' & =k^{2}wp+w'x+w''y\\ x' & =ap+a'x+a''y\\ y' & =bp+b'x+b''y\\ \\ k^{2}p & =k^{2}wp'+ax'+by'\\ x & =w'p'+a'x+b'y'\\ y & =w''p'+a''x'+b''y' \end{align} \left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}k^{2}w^{2}+w^{\prime2}+w^{\prime\prime2} & =k^{2}\\ \frac{a^{2}}{k^{2}}+a^{\prime2}+a^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ \frac{b^{2}}{k^{2}}+b^{\prime2}+b^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ aw+a'w'+a''w'' & =0\\ bw+b'w'+b''w'' & =0\\ \frac{ab}{k^{2}}+a'b'+a''b'' & =0\\ \\ k^{2}w^{2}+a^{2}+b^{2} & =k^{2}\\ \frac{w^{\prime2}}{k^{2}}+a^{\prime2}+b^{\prime2} & =1\\ \frac{w^{\prime\prime2}}{k^{2}}+a^{\prime\prime2}+b^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ ww'+aa'+bb' & =0\\ ww''+aa''+bb'' & =0\\ \frac{w'w''}{k^{2}}+a'a''+b'b'' & =0 \end{align} }\right. \end{matrix}</math> In (1885) he also gave the transformation for ''n'' dimensions:<ref group=M>Killing (1884/85), pp. 42–43; Killing (1885), pp. 73–74, 222</ref><ref>Ratcliffe (1994), § 3.6</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}k^{2}x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}=k^{2}\\ ds^{2}=k^{2}dx_{0}^{2}+dx_{1}^{2}+\dots+dx_{n}^{2}\\ \hline \left.\begin{align}k^{2}\xi_{0} & =k^{2}a_{00}x_{0}+a_{01}x_{1}+\dots+a_{0n}x_{0}\\ \xi_{\varkappa} & =a_{\varkappa0}x_{0}+a_{\varkappa1}x_{1}+\dots+a_{\varkappa n}x_{n}\\ \\ k^{2}x_{0} & =a_{00}k^{2}\xi_{0}+a_{10}\xi_{1}+\dots+a_{n0}\xi_{n}\\ x_{\varkappa} & =a_{0\varkappa}\xi_{0}+a_{1\varkappa}\xi_{1}+\dots+a_{n\varkappa}\xi_{n} \end{align} \right|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}k^{2}a_{00}^{2}+a_{10}^{2}+\dots+a_{n0}^{2} & =k^{2}\\ a_{00}a_{0\varkappa}+a_{10}a_{1\varkappa}+\dots+a_{n0}a_{n\varkappa} & =0\\ \frac{a_{0\iota}a_{0\varkappa}}{k^{2}}+a_{0\iota}a_{1\varkappa}+\dots+a_{n\iota}a_{n\varkappa}=\delta_{\iota\kappa} & =1\ (\iota=\kappa)\ \text{or}\ 0\ (\iota\ne\kappa) \end{align} } \end{matrix}</math> In (1885) he applied his transformations to mechanics and defined four-dimensional vectors of velocity and force.<ref group=M>Killing (1884/85), pp. 4–5</ref> Regarding the geometrical interpretation of his transformations, Killing argued in (1885) that by setting <math>k^{2}=-1</math> and using ''p,x,y'' as rectangular space coordinates, the hyperbolic plane is mapped on one side of a two-sheet hyperboloid <math>p^{2}-x^{2}-y^{2}=1</math> (known as [[w:hyperboloid model]]),<ref group=M>Killing (1885), Note 9 on p. 260</ref><ref name=rey /> by which the previous formulas become equivalent to Lorentz transformations and the geometry becomes that of Minkowski space. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">All of Killing's transformations between 1879 and 1885 don't work when <math>k^{2}</math> is negative, thus they fail to produce Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) with <math>k^{2}=-1</math>.</p> Finally, in (1893) he wrote:<ref group=M>Killing (1893), see pp. 144, 327–328</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}k^{2}t^{2}+u^{2}+v^{2}=k^{2}\\ \hline \begin{align}t' & =at+bu+cv\\ u' & =a't+b'u+c'v\\ v' & =a''t+b''u+c''v \end{align} \left|\begin{align}k^{2}a^{2}+a^{\prime2}+a^{\prime\prime2} & =k^{2}\\ k^{2}b^{2}+b^{\prime2}+b^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ k^{2}c^{2}+b^{\prime2}+c^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ k^{2}ab+a'b'+a''b'' & =0\\ k^{2}ac+a'c'+a''c'' & =0\\ k^{2}bc+b'c'+b''c'' & =0 \end{align} \right. \end{matrix}</math> and in ''n'' dimensions<ref group=M>Killing (1893), pp. 314–316, 216–217</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}k^{2}x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}=k^{2}\\ k^{2}y_{0}y_{0}^{\prime}+y_{1}y_{1}^{\prime}+\cdots+y_{n}y_{n}^{\prime}=k^{2}x_{0}x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{1}x_{1}^{\prime}+\cdots+x_{n}x_{n}^{\prime}\\ ds^{2}=k^{2}dx_{0}^{2}+\dots+dx_{n}^{2}\\ \hline \begin{align}y_{0} & =a_{00}x_{0}+a_{01}x_{1}+\dots+a_{0n}x_{n}\\ y_{1} & =a_{10}x_{0}+a_{11}x_{1}+\dots+a_{1n}x_{n}\\ & \,\,\,\vdots\\ y_{n} & =a_{n0}x_{0}+a_{n1}x_{1}+\dots+a_{nn}x_{n} \end{align} \left|\begin{align}k^{2}a_{00}^{2}+a_{10}^{2}+\dots+a_{n0}^{2} & =k^{2}\\ k^{2}a_{0\varkappa}^{2}+a_{1\varkappa}^{2}+\dots+a_{n\varkappa}^{2} & =1\\ k^{2}a_{00}a_{0\varkappa}+a_{10}a_{1\varkappa}+\dots+a_{n0}a_{n\varkappa} & =0\\ k^{2}a_{0\varkappa}a_{0\lambda}+a_{1\varkappa}a_{1\lambda}+\dots+a_{n\varkappa}a_{n\lambda} & =0\\ (\varkappa,\lambda=1,\dots, n,\ \lambda\lessgtr\varkappa) \end{align} \right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) with <math>k^{2}=-1</math>.</p> ===={{anchor|Killing3}} Infinitesimal transformations and Lie group==== After [[#Lie3|Lie (1885/86)]] identified the projective group of a general surface of second degree <math>\sum f_{ik}x_{i}'x_{k}'=0</math> with the group of non-Euclidean motions, Killing (1887/88)<ref group=M>Killing (1887/88a), pp. 274–275</ref> defined the infinitesimal projective transformations (Lie algebra) in relation to the unit hypersphere: :<math>\begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{m+1}^{2}=1\\ \hline X_{\iota\varkappa}f=x_{i}\frac{\partial f}{\partial x_{\varkappa}}-x_{\varkappa}\frac{\partial f}{\partial x_{\iota}}\\ \text{where}\\ \left(X_{\iota\varkappa},X_{\iota\lambda}\right)=X_{\varkappa\lambda};\ \left(X_{\iota\varkappa},X_{\lambda\mu}\right)=0;\\ \left[\iota\ne\varkappa\ne\lambda\ne\mu\right] \end{matrix}</math> and in (1892) he defined the infinitesimal transformation for non-Euclidean motions in terms of Weierstrass coordinates:<ref group=M>Killing (1892), p. 177</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}k^{2}x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}=k^{2}\\ \hline X_{\iota\varkappa}=x_{\iota}p_{\varkappa}-x_{\varkappa}p_{\iota},\quad X_{\iota}=x_{0}p_{\iota}-\frac{x_{\iota}p_{0}}{k^{2}}\\ \text{where}\\ \left(X_{\iota}X_{\iota\varkappa}\right)=X_{\varkappa}f;\ \left(X_{\iota}X_{\varkappa\lambda}\right)=0;\ \left(X_{\iota}X_{\varkappa}\right)=-\frac{1}{k^{2}}X_{\iota\varkappa}f; \end{matrix}</math> In (1897/98) he showed the relation between Weierstrass coordinates <math>k^{2}x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}=k^{2}</math> and corrdinates <math>k^{2}+y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n}^{2}=0</math> used by himself in (1887/88) and by [[#Lie3|Werner (1889), Lie (1890)]]:<ref group=M>Killing (1897/98), pp. 255–256</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}k^{2}x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2} & (a)\\ k^{2}x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}=k^{2} & (b) \end{matrix}\\ \hline V_{\varkappa}=k^{2}x_{0}p_{\varkappa}-x_{\varkappa}p_{0},\quad U_{\iota\varkappa}=p_{\iota}x_{\varkappa}-p_{\varkappa}x_{\iota}\\ \text{where}\\ \left(V_{\iota},V_{\varkappa}\right)=k^{2}U_{\iota\varkappa},\ \left(V_{\iota},U_{\iota\varkappa}\right)=-V_{\varkappa},\ \left(V_{\iota},U_{\varkappa\lambda}\right)=0,\\ \left(U_{\iota\varkappa},U_{\iota\lambda}\right)=U_{\varkappa\lambda},\ \left(U_{\iota\varkappa},U_{\lambda\mu}\right)=0\\ \left[\iota,\varkappa,\lambda,\mu=1,2,\dots n\right]\\ \hline \begin{matrix}y_{1}=\frac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ y_{2}=\frac{x_{2}}{x_{0}},\dots y_{n}=\frac{x_{n}}{x_{0}}\\ \downarrow\\ k^{2}+y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n}^{2}=0\\ \hline q_{\varkappa}+\frac{y_{\varkappa}}{k^{2}}\sum_{\varrho}y_{y}q_{\varrho},\quad q_{\iota}y_{\varkappa}-q_{\varkappa}y_{\iota} \end{matrix} \end{matrix}</math> He pointed out that the corresponding group of non-Euclidean motions in terms of Weierstrass coordinates is intransitive when related to quadratic form (a) and [[w:Group action (mathematics)|transitive]] when related to quadratic form (b). <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Setting <math>k^{2}=-1</math> denotes the group of hyperbolic motions and thus the Lorentz group.</p> === {{anchor|Poincare}} Poincaré (1881) – Weierstrass coordinates === [[w:Henri Poincaré]] (1881) connected the work of [[../Lorentz transformation (Cayley-Hermite)#Hermite|E:Hermite (1853)]] and [[../Lorentz transformation (Möbius)#Selling|E:Selling (1873)]] on indefinite quadratic forms with non-Euclidean geometry (Poincaré already discussed such relations in an unpublished manuscript in 1880).<ref>Gray (1997)</ref> He used two indefinite ternary forms in terms of three squares and then defined them in terms of Weierstrass coordinates (without using that expression) connected by a transformation with integer coefficients:<ref group=M name=p1>Poincaré (1881a), pp. 133–134</ref><ref>Dickson (1923), pp. 220–221</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{align}F & =(ax+by+cz)^{2}+(a'x+b'y+c'z)^{2}-(a''x+b''y+c''z)^{2}\\ & =\xi^{2}+\eta^{2}-\zeta^{2}=-1\\ F & =(ax'+by'+cz')^{2}+(a'x'+b'y'+c'z')^{2}-(a''x'+b''y'+c''z')^{2}\\ & =\xi^{\prime2}+\eta^{\prime2}-\zeta^{\prime2}=-1 \end{align} \\ \hline \begin{align}\xi' & =\alpha\xi+\beta\eta+\gamma\zeta\\ \eta' & =\alpha'\xi+\beta'\eta+\gamma'\zeta\\ \zeta' & =\alpha''\xi+\beta''\eta+\gamma''\zeta \end{align} \left|\begin{align}\alpha^{2}+\alpha^{\prime2}-\alpha^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ \beta^{2}+\beta^{\prime2}-\beta^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ \gamma^{2}+\gamma^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} & =-1\\ \alpha\beta+\alpha'\beta'-\alpha''\beta'' & =0\\ \alpha\gamma+\alpha'\gamma'-\alpha''\gamma'' & =0\\ \beta\gamma+\beta'\gamma'-\beta''\gamma'' & =0 \end{align} \right. \end{matrix}</math> He went on to describe the properties of "hyperbolic coordinates".<ref group=M name=poinc>Poincaré (1881b), p. 333</ref><ref name=rey>Reynolds (1993)</ref> Poincaré mentioned the hyperboloid model also in (1887).<ref group=M>Poincaré (1887), p. 206</ref> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)''.</p> === {{anchor|Cox}} Cox (1881–1883) – Weierstrass coordinates === [[w:Homersham Cox (mathematician)|Homersham Cox]] (1881/82) – referring to similar rectangular coordinates used by [[w:Christoph Gudermann|Gudermann]] (1830)<ref name=guder group=M>Gudermann (1830), §1–3, §18–19</ref> and [[w:George Salmon]] (1862)<ref group=M>Salmon (1862), section 212, p. 165</ref> on a sphere, and to [[#Escherich|Escherich (1874)]] as reported by [[w:Johannes Frischauf]] (1876)<ref group=M>Frischauf (1876), pp. 86–87</ref> in the hyperbolic plane – defined the Weierstrass coordinates (without using that expression) and their transformation:<ref group=M>Cox (1881), p. 186 for Weierstrass coordinates; (1881/82), pp. 193–194 for Lorentz transformation. On p. 193, the misprinted expression <math>x^{2}-y^{2}-z^{2}</math> should read <math>z^{2}-y^{2}-x^{2}</math></ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}z^{2}-x^{2}-y^{2}=1\\ z^{2}-y^{2}-x^{2}=Z^{2}-Y^{2}-X^{2}\\ \hline \begin{align}x & =l_{1}X+l_{2}Y+l_{3}Z\\ y & =m_{1}X+m_{2}Y+m_{3}Z\\ z & =n_{1}X+n_{2}Y+n_{3}Z\\ \\ X & =l_{1}x+m_{1}y-n_{1}z\\ Y & =l_{2}x+m_{2}y-n_{2}z\\ Z & =l_{3}x+m_{3}y-n_{3}z \end{align} \left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}l_{1}^{2}+m_{1}^{2}-n_{1}^{2} & =1\\ l_{2}^{2}+m_{2}^{2}-n_{2}^{2} & =1\\ l_{3}^{2}+m_{3}^{2}-n_{3}^{2} & =1\\ l_{1}l_{2}+m_{1}m_{2}-n_{1}n_{2} & =0\\ l_{2}l_{3}+m_{2}m_{3}-n_{2}n_{3} & =0\\ l_{3}l_{1}+m_{3}m_{1}-n_{3}n_{1} & =0\\ \\ l_{1}^{2}+l_{2}^{2}-l_{3}^{2} & =1\\ m_{1}^{2}+m_{2}^{2}-m_{3}^{2} & =1\\ n_{1}^{2}+n_{2}^{2}-n_{3}^{2} & =1\\ l_{1}m_{1}+l_{2}m_{2}-l_{3}m_{3} & =0\\ m_{1}n_{1}+m_{2}n_{2}-m_{3}n_{3} & =0\\ n_{1}l_{1}+n_{2}l_{2}-n_{3}l_{3} & =0 \end{align} }\right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Replacing <math>{\scriptstyle \begin{align}l_{3}^{2}+m_{3}^{2}-n_{3}^{2} & =1\\ n_{1}^{2}+n_{2}^{2}-n_{3}^{2} & =1 \end{align} }</math> with <math>{\scriptstyle \begin{align}l_{3}^{2}+m_{3}^{2}-n_{3}^{2} & =-1\\ n_{1}^{2}+n_{2}^{2}-n_{3}^{2} & =-1 \end{align} }</math>, this becomes Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)'' up to a sign change in the inverse transformation.</p> Cox also gave the Weierstrass coordinates and their transformation in hyperbolic space:<ref group=M>Cox (1881), pp. 199, 206–207</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}w^{2}-x^{2}-y^{2}-z^{2}=1\\ w^{2}-x^{2}-y^{2}-z^{2}=w^{\prime2}-x^{\prime2}-y^{\prime2}-z^{\prime2}\\ \hline \begin{align}x & =l_{1}x'+l_{2}y'+l_{3}z'-l_{4}w'\\ y & =m_{1}x'+m_{2}y'+m_{3}z'-m_{4}w'\\ z & =n_{1}x'+n_{2}y'+n_{3}z'-n_{4}w'\\ w & =r_{1}x'+r_{2}y'+r_{3}z'-r_{4}w'\\ \\ x' & =l_{1}x+m_{1}y+n_{1}z-r_{1}w\\ y' & =l_{2}x+m_{2}y+n_{2}z-r_{2}w\\ z' & =l_{3}x+m_{3}y+n_{3}z-r_{3}w\\ w' & =l_{4}x+m_{4}y+n_{4}z-r_{4}w \end{align} \left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}l_{1}^{2}+m_{1}^{2}+n_{1}^{2}-r_{1}^{2} & =1\\ l_{2}^{2}+m_{2}^{2}+n_{2}^{2}-r_{2}^{2} & =1\\ l_{3}^{2}+m_{3}^{2}+n_{3}^{2}-r_{3}^{2} & =1\\ l_{4}^{2}+m_{4}^{2}+n_{4}^{2}-r_{4}^{2} & =1\\ l_{2}l_{3}+m_{2}m_{3}+n_{2}n_{3}-r_{2}r_{3} & =0\\ l_{3}l_{1}+m_{3}m_{1}+n_{3}n_{1}-r_{3}r_{1} & =0\\ l_{1}l_{4}+m_{1}m_{4}+n_{1}n_{4}-r_{1}r_{4} & =0\\ l_{2}l_{4}+m_{2}m_{4}+n_{2}n_{4}-r_{2}r_{4} & =0\\ l_{3}l_{4}+m_{3}m_{4}+n_{3}n_{4}-r_{3}r_{4} & =0 \end{align} }\right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Replacing <math>{\scriptstyle l_{4}^{2}+m_{4}^{2}+n_{4}^{2}-r_{4}^{2}=1}</math> with <math>{\scriptstyle l_{4}^{2}+m_{4}^{2}+n_{4}^{2}-r_{4}^{2}=-1}</math>, this becomes Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=3)'' up to a sign change in both the first as well as inverse transformation.</p> === {{anchor|Hill}} Hill (1882) – Homogeneous coordinates === Following [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]], [[w:George William Hill]] (1882) formulated the equations<ref group=M>Hill (1882), pp. 323–325</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}k\left(\sin^{2}T+\cos^{2}T-1\right)\\ k\left(\sin^{2}E+\cos^{2}E-1\right)\\ \hline \begin{align} & & \cos E' & =\frac{\alpha+\alpha'\sin T+\alpha''\cos T}{\gamma+\gamma'\sin T+\gamma''\cos T}\\ & \mathbf{(1)} & \sin E' & =\frac{\beta+\beta'\sin T+\beta''\cos T}{\gamma+\gamma'\sin T+\gamma''\cos T}\\ \hline \\ & & x & =\alpha u+\alpha'u'+\alpha''u''\\ & & y & =\beta u+\beta'u'+\beta''u''\\ & & z & =\gamma u+\gamma'u'+\gamma''u''\\ & \mathbf{(2)}\\ & & u & =-\alpha x-\beta y+\gamma z\\ & & u' & =\alpha'x+\beta'y'-\gamma'z\\ & & u'' & =\alpha''x+\beta''y-\gamma''z \end{align} \left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2} & =-1\\ \alpha^{\prime2}+\beta^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime2} & =1\\ \alpha^{\prime\prime2}+\beta^{\prime\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} & =1\\ \alpha\alpha'+\beta\beta'-\gamma\gamma' & =0\\ \alpha\alpha''+\beta\beta''-\gamma\gamma'' & =0\\ \alpha'\alpha''+\beta'\beta''-\gamma'\gamma'' & =0\\ \\ (k=-1)\\ \alpha^{2}-\alpha^{\prime2}-\alpha^{\prime\prime2} & =k\\ \beta^{2}-\beta^{\prime2}-\beta^{\prime\prime2} & =k\\ \gamma^{2}-\gamma^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} & =-k\\ \alpha\beta-\alpha'\beta'-\alpha''\beta'' & =0\\ \alpha\gamma-\alpha'\gamma'-\alpha''\gamma'' & =0\\ \beta\gamma-\beta'\gamma'-\beta''\gamma'' & =0 \end{align} }\right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Transformation system (1) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)'' with <math>[\cos T,\sin T,\cos E',\sin E']=\left[u_{1},u_{2},u_{1}^{\prime},u_{2}^{\prime}\right]</math>. Transformation system (2) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)'' .</p> === {{anchor|Picard}} Picard (1882-1884) – Quadratic forms === [[w:Émile Picard]] (1882) analyzed the invariance of indefinite ternary [[w:Hermitian form|Hermitian quadratic forms]] with integer coefficients and their relation to [[w:Group action (mathematics)|discontinuous groups]], extending Poincaré's Fuchsian functions of one complex variable related to a circle, to "hyperfuchsian" functions of two complex variables related to a [[w:hypersphere]]. He formulated the following special case of an Hermitian form:<ref group=M>Picard (1882), pp. 307–308 first transformation system; pp. 315-317 second transformation system</ref><ref>Dickson (1923), pp. 280-281</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}xx_{0}+yy_{0}-zz_{0}\\ \\ \mathbf{(1)}\ \begin{align}x & =M_{1}X+P_{1}Y+R_{1}Z\\ y & =M_{2}X+P_{2}Y+R_{2}Z\\ z & =M_{3}X+P_{3}Y+R_{3}Z \end{align} \\ \\ \left[\begin{align}[][x,y,z]=\text{complex}\\ \left[x_{0},y_{0},z_{0}\right]=\text{conjugate} \end{align} \right]\\ \\ \hline \\ x^{\prime2}+x^{\prime\prime2}+y^{\prime2}+y^{\prime\prime2}=1\\ x=x'+ix'',\quad y=y'+iy''\\ \\ \mathbf{(2)}\ \begin{align}X & =\frac{M_{1}x+P_{1}y+R_{1}}{M_{3}x+P_{3}y+R_{3}}\\ Y & =\frac{M_{2}x+P_{2}y+R_{2}}{M_{3}x+P_{3}y+R_{3}} \end{align} \end{matrix}\left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}M_{1}\mu_{1}+M_{2}\mu_{2}-M_{3}\mu_{3} & =1\\ P_{1}\pi_{1}+P_{2}\pi_{2}-P_{3}\pi_{3} & =1\\ R_{1}\rho_{1}+R_{2}\rho_{2}-R_{3}\rho_{3} & =-1\\ P_{1}\mu_{1}+P_{2}\mu_{2}-P_{3}\mu_{3} & =0\\ M_{1}\rho_{1}+M_{2}\rho_{2}-M_{3}\rho_{3} & =0\\ P_{1}\rho_{1}+P_{2}\rho_{2}-P_{3}\rho_{3} & =0\\ \\ M_{1}\mu_{1}+P_{1}\pi_{1}-R_{1}\rho_{1} & =1\\ M_{2}\mu_{2}+P_{2}\pi_{2}-R_{2}\rho_{2} & =1\\ M_{3}\mu_{3}+P_{3}\pi_{3}-R_{3}\rho_{3} & =-1\\ \mu_{2}M_{1}+\pi_{2}P_{1}-R_{1}\rho_{2} & =0\\ \mu_{2}M_{3}+\pi_{2}P_{3}-R_{3}\rho_{2} & =0\\ \mu_{3}M_{1}+\pi_{3}P_{1}-R_{1}\rho_{3} & =0\\ \\ \left[\begin{align}[][M,P,R\dots]=\text{complex}\\ \left[\mu,\pi,\rho\dots\right]=\text{conjugate} \end{align} \right] \end{align} }\right.\end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Replacing the imaginary variables and coefficients with real ones, transformation system (1) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)'' producing ''x<sup>2</sup>+y<sup>2</sup>-z<sup>2</sup>=X<sup>2</sup>+Y<sup>2</sup>-Z<sup>2</sup>'' and transformation system (2) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)'' producing ''x<sup>2</sup>+y<sup>2</sup>=X<sup>2</sup>+Y<sup>2</sup>=1''.</p> Or in (1884a) in relation to indefinite binary Hermitian quadratic forms:<ref group=M>Picard (1884a), p. 13</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}UU_{0}-VV_{0}=uu_{0}-vv_{0}\\ \hline \begin{align}U & =\mathcal{A}u+\mathcal{B}v\\ V & =\mathcal{C}u+\mathcal{D}v \end{align} \left|\begin{align}\mathcal{A}\mathcal{A}_{0}-\mathcal{C}\mathcal{C}_{0} & =1\\ \mathcal{A}\mathcal{B}_{0}-\mathcal{C}\mathcal{D}_{0} & =0\\ \mathcal{B}\mathcal{B}_{0}-\mathcal{D}\mathcal{D}_{0} & =-1\\ \mathcal{D}\mathcal{D}_{0}-\mathcal{C}\mathcal{C}_{0} & =1 \end{align} \right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Replacing the imaginary variables and coefficients with real ones, this is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=1)'' producing ''U<sup>2</sup>-V<sup>2</sup>=u<sup>2</sup>-v<sup>2</sup>''.</p> Or in (1884b):<ref group=M>Picard (1884b), p. 416</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}xx_{0}+yy_{0}-1=0\\ \hline \begin{align}X & =\frac{M_{1}x+P_{1}y+R_{1}}{M_{3}x+P_{3}y+R_{3}}\\ Y & =\frac{M_{2}x+P_{2}y+R_{2}}{M_{3}x+P_{3}y+R_{3}} \end{align} \left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}M_{1}\mu_{1}+M_{2}\mu_{2}-M_{3}\mu_{3}=P_{1}\pi_{1}+P_{2}\pi_{2}-P_{3}\pi_{3} & =1\\ R_{1}\rho_{1}+R_{2}\rho_{2}-R_{3}\rho_{3} & =-1\\ P_{1}\mu_{1}+P_{2}\mu_{2}-P_{3}\mu_{3}=M_{1}\rho_{1}+M_{2}\rho_{2}-M_{3}\rho_{3}=P_{1}\rho_{1}+P_{2}\rho_{2}-P_{3}\rho_{3} & =0\\ M_{1}\rho_{1}+M_{2}\rho_{2}-M_{3}\rho_{3} & =0 \end{align} }\right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Replacing the imaginary variables and coefficients with real ones, this is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)'' producing ''x<sup>2</sup>+y<sup>2</sup>=X<sup>2</sup>+Y<sup>2</sup>=1''.</p> Or in (1884c):<ref group=M>Picard (1884c), pp. 123–124; 163</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}UU_{0}+VV_{0}-WW_{0}=uu_{0}+vv_{0}-ww_{0}\\ \hline \mathbf{(1)}\ \begin{align}U & =Mu+Pv+Rw\\ V & =M'u+P'v+R'w\\ W & =M''u+P''v+R''w\\ \\ u & =M_{0}U+M_{0}^{\prime}V-M_{0}^{\prime\prime}W\\ v & =P_{0}U+P_{0}^{\prime}V-P_{0}^{\prime\prime}W\\ w & =-R_{0}U-R_{0}^{\prime}V+R_{0}^{\prime\prime}W \end{align} \left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}MM_{0}+M'M_{0}^{\prime}-M''M_{0}^{\prime\prime} & =1\\ PP_{0}+P'P_{0}^{\prime}-P''P_{0}^{\prime\prime} & =1\\ RR_{0}+R'R_{0}^{\prime}-R''R_{0}^{\prime\prime} & =-1\\ MP_{0}+M'P_{0}^{\prime}-M''P_{0}^{\prime\prime} & =0\\ MR_{0}+M'R_{0}^{\prime}-M''R_{0}^{\prime\prime} & =0\\ PR_{0}+P'R_{0}^{\prime}-P''R_{0}^{\prime\prime} & =0\\ \\ MM_{0}+PP_{0}-RR_{0} & =1\\ M'M_{0}^{\prime}+P'P_{0}^{\prime}-R'R_{0}^{\prime} & =1\\ M''M_{0}^{\prime\prime}+P''P_{0}^{\prime\prime}-R''R_{0}^{\prime\prime} & =-1\\ M_{0}M'+P_{0}P'-R_{0}R' & =0\\ M_{0}M''+P_{0}P''-R_{0}R'' & =0\\ M_{0}^{\prime}M''+P_{0}^{\prime}P''-R_{0}^{\prime}R'' & =0 \end{align} }\right.\\ \hline \text{Invariance of unit hypersphere:}\\ \mathbf{(2)}\ \begin{align}\xi' & =\frac{A\xi+A'\eta+A''}{C\xi+C'\eta+C''}\\ \eta' & =\frac{B\xi+B'\eta+B''}{C\xi+C'\eta+C''} \end{align} \left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}AA_{0}+A'A_{0}^{\prime}-A''A_{0}^{\prime\prime} & =1\\ BB_{0}+B'B_{0}^{\prime}-B''B_{0}^{\prime\prime} & =1\\ CC_{0}+C'C_{0}^{\prime}-C''C_{0}^{\prime\prime} & =-1\\ AB_{0}+A'B_{0}^{\prime}-A''B_{0}^{\prime\prime} & =0\\ AC_{0}+A'C_{0}^{\prime}-A''C_{0}^{\prime\prime} & =0\\ BC_{0}+B'C_{0}^{\prime}-B''C_{0}^{\prime\prime} & =0 \end{align} }\right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Replacing the imaginary variables and coefficients with real ones, transformation system (1) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)'' producing ''U<sup>2</sup>+V<sup>2</sup>-W<sup>2</sup>=u<sup>2</sup>+v<sup>2</sup>-w<sup>2</sup>'' and transformation system (2) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)'' producing <math>\xi^{\prime2}+\eta^{\prime2}=\xi^{2}+\eta^{2}=1</math>.</p> === {{anchor|Callandreau}} Callandreau (1885) – Homography === Following [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]] and [[#Hill|Hill (1882)]], [[w:Octave Callandreau]] (1885) formulated the equations<ref group=M>Callandreau (1885), pp. A.7; A.12</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}k\left(\sin^{2}T+\cos^{2}T-1\right)=\\ {\scriptstyle (\alpha+\alpha'\sin T+\alpha''\cos T)^{2}+(\beta+\beta'\sin T+\beta''\cos T)^{2}-(\gamma+\gamma'\sin T+\gamma''\cos T)^{2}}\\ \hline \begin{align}\cos\varepsilon' & =\frac{\alpha+\alpha'\sin T+\alpha''\cos T}{\gamma+\gamma'\sin T+\gamma''\cos T}\\ \sin\varepsilon' & =\frac{\beta+\beta'\sin T+\beta''\cos T}{\gamma+\gamma'\sin T+\gamma''\cos T} \end{align} \left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align} & \left(k=1\right)\\ \alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2} & =-k & \alpha\alpha'+\beta\beta'-\gamma\gamma' & =0\\ \alpha^{\prime2}+\beta^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime2} & =+k & \alpha\alpha''+\beta\beta''-\gamma\gamma'' & =0\\ \alpha^{\prime\prime2}+\beta^{\prime\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} & =+k & \alpha'\alpha''+\beta'\beta''-\gamma'\gamma'' & =0\\ \\ \alpha^{2}-\alpha^{\prime2}-\alpha^{\prime\prime2} & =-1 & \alpha\beta-\alpha'\beta'-\alpha''\beta'' & =0\\ \beta^{2}-\beta^{\prime2}-\beta^{\prime\prime2} & =-1 & \alpha\gamma-\alpha'\gamma'-\alpha''\gamma'' & =0\\ \gamma^{2}-\gamma^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} & =+1 & \beta\gamma-\beta'\gamma'-\beta''\gamma'' & =0 \end{align} }\right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The transformation system is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)'' with <math>[\cos T,\sin T,\cos\varepsilon',\sin\varepsilon']=\left[u_{1},u_{2},u_{1}^{\prime},u_{2}^{\prime}\right]</math>.</p> ==={{anchor|Lie3}} Lie (1885-1890) – Lie group, hyperbolic motions, and infinitesimal transformations=== In (1885/86), [[w:Sophus Lie]] identified the projective group of a general surface of second degree <math>\sum f_{ik}x_{i}'x_{k}'=0</math> with the group of non-Euclidean motions.<ref group=M>Lie (1885/86), p. 411</ref> In a thesis guided by Lie, [[w:Hermann Werner]] (1889) discussed this projective group by using the equation of a unit hypersphere as the surface of second degree (which was already given before by [[#Killing3|Killing (1887)]]), and also gave the corresponding infinitesimal projective transformations (Lie algebra):<ref group=M>Werner (1889), pp. 4, 28</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}=1\\ \hline x_{i}p_{\varkappa}-x_{\varkappa}p_{i},\quad p_{i}-x_{i}\sum_{1}^{n}{\scriptstyle j}\ x_{j}p_{j}\quad(i,\varkappa=1,\dots, n)\\ \text{where}\\ \left(Q_{i},Q_{\varkappa}\right)=R_{i,\varkappa};\ \left(Q_{i},Q_{j,\varkappa}\right)=\varepsilon_{i,j}Q_{\varkappa}-\varepsilon_{i,\varkappa}Q_{j};\\ \left(R_{i,\varkappa},R_{\mu,\nu}\right)=\varepsilon_{\varkappa,\mu}R_{i,\nu}-\varepsilon_{\varkappa,\nu}R_{i,\mu}-\varepsilon_{,\mu}R_{\varkappa,\nu}+\varepsilon_{i,\nu}R_{\varkappa,\mu}\\ \left[\varepsilon_{i,\varkappa}\equiv0\ \text{for}\ i\ne\varkappa;\ \varepsilon_{i,i}=1\right] \end{matrix}</math> More generally, Lie (1890)<ref group=M>Lie (1890a), p. 295;</ref> defined non-Euclidean motions in terms of two forms <math>x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}\pm1=0</math> in which the imaginary form with <math>+1</math> denotes the group of elliptic motions (in Klein's terminology), the real form with −1 the group of hyperbolic motions, with the latter having the same form as Werner's transformation:<ref group=M>Lie (1890a), p. 311</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}-1=0\\ \hline p_{k}-x_{k}\sum j_{1}^{0}x_{j}p_{j},\quad x_{i}p_{k}-x_{k}p_{i}\quad(i,k=1\dots n) \end{matrix}</math> Summarizing, Lie (1893) discussed the real continuous groups of the conic sections representing non-Euclidean motions, which in the case of hyperbolic motions have the form: :<math>x^{2}+y^{2}-1=0</math><ref group=M>Lie (1893), p. 474</ref> or <math>x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-1=0</math><ref group=M>Lie (1893), p. 479</ref> or <math>x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}-1=0</math>.<ref group=M>Lie (1893), p. 481</ref> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The group of hyperbolic motions is isomorphic to the Lorentz group. The interval <math>x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}-1=0</math> becomes the Lorentz interval <math>x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}-x_{0}^{2}=0</math> by setting <br><math>(x_{1},\dots,\ x_{n},\ 1)=\left(\frac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\dots,\ \frac{x_{n}}{x_{0}},\ \frac{x_{0}}{x_{0}}\right)</math></p> ==={{anchor|Gerard}} Gérard (1892) – Weierstrass coordinates=== [[w:Louis Gérard]] (1892) – in a thesis examined by Poincaré – discussed Weierstrass coordinates (without using that name) in the plane using the following invariant and its Lorentz transformation equivalent to ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)'':<ref group=M>Gérard (1892), pp. 40–41</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}X^{2}+Y^{2}-Z^{2}=1\\ X^{2}+Y^{2}-Z^{2}=X^{\prime2}+Y^{\prime2}-Z^{\prime2}\\ \hline \begin{align}X & =aX'+a'Y'+a''Z'\\ Y & =bX'+b'Y'+b''Z'\\ Z & =cX'+c'Y'+c''Z'\\ \\ X' & =aX+bY-cZ\\ Y' & =a'X+b'Y-c'Z\\ Z' & =-a''X-b''Y+c''Z \end{align} \left|\begin{align}a^{2}+b^{2}-c^{2} & =1\\ a^{\prime2}+b^{\prime2}-c^{\prime2} & =1\\ a^{\prime\prime2}+b^{\prime\prime2}-c^{\prime\prime2} & =-1\\ aa'+bb'-cc' & =0\\ a'a''+b'b''-c'c'' & =0\\ a''a+b''b-c''c & =0 \end{align} \right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)''.</p> He gave the case of translation as follows:<ref group=M name=gerard>Gérard (1892), pp. 40–41</ref> :<math>\begin{align}X & =Z_{0}X'+X_{0}Z'\\ Y & =Y'\\ Z & =X_{0}X'+Z_{0}Z' \end{align} \ \text{with}\ \begin{align}X_{0} & =\operatorname{sh}OO'\\ Z_{0} & =\operatorname{ch}OO' \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Hausdorff}} Hausdorff (1899) – Weierstrass coordinates=== [[w:Felix Hausdorff]] (1899) – citing Killing (1885) – discussed Weierstrass coordinates in the plane using the following invariant and its transformation:<ref group=M>Hausdorff (1899), p. 165, pp. 181-182</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}p^{2}-x^{2}-y^{2}=1\\ \hline \begin{align}x & =a_{1}x'+a_{2}y'+x_{0}p'\\ y & =b_{1}x'+b{}_{2}y'+y_{0}p'\\ p & =e_{1}x'+e_{2}y'+p_{0}p'\\ \\ x' & =a_{1}x+b_{1}y-e_{1}p\\ y' & =a_{2}x+b_{2}y-e_{2}p\\ -p' & =x_{0}x+y_{0}y-p_{0}p \end{align} \left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}a_{1}^{2}+b_{1}^{2}-e_{1}^{2} & =1\\ a_{2}^{2}+b_{2}^{2}-e_{2}^{2} & =1\\ -x_{0}^{2}-y_{0}^{2}+p_{0}^{2} & =1\\ a_{2}x_{0}+b_{2}y_{0}-e_{2}p_{0} & =0\\ a_{1}x_{0}+b_{1}y_{0}-e_{1}p_{0} & =0\\ a_{1}a_{2}+b_{1}b_{2}-e_{1}e_{2} & =0\\ \\ a_{1}^{2}+a_{2}^{2}-x_{0}^{2} & =1\\ b_{1}^{2}+b_{2}^{2}-y_{0}^{2} & =1\\ -e_{1}^{2}-e_{2}^{2}+p_{0}^{2} & =1\\ b_{1}e_{1}+b_{2}e_{2}-y_{0}p_{0} & =0\\ a_{1}e_{1}+a_{2}e_{2}-x_{0}p_{0} & =0\\ a_{1}b_{1}+a_{2}b_{2}-x_{0}y_{0} & =0 \end{align} }\right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)''.</p> ==={{anchor|Woods2}} Woods (1901-05) – Beltrami and Weierstrass coordinates === In (1901/02) [[w:Frederick S. Woods]] defined the following invariant quadratic form and its [[w:projective transformation]] in terms of Beltrami coordinates (he pointed out that this can be connected to hyperbolic geometry by setting <math>k=\sqrt{-1}R</math> with ''R'' as real quantity):<ref group=M>Woods (1901/02), p. 98, 104</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}k^{2}\left(u^{2}+v^{2}+w^{2}\right)+1=0\\ \hline \begin{align}u' & =\frac{\alpha_{1}u+\alpha_{2}v+\alpha_{3}w+\alpha_{4}}{\delta_{1}u+\delta_{2}v+\delta_{3}w+\delta_{4}}\\ v' & =\frac{\beta_{1}u+\beta_{2}v+\beta_{3}w+\beta_{4}}{\delta_{1}u+\delta_{2}v+\delta_{3}w+\delta_{4}}\\ w' & =\frac{\gamma_{1}u+\gamma_{2}v+\gamma_{3}w+\gamma_{4}}{\delta_{1}u+\delta_{2}v+\delta_{3}w+\delta_{4}} \end{align} \left|\begin{align}k^{2}\left(\alpha_{i}^{2}+\beta_{i}^{2}+\gamma_{i}^{2}\right)+\delta_{i}^{2} & =k^{2}\\ (i=1,2,3)\\ k^{2}\left(\alpha_{4}^{2}+\beta_{4}^{2}+\gamma_{4}^{2}\right)+\delta_{4}^{2} & =1\\ \alpha_{i}\alpha_{h}+\beta_{i}\beta_{h}+\gamma_{i}\gamma_{h}+\delta_{i}\delta_{h} & =0\\ (i,h=1,2,3,4;\ i\ne h) \end{align} \right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=3)'' with ''k''<sup>2</sup>=-1.</p> Alternatively, Woods (1903, published 1905) – citing Killing (1885) – used the invariant quadratic form in terms of Weierstrass coordinates and its transformation (with <math>k=\sqrt{-1}k</math> for hyperbolic space):<ref group=M>Woods (1903/05), pp. 45–46; p. 48)</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x_{0}^{2}+k^{2}\left(x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}\right)=1\\ ds^{2}=\frac{1}{k^{2}}dx_{0}^{2}+dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+dx_{3}^{2}\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{1}^{\prime} & =\alpha_{1}x_{1}+\alpha_{2}x_{2}+\alpha_{3}x_{3}+\alpha_{0}x_{0}\\ x_{2}^{\prime} & =\beta_{1}x_{1}+\beta_{2}x_{2}+\beta_{3}x_{3}+\beta_{0}x_{0}\\ x_{3}^{\prime} & =\gamma_{1}x_{1}+\gamma_{2}x_{2}+\gamma_{3}x_{3}+\gamma_{0}x_{0}\\ x_{0}^{\prime} & =\delta_{1}x_{1}+\delta_{2}x_{2}+\delta_{3}x_{3}+\delta_{0}x_{0} \end{align} \left|\begin{align}\delta_{0}^{2}+k^{2}\left(\alpha_{0}^{2}+\beta_{0}^{2}+\gamma_{0}^{2}\right) & =1\\ \delta_{i}^{2}+k^{2}\left(\alpha_{i}^{2}+\beta_{i}^{2}+\gamma_{i}^{2}\right) & =k^{2}\\ (i=1,2,3)\\ \delta_{i}\delta_{h}+k^{2}\left(\alpha_{i}\alpha_{h}+\beta_{i}\beta_{h}+\gamma_{i}\gamma_{h}\right) & =0\\ (i,h=0,1,2,3;\ i\ne h) \end{align} \right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=3)'' with ''k''<sup>2</sup>=-1.</p> ==={{anchor|Liebmann}} Liebmann (1904–05) – Weierstrass coordinates=== [[w:Heinrich Liebmann]] (1904/05) – citing Killing (1885), Gérard (1892), Hausdorff (1899) – used the invariant quadratic form and its Lorentz transformation equivalent to ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)''<ref group=M>Liebmann (1904/05), p. 168; pp. 175–176</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}p^{\prime2}-x^{\prime2}-y^{\prime2}=1\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{1} & =\alpha_{11}x+\alpha_{12}y+\alpha_{13}p\\ y_{1} & =\alpha_{21}x+\alpha_{22}y+\alpha_{23}p\\ x_{1} & =\alpha_{31}x+\alpha_{32}y+\alpha_{33}p\\ \\ x & =\alpha_{11}x_{1}+\alpha_{21}y_{1}-\alpha_{31}p_{1}\\ y & =\alpha_{12}x_{1}+\alpha_{22}y_{1}-\alpha_{32}p_{1}\\ p & =-\alpha_{13}x_{1}-\alpha_{23}y_{1}+\alpha_{33}p_{1} \end{align} \left|\begin{align}\alpha_{33}^{2}-\alpha_{13}^{2}-\alpha_{23}^{2} & =1\\ -\alpha_{31}^{2}+\alpha_{11}^{2}+\alpha_{21}^{2} & =1\\ -\alpha_{32}^{2}+\alpha_{12}^{2}+\alpha_{22}^{2} & =1\\ \alpha_{31}\alpha_{32}-\alpha_{11}\alpha_{12}-\alpha_{21}\alpha_{22} & =0\\ \alpha_{32}\alpha_{33}-\alpha_{12}\alpha_{13}-\alpha_{22}\alpha_{23} & =0\\ \alpha_{33}\alpha_{31}-\alpha_{23}\alpha_{11}-\alpha_{23}\alpha_{21} & =0 \end{align} \right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)''.</p> ==References== ===Historical mathematical sources=== {{reflist|3|group=M}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|apo}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bour56att}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|chal82sec}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|chas29}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cox81hom}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cox82hom}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|fris76}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|gau98}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|gau18}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|ger92}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|gud30}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|haus99}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|hill82}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|jac27}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|jac32a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|jac32b}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|jac33}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil77}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil79}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil84}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil85}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil93}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil97}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei71}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei73}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lag73}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|leb37}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lie85}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lie90}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lie93}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lieb04}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|pic82}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|pic84a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|pic84b}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|pic84c}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|poin81a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|poin81b}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|poin87}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|sal62}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|som63}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|wedd47}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|wern89}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo01}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo03}} ===Secondary sources=== {{reflist|3}} {{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/secsource|L1}} [[Category:Special Relativity]] [[Category:History of Physics]] k9z1sghroua5wa0dtzsiw9gfp5zn36v 0 267591 2415727 2415539 2022-08-17T06:13:04Z D.H 52339 /* Hyperbolic law of cosines */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{../Lorentz transformation (header)}} ==Lorentz transformation via hyperbolic functions== ===Translation in the hyperbolic plane=== The case of a Lorentz transformation without spatial rotation is called a [[w:Lorentz boost]]. The simplest case can be given, for instance, by setting ''n=1'' in the [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#math_1a|E:most general Lorentz transformation '''(1a)''']]: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{0}^{\prime} & =x_{0}g_{00}+x_{1}g_{01}\\ x_{1}^{\prime} & =x_{0}g_{10}+x_{1}g_{11}\\ \\ x_{0} & =x_{0}^{\prime}g_{00}-x_{1}^{\prime}g_{10}\\ x_{1} & =-x_{0}^{\prime}g_{01}+x_{1}^{\prime}g_{11} \end{align} \left|\begin{align}g_{01}^{2}-g_{00}^{2} & =-1\\ g_{11}^{2}-g_{10}^{2} & =1\\ g_{01}g_{11}-g_{00}g_{10} & =0\\ g_{10}^{2}-g_{00}^{2} & =-1\\ g_{11}^{2}-g_{01}^{2} & =1\\ g_{10}g_{11}-g_{00}g_{01} & =0 \end{align} \rightarrow\begin{align}g_{00}^{2} & =g_{11}^{2}\\ g_{01}^{2} & =g_{10}^{2} \end{align} \right. \end{matrix}</math> or in matrix notation <math>\left.\begin{align}\mathbf{x}' & =\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} & g_{01}\\ g_{10} & g_{11} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}\\ \mathbf{x} & =\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} & -g_{10}\\ -g_{01} & g_{11} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}' \end{align} \quad\right|\quad\det\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} & g_{01}\\ g_{10} & g_{11} \end{bmatrix}=1</math>|{{equationRef|3a}}}} which resembles precisely the relations of [[w:hyperbolic function]]s in terms of [[w:hyperbolic angle]] <math>\eta</math>. Thus a Lorentz boost or [[w:hyperbolic rotation]] (being the same as a rotation around an imaginary angle <math>i\eta=\phi</math> in [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#math_2b|E:'''(2b)''']] or a [[w:Translation (geometry)|translation]] in the hyperbolic plane in terms of the hyperboloid model) is given by {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\ \hline g_{00}=g_{11}=\cosh\eta,\ g_{01}=g_{10}=-\sinh\eta\\ \hline \left.\begin{align} & \quad\quad(A) & & \quad\quad(B) & & \quad\quad(C)\\ x_{0}^{\prime} & =x_{0}\cosh\eta-x_{1}\sinh\eta & & =\frac{x_{0}-x_{1}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & & =\frac{x_{0}-x_{1}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\ x_{1}^{\prime} & =-x_{0}\sinh\eta+x_{1}\cosh\eta & & =\frac{x_{1}-x_{0}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & & =\frac{x_{1}-x_{0}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\ \\ x_{0} & =x_{0}^{\prime}\cosh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta & & =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & & =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{1}^{\prime}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\ x_{1} & =x_{0}^{\prime}\sinh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta & & =\frac{x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & & =\frac{x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}} \end{align} \right|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\sinh^{2}\eta-\cosh^{2}\eta & =-1 & (a)\\ \cosh^{2}\eta-\sinh^{2}\eta & =1 & (b)\\ \frac{\sinh\eta}{\cosh\eta} & =\tanh\eta=v & (c)\\ \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & =\cosh\eta & (d)\\ \frac{\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & =\sinh\eta & (e)\\ \frac{\tanh q\pm\tanh\eta}{1\pm\tanh q\tanh\eta} & =\tanh\left(q\pm\eta\right) & (f) \end{align} } \end{matrix}</math> or in matrix notation <math>\left.\begin{align}\mathbf{x}' & =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & -\sinh\eta\\ -\sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}\\ \mathbf{x} & =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}' \end{align} \quad\right|\quad\det\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & -\sinh\eta\\ -\sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix}=1</math>|{{equationRef|3b}}}} Hyperbolic identities (a,b) on the right of ({{equationNote|3b}}) were given by [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]], all identities (a,b,c,d,e,f) by [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768–1770)]]. Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|3b}}-A) were given by [[#Laisant|Laisant (1874)]], [[#Cox|Cox (1882)]], [[#Lindemann|Lindemann (1890/91)]], [[#Gerard|Gérard (1892)]], [[#Killing2|Killing (1893, 1897/98)]], [[#Whitehead|Whitehead (1897/98)]], [[#Woods2|Woods (1903/05)]], [[#Elliott|Elliott (1903)]] and [[#Liebmann|Liebmann (1904/05)]] in terms of Weierstrass coordinates of the [[w:hyperboloid model]], while transformations similar to ({{equationNote|3b}}-C) have been used by [[#Lipschitz1|Lipschitz (1885/86)]]. In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[#Frank|Frank (1909)]] and [[#Varicak|Varićak (1910)]]. Rapidity can be composed of arbitrary many rapidities <math>\eta_{1},\eta_{2}\dots</math> as per the [[w:Hyperbolic functions#Sums of arguments|w:angle sum laws of hyperbolic sines and cosines]], so that one hyperbolic rotation can represent the sum of many other hyperbolic rotations, analogous to the relation between [[w:List of trigonometric identities#Angle sum and difference identities|w:angle sum laws of circular trigonometry]] and spatial rotations. Alternatively, the hyperbolic angle sum laws ''themselves'' can be interpreted as Lorentz boosts, as demonstrated by using the parameterization of the [[w:unit hyperbola]]: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}=1\\ \hline \left[\eta=\eta_{2}-\eta_{1}\right]\\ \begin{align}x_{0}^{\prime} & =\sinh\eta_{1}=\sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{2}\cosh\eta-\cosh\eta_{2}\sinh\eta & & =x_{0}\cosh\eta-x_{1}\sinh\eta\\ x_{1}^{\prime} & =\cosh\eta_{1}=\cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)=-\sinh\eta_{2}\sinh\eta+\cosh\eta_{2}\cosh\eta & & =-x_{0}\sinh\eta+x_{1}\cosh\eta\\ \\ x_{0} & =\sinh\eta_{2}=\sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{1}\cosh\eta+\cosh\eta_{1}\sinh\eta & & =x_{0}^{\prime}\cosh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta\\ x_{1} & =\cosh\eta_{2}=\cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{1}\sinh\eta+\cosh\eta_{1}\cosh\eta & & =x_{0}^{\prime}\sinh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> or in matrix notation <math>{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\begin{bmatrix}x_{1}^{\prime} & x_{0}^{\prime}\\ x_{0}^{\prime} & x_{1}^{\prime} \end{bmatrix} & =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{1} & \sinh\eta_{1}\\ \sinh\eta_{1} & \cosh\eta_{1} \end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right) & \sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)\\ \sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right) & \cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right) \end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{2} & \sinh\eta_{2}\\ \sinh\eta_{2} & \cosh\eta_{2} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & -\sinh\eta\\ -\sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix} & & =\begin{bmatrix}x_{1} & x_{0}\\ x_{0} & x_{1} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & -\sinh\eta\\ -\sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix}\\ \begin{bmatrix}x_{1} & x_{0}\\ x_{0} & x_{1} \end{bmatrix} & =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{2} & \sinh\eta_{2}\\ \sinh\eta_{2} & \cosh\eta_{2} \end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right) & \sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)\\ \sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right) & \cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right) \end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{1} & \sinh\eta_{1}\\ \sinh\eta_{1} & \cosh\eta_{1} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix} & & =\begin{bmatrix}x_{1}^{\prime} & x_{0}^{\prime}\\ x_{0}^{\prime} & x_{1}^{\prime} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix} \end{align} }</math>|{{equationRef|3c}}}} Hyperbolic angle sum laws were given by [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]] and [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768–1770)]] and many others, while matrix representations were given by [[#Glaisher|Glaisher (1878)]] and [[#Gunther1|Günther (1880/81)]]. Using the idendity <math>\cosh\eta+\sinh\eta=e^{\eta}</math>, Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) assumes a simple form by using [[w:squeeze mapping]]s in analogy to Euler's formula in [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#math_2c|E:'''(2c)''']]:<ref name=rind>Rindler (1969), p. 45</ref> {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\ \hline \begin{matrix}\begin{aligned}x_{1}^{\prime}-x_{0}^{\prime} & =k\left(x_{1}-x_{0}\right)\\ x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime} & =\frac{1}{k}\left(x_{1}+x_{0}\right) \end{aligned} & \Rightarrow & \begin{aligned}x_{1}^{\prime}-x_{0}^{\prime} & =e^{\eta}\left(x_{1}-x_{0}\right)\\ x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime} & =e^{-\eta}\left(x_{1}+x_{0}\right) \end{aligned} \end{matrix}\\ \hline k=e^{\eta}=\cosh\eta+\sinh\eta=\sqrt{\frac{1+\tanh\eta}{1-\tanh\eta}}=\sqrt{\frac{1+v}{1-v}} \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|3d}}}} Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|3d}}) for arbitrary ''k'' were given by many authors (see [[../Lorentz transformation (squeeze)|E:Lorentz transformations via squeeze mappings]]), while a form similar to <math>k=\sqrt{\tfrac{1+v}{1-v}}</math> was given by [[#Lipschitz1|Lipschitz (1885/86)]], and the exponential form was used by [[#Lindemann|Lindemann (1890/91)]], [[#Elliott|Elliott (1903)]], [[#Herglotz1|Herglotz (1909)]]. ===Hyperbolic law of cosines=== By adding an unchanged third coordinate <math>x_{2}^{\prime}=x_{2}</math> in Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3b}}) and interpreting <math>x_{0},x_{1},x_{2}</math> as [[w:homogeneous coordinates]], the Lorentz transformation can be rewritten in line with equation [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#math_1b|E:'''(1b)''']] by using coordinates <math>[u_{1},\ u_{2}]=\left[\tfrac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ \tfrac{x_{2}}{x_{0}}\right]</math> defined by <math>u_{1}^{2}+u_{2}^{2}\le1</math> inside the [[w:unit circle]] as follows: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{align} & \quad\quad(A) & & \quad\quad(B) & & \quad\quad(C)\\ u_{1}^{\prime} & =\frac{-\sinh\eta+u_{1}\cosh\eta}{\cosh\eta-u_{1}\sinh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{1}-\tanh\eta}{1-u_{1}\tanh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{1}-v}{1-u_{1}v}\\ u_{2}^{\prime} & =\frac{u_{2}}{\cosh\eta-u_{1}\sinh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{2}\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1-u_{1}\tanh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{2}\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-u_{1}v}\\ \\ u_{1} & =\frac{\sinh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta}{\cosh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{1}^{\prime}+\tanh\eta}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{1}^{\prime}+v}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}v}\\ u_{2} & =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}}{\cosh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}v} \end{align} </math>|{{equationRef|3e}}}} Transformations (A) were given by [[#Escherich|Escherich (1874)]] and [[#Killing2|Killing (1898)]], and transformations (C) by [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]] and [[#Schur|Schur (1885/86, 1900/02)]] in terms of [[w:Beltrami–Klein model|Beltrami coordinates]]<ref>Rosenfeld (1988), p. 231</ref> of hyperbolic geometry. By using the scalar product of <math>\left[u_{1},u_{2}\right]</math>, the resulting Lorentz transformation can be seen as equivalent to the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:<ref name=pau>Pauli (1921), p. 561</ref><ref group=R name=var>Varićak (1912), p. 108</ref><ref name=barr>Barrett (2006), chapter 4, section 2</ref> {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix} & \begin{matrix}u^{2}=u_{1}^{2}+u_{2}^{2}\\ u'^{2}=u_{1}^{\prime2}+u_{2}^{\prime2} \end{matrix}\left|\begin{matrix}u_{1}=u\cos\alpha\\ u_{2}=u\sin\alpha\\ \\ u_{1}^{\prime}=u'\cos\alpha'\\ u_{2}^{\prime}=u'\sin\alpha' \end{matrix}\right|\begin{align}u\cos\alpha & =\frac{u'\cos\alpha'+v}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'}, & u'\cos\alpha' & =\frac{u\cos\alpha-v}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\ u\sin\alpha & =\frac{u'\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'}, & u'\sin\alpha' & =\frac{u\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\ \tan\alpha & =\frac{u'\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{u'\cos\alpha'+v}, & \tan\alpha' & =\frac{u\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{u\cos\alpha-v} \end{align} \\ \Rightarrow & u=\frac{\sqrt{v^{2}+u^{\prime2}+2vu'\cos\alpha'-\left(vu'\sin\alpha'\right){}^{2}}}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'},\quad u'=\frac{\sqrt{-v^{2}-u^{2}+2vu\cos\alpha+\left(vu\sin\alpha\right){}^{2}}}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\ \Rightarrow & \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-u^{\prime2}}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-u^{2}}}-\frac{v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\frac{u}{\sqrt{1-u^{2}}}\cos\alpha & (B)\\ \Rightarrow & \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\xi}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\zeta}}-\frac{\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}\frac{\tanh\zeta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\zeta}}\cos\alpha\\ \Rightarrow & \cosh\xi=\cosh\eta\cosh\zeta-\sinh\eta\sinh\zeta\cos\alpha & (A) \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|3f}}}} The hyperbolic law of cosines (A) was given by [[#Taurinus|Taurinus (1826) and Lobachevsky (1829/30)]] and others, while variant (B) was given by [[#Schur|Schur (1900/02)]]. By further setting ''u=u′'' it follows: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{align} & \quad(A) & & \quad(B)\\ \cos\alpha & =\frac{\cos\alpha'+\tanh\eta}{1+\tanh\eta\cos\alpha'} & \cos\alpha & =\frac{\cos\alpha'+v}{1+v\cos\alpha'}\\ \sin\alpha & =\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1+\tanh\eta\cos\alpha'} & \sin\alpha & =\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+v\cos\alpha'}\\ \tan\alpha & =\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{\cos\alpha'+\tanh\eta} & \tan\alpha & =\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{\cos\alpha'+v}\\ \tan\frac{\alpha}{2} & =\sqrt{\frac{1-\tanh\eta}{1+\tanh\eta}}\tan\frac{\alpha'}{2} & \tan\frac{\alpha}{2} & =\sqrt{\frac{1-v}{1+v}}\tan\frac{\alpha'}{2}\\ \\ \cos\alpha' & =\frac{\cos\alpha-\tanh\eta}{1-\tanh\eta\cos\alpha} & \cos\alpha' & =\frac{\cos\alpha-v}{1-v\cos\alpha}\\ \sin\alpha' & =\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1-\tanh\eta\cos\alpha} & \sin\alpha' & =\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-v\cos\alpha}\\ \tan\alpha' & =\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{\cos\alpha-\tanh\eta} & \tan\alpha' & =\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{\cos\alpha-v}\\ \tan\frac{\alpha'}{2} & =\sqrt{\frac{1+\tanh\eta}{1-\tanh\eta}}\tan\frac{\alpha}{2} & \tan\frac{\alpha'}{2} & =\sqrt{\frac{1+v}{1-v}}\tan\frac{\alpha}{2} \end{align}</math>|{{equationRef|3g}}}} Formulas (3g-B) are the equations of an [[w:ellipse]] of [[w:Orbital eccentricity|eccentricity]] ''v/c'', [[w:eccentric anomaly]] α' and [[w:true anomaly]] α, first geometrically formulated by [[#Euler|Kepler (1609)]] and explicitly written down by [[#Euler|Euler (1735, 1748), Lagrange (1770)]] and many others in relation to planetary motions. They were also used by [[../Lorentz transformation (conformal)#Darboux|E:Darboux (1873)]] as a sphere transformation. In special relativity, these formulas describes the aberration of light, see [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#Velocity addition and aberration|E:velocity addition and aberration]]. ==Historical notation== ==={{anchor|Euler}} Euler (1735) – True and eccentric anomaly=== [[w:Johannes Kepler]] (1609) geometrically formulated [[w:Kepler's equation]] and the relations between the [[w:mean anomaly]], [[w:true anomaly]], and [[w:eccentric anomaly]].<ref group=M>Kepler (1609), chapter 60. The editors of Kepler's collected papers remark (p. 482), that Kepler's relations correspond to <math>{\scriptstyle \alpha=\beta+e\sin\beta}</math> and <math>{\scriptstyle \cos\nu=\frac{e+\cos\beta}{1+e\cos\beta}}</math> and <math>{\scriptstyle \cos\beta=\frac{\cos\nu-e}{1-e\cos\nu}}</math></ref><ref>Volk (1976), p. 366</ref> The relation between the true anomaly ''z'' and the eccentric anomaly ''P'' was algebraically expressed by [[w:Leonhard Euler]] (1735/40) as follows:<ref group=M>Euler (1735/40), § 19</ref> :<math>\cos z=\frac{\cos P+v}{1+v\cos P},\ \cos P=\frac{\cos z-v}{1-v\cos z},\ \int P=\frac{\int z\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-v\cos z}</math> and in 1748:<ref group=M>Euler (1748a), section VIII</ref> :<math>\cos z=\frac{n+\cos y}{1+n\cos y},\ \sin z=\frac{\sin y\sqrt{1-n^{2}}}{1+n\cos y},\ \tan z=\frac{\sin y\sqrt{1-n^{2}}}{n+\cos y}</math> while [[w:Joseph-Louis Lagrange]] (1770/71) expressed them as follows<ref group=M>Lagrange (1770/71), section I</ref> :<math>\sin u=\frac{m\sin x}{1+n\cos x},\ \cos u=\frac{n+\cos x}{1+n\cos x},\ \operatorname{tang}\frac{1}{2}u=\frac{m}{1+n}\operatorname{tang}\frac{1}{2}x,\ \left(m^{2}=1-n^{2}\right)</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black"> These relations resemble formulas ({{equationNote|3g}}), while ({{equationNote|3f}}) follows by setting <math>[\cos z,\sin z]=\left[u_{x},u_{y}\right]</math> in Euler's formulas or <math>[\cos u,\sin u]=\left[u_{x},u_{y}\right]</math> in Lagrange's formulas.</p> ==={{anchor|Riccati}} Riccati (1757) – hyperbolic addition=== [[w:Vincenzo Riccati]] introduced hyperbolic functions in 1757,<ref group=M>Riccati (1757), p. 71</ref><ref group=M>Günther (1880/81), pp. 7–13</ref> in particular he formulated the angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine: :<math>\begin{matrix}\mathrm{Ch}(\varphi+\pi)=\frac{\mathrm{Ch}\varphi\mathrm{Ch}\pi+\mathrm{Sh}\varphi\mathrm{Sh}\pi}{r}\\ \mathrm{Sh}(\varphi+\pi)=\frac{\mathrm{Ch}\varphi\mathrm{Sh}\pi+\mathrm{Ch}\pi\mathrm{Sh}\varphi}{r}\\ \left[\mathrm{Ch}^{2}-\mathrm{Sh}^{2}=rr\right] \end{matrix}</math> He furthermore showed that <math>\mathrm{Ch}(\varphi-\pi)</math> and <math>\mathrm{Sh}(\varphi-\pi)</math> follow by setting <math>\mathrm{Ch}(\pi)\Rightarrow\mathrm{Ch}(-\pi)</math> and <math>\mathrm{Sh}(\pi)\Rightarrow\mathrm{Sh}(-\pi)</math> in the above formulas. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine can be interpreted as hyperbolic rotations of points on a hyperbola, as in Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3c}}). (In modern publications, Riccati's additional factor ''r'' is set to unity.)</p> ==={{anchor|Lambert}} Lambert (1768–1770) – hyperbolic addition=== While [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]] discussed the hyperbolic sine and cosine, [[w:Johann Heinrich Lambert]] (read 1767, published 1768) introduced the expression ''tang φ'' or abbreviated ''tφ'' as the [[w:tangens hyperbolicus]] <math>{\scriptstyle \frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{e^{u}+e^{-u}}}</math> of a variable ''u'', or in modern notation ''tφ=tanh(u)'':<ref group=M>Lambert (1761/68), pp. 309–318</ref><ref>Barnett (2004), pp. 22–23</ref> :<math>\left.\begin{align}\xi\xi-1 & =\eta\eta & (a)\\ 1+\eta\eta & =\xi\xi & (b)\\ \frac{\eta}{\xi} & =tang\ \phi=t\phi & (c)\\ \xi & =\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-t\phi^{2}}} & (d)\\ \eta & =\frac{t\phi}{\sqrt{1-t\phi^{2}}} & (e)\\ t\phi'' & =\frac{t\phi+t\phi'}{1+t\phi\cdot t\phi'} & (f)\\ t\phi' & =\frac{t\phi''-t\phi}{1-t\phi\cdot t\phi''} & (g) \end{align} \right|\begin{align}2u & =\log\frac{1+t\phi}{1-t\phi}\\ \xi & =\frac{e^{u}+e^{-u}}{2}\\ \eta & =\frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{2}\\ t\phi & =\frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{e^{u}+e^{-u}}\\ e^{u} & =\xi+\eta\\ e^{-u} & =\xi-\eta \end{align}</math> In (1770) he rewrote the addition law for the hyperbolic tangens (f) or (g) as:<ref group=M>Lambert (1770), p. 335</ref> :<math>\begin{align}t(y+z) & =(ty+tz):(1+ty\cdot tz) & (f)\\ t(y-z) & =(ty-tz):(1-ty\cdot tz) & (g) \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The hyperbolic relations (a,b,c,d,e,f) are equivalent to the hyperbolic relations on the right of ({{equationNote|3b}}). Relations (f,g) can also be found in ({{equationNote|3e}}). By setting ''tφ=v/c'', formula (c) becomes the relative velocity between two frames, (d) the [[w:Lorentz factor]], (e) the [[w:proper velocity]], (f) or (g) becomes the Lorentz transformation of velocity (or relativistic [[w:velocity addition formula]]) for collinear velocities in [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4a|E:'''(4a)''']] and [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']].</p> Lambert also formulated the addition laws for the hyperbolic cosine and sine (Lambert's "cos" and "sin" actually mean "cosh" and "sinh"): :<math>\begin{align}\sin(y+z) & =\sin y\cos z+\cos y\sin z\\ \sin(y-z) & =\sin y\cos z-\cos y\sin z\\ \cos(y+z) & =\cos y\cos z+\sin y\sin z\\ \cos(y-z) & =\cos y\cos z-\sin y\sin z \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine can be interpreted as hyperbolic rotations of points on a hyperbola, as in Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3c}}).</p> ==={{Anchor|Taurinus}} Taurinus (1826) – Hyperbolic law of cosines=== After the addition theorem for the tangens hyperbolicus was given by [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768)]], [[w:hyperbolic geometry]] was used by [[w:Franz Taurinus]] (1826), and later by [[w:Nikolai Lobachevsky]] (1829/30) and others, to formulate the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:<ref group=M>Taurinus (1826), p. 66; see also p. 272 in the translation by Engel and Stäckel (1899)</ref><ref>Bonola (1912), p. 79</ref><ref>Gray (1979), p. 242</ref> :<math>A=\operatorname{arccos}\frac{\cos\left(\alpha\sqrt{-1}\right)-\cos\left(\beta\sqrt{-1}\right)\cos\left(\gamma\sqrt{-1}\right)}{\sin\left(\beta\sqrt{-1}\right)\sin\left(\gamma\sqrt{-1}\right)}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">When solved for <math>\cos\left(\alpha\sqrt{-1}\right)</math> it corresponds to the Lorentz transformation in Beltrami coordinates ({{equationNote|3f}}), and by defining the rapidities <math>{\scriptstyle \left(\left[\frac{U}{c},\ \frac{v}{c},\ \frac{u}{c}\right]=\left[\tanh\alpha,\ \tanh\beta,\ \tanh\gamma\right]\right)}</math> it corresponds to the relativistic velocity addition formula [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4e|E:'''(4e)''']].</p> ==={{anchor|Beltrami}} Beltrami (1868) – Beltrami coordinates=== [[w:Eugenio Beltrami]] (1868a) introduced coordinates of the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model]] of hyperbolic geometry, and formulated the corresponding transformations in terms of homographies:<ref group=M>Beltrami (1868a), pp. 287-288; Note I; Note II</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}ds^{2}=R^{2}\frac{\left(a^{2}+v^{2}\right)du^{2}-2uv\,du\,dv+\left(a^{2}+v^{2}\right)dv^{2}}{\left(a^{2}+u^{2}+v^{2}\right)^{2}}\\ u^{2}+v^{2}=a^{2}\\ \hline u''=\frac{aa_{0}\left(u'-r_{0}\right)}{a^{2}-r_{0}u'},\ v''=\frac{a_{0}w_{0}v'}{a^{2}-r_{0}u'},\\ \left(r_{0}=\sqrt{u_{0}^{2}+v_{0}^{2}},\ w_{0}=\sqrt{a^{2}-r_{0}^{2}}\right)\\ \hline ds^{2}=R^{2}\frac{\left(a^{2}-v^{2}\right)du^{2}+2uv\,du\,dv+\left(a^{2}-v^{2}\right)dv^{2}}{\left(a^{2}-u^{2}-v^{2}\right)^{2}}\\ (R=R\sqrt{-1},\ a=a\sqrt{-1}) \end{matrix}</math> (where the disk radius ''a'' and the [[w:radius of curvature]] ''R'' are real in spherical geometry, in hyperbolic geometry they are imaginary), and for arbitrary dimensions in (1868b)<ref group=M>Beltrami (1868b), pp. 232, 240–241, 253–254</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}ds=R\frac{\sqrt{dx^{2}+dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+\cdots+dx_{n}^{2}}}{x}\\ x^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}=a^{2}\\ \hline y_{1}=\frac{ab\left(x_{1}-a_{1}\right)}{a^{2}-a_{1}x_{1}}\ \text{or}\ x_{1}=\frac{a\left(ay_{1}+a_{1}b\right)}{ab+a_{1}y_{1}},\ x_{r}=\pm\frac{ay_{r}\sqrt{a^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}}{ab+a_{1}y_{1}}\ (r=2,3,\dots,n)\\ \hline ds=R\frac{\sqrt{dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+\cdots+dx_{n}^{2}-dx^{2}}}{x}\\ x^{2}=a^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}\\ \left(R=R\sqrt{-1},\ x=x\sqrt{-1},\ a=a\sqrt{-1}\right) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Setting ''a=a<sub>0</sub>'' Beltrami's (1868a) formulas become formulas ({{equationNote|3e}}), or in his (1868b) formulas one sets ''a=b'' for arbitrary dimensions.</p> === {{anchor|Laisant2}} Laisant (1874) – Equipollences=== In his French translation of [[w:Giusto Bellavitis]]' principal work on [[w:Equipollence (geometry)|w:equipollences]], [[w:Charles-Ange Laisant]] (1874) added a chapter related to hyperbolas. The equipollence OM and its tangent MT of a hyperbola is defined by Laisant as<ref group=M>Laisant (1874b), pp. 134–135</ref> :(1) <math>\begin{matrix} & \mathrm{OM}\bumpeq x\mathrm{OA}+y\mathrm{OB}\\ & \mathrm{MT}\bumpeq y\mathrm{OA}+x\mathrm{OB}\\ & \left[x^{2}-y^{2}=1;\ x=\cosh t,\ y=\sinh t\right]\\ \Rightarrow & \mathrm{OM}\bumpeq\cosh t\cdot\mathrm{OA}+\sinh t\cdot\mathrm{OB} \end{matrix}</math> Here, OA and OB are [[w:Conjugate diameters|conjugate semi-diameters]] of a hyperbola with OB being imaginary, both of which he related to two other conjugated semi-diameters OC and OD by the following transformation: :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{align}\mathrm{OC} & \bumpeq c\mathrm{OA}+d\mathrm{OB} & \qquad & & \mathrm{OA} & \bumpeq c\mathrm{OC}-d\mathrm{OD}\\ \mathrm{OD} & \bumpeq d\mathrm{OA}+c\mathrm{OB} & & & \mathrm{OB} & \bumpeq-d\mathrm{OC}+c\mathrm{OD} \end{align} \\ \left[c^{2}-d^{2}=1\right] \end{matrix}</math> producing the invariant relation :<math>(\mathrm{OC})^{2}-(\mathrm{OD})^{2}\bumpeq(\mathrm{OA})^{2}-(\mathrm{OB})^{2}</math>. Substituting into (1), he showed that OM retains its form :<math>\begin{matrix}\mathrm{OM}\bumpeq(cx-dy)\mathrm{OC}+(cy-dx)\mathrm{OD}\\ \left[(cx-dy)^{2}-(cy-dx)^{2}=1\right] \end{matrix}</math> He also defined velocity and acceleration by differentiation of (1). <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">These relations are equivalent to several Lorentz boosts or hyperbolic rotations producing the invariant Lorentz interval in line with ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Escherich}} Escherich (1874) – Beltrami coordinates=== [[w:Gustav von Escherich]] (1874) discussed the plane of constant negative curvature<ref>Sommerville (1911), p. 297</ref> based on the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model]] of hyperbolic geometry by [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]]. Similar to [[w:Christoph Gudermann]] (1830)<ref name=guder group=M>Gudermann (1830), §1–3, §18–19</ref> who introduced axial coordinates ''x''=tan(a) and ''y''=tan(b) in sphere geometry in order to perform coordinate transformations in the case of rotation and translation, Escherich used hyperbolic functions ''x''=tanh(a/k) and ''y''=tanh(b/k)<ref group=M>Escherich (1874), p. 508</ref> in order to give the corresponding coordinate transformations for the hyperbolic plane, which for the case of translation have the form:<ref group=M name=escher>Escherich (1874), p. 510</ref> :<math>x=\frac{\sinh\frac{a}{k}+x'\cosh\frac{a}{k}}{\cosh\frac{a}{k}+x'\sinh\frac{a}{k}}</math> and <math>y=\frac{y'}{\cosh\frac{a}{k}+x'\sinh\frac{a}{k}}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}), also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] by setting <math>\tfrac{a}{k}=\operatorname{atanh}\tfrac{v}{c}</math> and multiplying ''[x,y,x′,y′]'' by 1/''c'', and equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) by setting <math>\scriptstyle (x,\ y,\ x',\ y')=\left(\frac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ \frac{x_{2}}{x_{0}},\ \frac{x_{1}^{\prime}}{x_{0}^{\prime}},\ \frac{x_{2}^{\prime}}{x_{0}^{\prime}}\right)</math>. This is the relation between the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model|Beltrami coordinates]] in terms of Gudermann-Escherich coordinates, and the Weierstrass coordinates of the [[w:hyperboloid model]] introduced by [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Killing1|E:Killing (1878–1893)]], [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Poincare|E:Poincaré (1881)]], and [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Cox|E:Cox (1881)]]. Both coordinate systems were compared by Cox (1881).<ref group=M>Cox (1881), p. 186</ref></p> ==={{anchor|Glaisher}} Glaisher (1878) – hyperbolic addition=== It was shown by [[w:James Whitbread Lee Glaisher]] (1878) that the hyperbolic addition laws can be expressed by matrix multiplication:<ref group=M>Glaisher (1878), p. 30</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{vmatrix}\cosh x, & \sinh x\\ \sinh x, & \cosh x \end{vmatrix}=1,\ \begin{vmatrix}\cosh y, & \sinh y\\ \sinh y, & \cosh y \end{vmatrix}=1\\ \text{by multiplication:}\\ \Rightarrow\begin{vmatrix}c_{1}c_{2}+s_{1}s_{2}, & s_{1}c_{2}+c_{1}s_{2}\\ c_{1}s_{2}+s_{1}c_{2}, & s_{1}s_{2}+c_{1}c_{2} \end{vmatrix}=1\\ \text{where}\ \left[c_{1},c_{2},c_{3},c_{4}\right]=\left[\cosh x,\cosh y,\sinh x,\sinh y\right] \\ \Rightarrow\begin{vmatrix}\cosh(x+y), & \sinh(x+y)\\ \sinh(x+y), & \cosh(x+y) \end{vmatrix}=1 \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">In this matrix representation, the analogy between the hyperbolic angle sum laws and the Lorentz boost becomes obvious: In particular, the matrix <math>\scriptstyle\begin{vmatrix}\cosh y, & \sinh y\\ \sinh y, & \cosh y\end{vmatrix}</math> producing the hyperbolic addition is analogous to matrix <math>\scriptstyle\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta\end{bmatrix}</math> producing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3c}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Gunther1}} Günther (1880/81) – hyperbolic addition === Following [[#Glaisher|Glaisher (1878)]], [[w:Siegmund Günther]] (1880/81) expressed the hyperbolic addition laws by matrix multiplication:<ref group=M>Günther (1880/81), p. 405</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,x, & \mathfrak{Sin}\,x\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,x, & \mathfrak{Cos}\,x \end{vmatrix}\cdot\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,y, & \mathfrak{Sin}\,y\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,y, & \mathfrak{Cos}\,y \end{vmatrix}\\ =\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y+\mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, & \mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y+\mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y+\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, & \mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y+\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y \end{vmatrix}\\ =\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,(x+y), & \mathfrak{Sin}\,(x+y)\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,(x+y), & \mathfrak{Cos}\,(x+y) \end{vmatrix}=1 \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">In this matrix representation, the analogy between the hyperbolic angle sum laws and the Lorentz boost becomes obvious: In particular, the matrix <math>\scriptstyle\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,y, & \mathfrak{Sin}\,y\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,y, & \mathfrak{Cos}\,y \end{vmatrix}</math> producing the hyperbolic addition is analogous to matrix <math>\scriptstyle\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta\end{bmatrix}</math> producing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3c}}).</p> === {{anchor|Cox}} Cox (1881/82) – Weierstrass coordinates === [[w:Homersham Cox (mathematician)|w:Homersham Cox]] (1881/82) defined the case of translation in the hyperbolic plane with the ''y''-axis remaining unchanged:<ref group=M name=cox>Cox (1881/82), p. 194</ref> :<math>\begin{align}X & =x\cosh p-z\sinh p\\ Z & =-x\sinh p+z\cosh p \\ \\ x & =X\cosh p+Z\sinh p\\ z & =X\sinh p+Z\cosh p \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Lipschitz1}} Lipschitz (1885/86) === [[w:Rudolf Lipschitz]] (1885/86) formulated transformations leaving invariant the sum of squares <math>x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}\dots+x_{n}^{2}=y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n}^{2}</math>, which he rewrote as <math>x_{1}^{2}-y_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}-y_{2}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}-y_{n}^{2}=0</math>. This led to the problem of finding transformations leaving invariant the pairs <math>x_{a}^{2}-y_{a}^{2}</math> (''a''=1...n) for which he gave the following solution:<ref group=M>Lipschitz (1886), pp. 90–92</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x_{a}^{2}-y_{a}^{2}=\mathfrak{x}_{a}^{2}-\mathfrak{y}_{a}^{2}\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{a}-y_{a} & =\left(\mathfrak{x}_{a}-\mathfrak{y}_{a}\right)r_{a}\\ x_{a}+y_{a} & =\left(\mathfrak{x}_{a}+\mathfrak{y}_{a}\right)\frac{1}{r_{a}} \end{align} \quad(a)\\ \hline \begin{matrix}\begin{align}2\mathfrak{x}_{a} & =\left(r_{a}+\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)x_{a}+\left(r_{a}-\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)y_{a}\\ 2\mathfrak{y}_{a} & =\left(r_{a}-\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)x_{a}+\left(r_{a}+\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)y_{a} \end{align} \quad(b)\end{matrix}\\ \hline \left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}}\\ s_{a}>1 \end{matrix}\right\}\Rightarrow\begin{align}\mathfrak{x}_{a} & =\frac{s_{a}x_{a}+y_{a}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}\\ \mathfrak{y}_{a} & =\frac{x_{a}+s_{a}y_{a}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}\sqrt{s_{a}+1}} \end{align} \quad(c) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Equation (a) is identical to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}), while (c) is similar, though not identical, to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}-C). The difference stems from his definition<br><math>\qquad\left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}}\\ s_{a}>1 \end{matrix}\right\}</math><br>whereas in accordance to expression <math>\sqrt{\tfrac{1+v}{1-v}}</math> with <math>v<1</math> in ({{equationNote|3d}}) he should have stated <br><math>\qquad\left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}}\\ s_{a}<1 \end{matrix}\right\}</math>.<br>Using the latter choice, equations (c) would assume a form equivalent to ({{equationNote|3b}}):<br><math>\qquad\begin{align}\mathfrak{x}_{a} & =\frac{x_{a}+s_{a}y_{a}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}\\ \mathfrak{y}_{a} & =\frac{s_{a}x_{a}+y_{a}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}\end{align}</math></p> ==={{Anchor|Schur}} Schur (1885/86, 1900/02) – Beltrami coordinates=== [[w:Friedrich Schur]] (1885/86) discussed spaces of constant Riemann curvature, and by following [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]] he used the transformation<ref group=M>Schur (1885/86), p. 167</ref> :<math>x_{1}=R^{2}\frac{y_{1}+a_{1}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}},\ x_{2}=R\sqrt{R^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}\frac{y_{2}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}},\dots,\ x_{n}=R\sqrt{R^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}\frac{y_{n}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and therefore also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] in arbitrary dimensions by setting ''R=c'' as the speed of light and ''a<sub>1</sub>=v'' as relative velocity.</p> In (1900/02) he derived basic formulas of non-Eucliden geometry, including the case of translation for which he obtained the transformation similar to his previous one:<ref group=M>Schur (1900/02), p. 290; (1909), p. 83</ref> :<math>x'=\frac{x-a}{1-\mathfrak{k}ax},\quad y'=\frac{y\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}{1-\mathfrak{k}ax}</math> where <math>\mathfrak{k}</math> can have values >0, <0 or ∞. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and therefore also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] by setting ''a=v'' and <math>\mathfrak{k}=\tfrac{1}{c^{2}}</math>.</p> He also defined the triangle<ref group=M>Schur (1900/02), p. 291; (1909), p. 83</ref> :<math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}c^{2}}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}\cdot\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}b^{2}}}-\frac{a}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}\cdot\frac{b}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}b^{2}}}\cos\gamma</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to the hyperbolic law of cosines and the relativistic velocity addition ({{equationNote|3f}}, b) or [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4e|E:'''(4e)''']] by setting <math>[\mathfrak{k},\ c,\ a,\ b]=\left[\tfrac{1}{c^{2}},\ \sqrt{u_{x}^{\prime2}+u_{y}^{\prime2}},\ v,\ \sqrt{u_{x}^{2}+u_{y}^{2}}\right]</math>.</p> ==={{anchor|Lindemann}} Lindemann (1890–91) – Weierstrass coordinates and Cayley absolute=== [[w:Ferdinand von Lindemann]] discussed hyperbolic geometry in terms of the [[w:Cayley–Klein metric]] in his (1890/91) edition of the lectures on geometry of [[w:Alfred Clebsch]]. Citing [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Killing|E:Killing (1885)]] and [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Poincare|Poincaré (1887)]] in relation to the hyperboloid model in terms of Weierstrass coordinates for the hyperbolic plane and space, he set<ref group=M>Lindemann & Clebsch (1890/91), pp. 477–478, 524</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\Omega_{xx}=x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{3}^{2}=-4k^{2}\ \text{and}\ ds^{2}=dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}-4k^{2}dx_{3}^{2}\\ \Omega_{xx}=x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{4}^{2}=-4k^{2}\ \text{and}\ ds^{2}=dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+dx_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}dx_{4}^{2} \end{matrix}</math> and used the following transformation<ref group=M>Lindemann & Clebsch (1890/91), pp. 361–362</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}X_{1}X_{4}+X_{2}X_{3}=0\\ X_{1}X_{4}+X_{2}X_{3}=\Xi_{1}\Xi_{4}+\Xi_{2}\Xi_{3}\\ \hline \begin{align}X_{1} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{1}\right)U_{4} & \Xi_{1} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)U_{4} & X_{1} & =\frac{\lambda+\lambda_{1}}{\lambda-\lambda_{1}}\Xi_{1}\\ X_{2} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{3}\right)U_{4} & \Xi_{2} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)U_{4} & X_{2} & =\frac{\lambda+\lambda_{3}}{\lambda-\lambda_{3}}\Xi_{2}\\ X_{3} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)U_{2} & \Xi_{3} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{3}\right)U_{2} & X_{3} & =\frac{\lambda-\lambda_{3}}{\lambda+\lambda_{3}}\Xi_{3}\\ X_{4} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)U_{1} & \Xi_{4} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{1}\right)U_{1} & X_{4} & =\frac{\lambda-\lambda_{1}}{\lambda+\lambda_{1}}\Xi_{4} \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> into which he put<ref group=M name=linde>Lindemann & Clebsch (1890/91), p. 496</ref> :<math>\begin{align}X_{1} & =x_{1}+2kx_{4}, & X_{2} & =x_{2}+ix_{3}, & \lambda+\lambda_{1} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)e^{a},\\ X_{4} & =x_{1}-2kx_{4}, & X_{3} & =x_{2}-ix_{3}, & \lambda+\lambda_{3} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)e^{\alpha i}, \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}) with <math>e^{\alpha i}=1</math> and ''2k=1'' .</p> From that, he obtained the following Cayley absolute and the corresponding most general motion in hyperbolic space comprising ordinary rotations (''a''=0) or translations (α=0):<ref group=M name=linde /> :<math>\begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{4}^{2}=0\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{2} & =\xi_{2}\cos\alpha+\xi_{3}\sin\alpha, & x_{1} & =\xi_{1}\cos\frac{a}{i}+2ki\xi_{4}\sin\frac{a}{i},\\ x_{3} & =-\xi_{2}\sin\alpha+\xi_{3}\cos\alpha, & 2kx_{4} & =i\xi_{1}\sin\frac{a}{i}+2k\xi_{4}\cos\frac{a}{i}. \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with α=0 and ''2k=1''.</p> ==={{anchor|Gerard}} Gérard (1892) – Weierstrass coordinates=== [[w:Louis Gérard]] (1892) – in a thesis examined by Poincaré – discussed Weierstrass coordinates (without using that name) in the plane and gave the case of translation as follows:<ref group=M name=gerard>Gérard (1892), pp. 40–41</ref> :<math>\begin{align}X & =Z_{0}X'+X_{0}Z'\\ Y & =Y'\\ Z & =X_{0}X'+Z_{0}Z' \end{align} \ \text{with}\ \begin{align}X_{0} & =\operatorname{sh}OO'\\ Z_{0} & =\operatorname{ch}OO' \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Killing2}} Killing (1893,97) – Weierstrass coordinates=== [[w:Wilhelm Killing]] (1878–1880) gave case of translation in the form<ref group=M name=killtra>Killing (1893), p. 331</ref> :<math>y_{0}=x_{0}\operatorname{Ch}a+x_{1}\operatorname{Sh}a,\quad y_{1}=x_{0}\operatorname{Sh}a+x_{1}\operatorname{Ch}a,\quad y_{2}=x_{2}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> In 1898, Killing wrote that relation in a form similar to [[#Escherich|Escherich (1874)]], and derived the corresponding Lorentz transformation for the two cases were ''v'' is unchanged or ''u'' is unchanged:<ref group=M name=kill98>Killing (1898), p. 133</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\xi'=\frac{\xi\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}+l\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}}{\frac{\xi}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}},\ \eta'=\frac{\eta}{\frac{\xi}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}}\\ \hline \frac{u}{p}=\xi,\ \frac{v}{p}=\eta\\ \hline p'=p\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}+\frac{u}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l},\quad u'=pl\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+u\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l},\quad v'=v\\ \text{or}\\ p'=p\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\nu}{l}+\frac{v}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\nu}{l},\quad u'=u,\quad v'=pl\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\nu}{l}+v\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\nu}{l} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The upper transformation system is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and the velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] with ''l=c'' and <math>\mu=c\operatorname{atanh}\tfrac{v}{c}</math>, the system below is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Whitehead}} Whitehead (1897/98) – Universal algebra=== [[w:Alfred North Whitehead]] (1898) discussed the kinematics of hyperbolic space as part of his study of [[w:universal algebra]], and obtained the following transformation:<ref group=M name=white>Whitehead (1898), pp. 459–460</ref> :<math>\begin{align}x' & =\left(\eta\cosh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}+\eta_{1}\sinh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}\right)e+\left(\eta\sinh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}+\eta_{1}\cosh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}\right)e_{1}\\ & \qquad+\left(\eta_{2}\cos\alpha+\eta_{3}\sin\alpha\right)e_{2}+\left(\eta_{3}\cos\alpha-\eta_{2}\sin\alpha\right)e_{3} \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with α=0.</p> ==={{anchor|Elliott}} Elliott (1903) – Invariant theory === [[w:Edwin Bailey Elliott]] (1903) discussed a special cyclical subgroup of ternary linear transformations for which the (unit) determinant of transformation is resoluble into three ordinary algebraical factors, which he pointed out is in direct analogy to a subgroup formed by the following transformations:<ref group=M>Elliott (1903), p. 109</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x=X\cosh\phi+Y\sinh\phi,\quad y=X\sinh\phi+Y\cosh\phi\\ \hline X+Y=e^{-\phi}(x+y),\quad X-Y=e^{\phi}(x-y) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3d}}). The mentioned subgroup corresponds to the one-parameter subgroup generated by Lorentz boosts.</p> ==={{anchor|Woods2}} Woods (1903) – Weierstrass coordinates === [[w:Frederick S. Woods]] (1903, published 1905) gave the case of translation in hyperbolic space:<ref group=M>Woods (1903/05), p. 55</ref> :<math>x_{1}^{\prime}=x_{1}\cos kl+x_{0}\frac{\sin kl}{k},\quad x_{2}^{\prime}=x_{2},\quad x_{2}^{\prime}=x_{3},\quad x_{0}^{\prime}=-x_{1}k\sin kl+x_{0}\cos kl</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with ''k''<sup>2</sup>=-1.</p> and the loxodromic substitution for hyperbolic space:<ref group=M>Woods (1903/05), p. 72</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{align}x_{1}^{\prime} & =x_{1}\cosh\alpha-x_{0}\sinh\alpha\\ x_{2}^{\prime} & =x_{2}\cos\beta-x_{3}\sin\beta\\ x_{3}^{\prime} & =x_{2}\sin\beta+x_{3}\cos\beta\\ x_{0}^{\prime} & =-x_{1}\sinh\alpha+x_{0}\cosh\alpha \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with β=0.</p> ==={{anchor|Liebmann}} Liebmann (1904–05) – Weierstrass coordinates=== [[w:Heinrich Liebmann]] (1904/05) – citing Killing (1885), Gérard (1892), Hausdorff (1899) – gave the case of translation in the hyperbolic plane:<ref group=M name=lieb>Liebmann (1904/05), p. 174</ref> :<math>x_{1}^{\prime}=x'\operatorname{ch}a+p'\operatorname{sh}a,\quad y_{1}^{\prime}=y',\quad p_{1}^{\prime}=x'\operatorname{sh}a+p'\operatorname{ch}a</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Frank}} Frank (1909) – Special relativity=== In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[w:Philipp Frank]] (1909), who derived the Lorentz transformation using ''ψ'' as rapidity:<ref group=R>Frank (1909), pp. 423-425</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x'=x\varphi(a)\,{\rm ch}\,\psi+t\varphi(a)\,{\rm sh}\,\psi\\ t'=-x\varphi(a)\,{\rm sh}\,\psi+t\varphi(a)\,{\rm ch}\,\psi\\ \hline {\rm th}\,\psi=-a,\ {\rm sh}\,\psi=\frac{a}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ {\rm ch}\,\psi=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ \varphi(a)=1\\ \hline x'=\frac{x-at}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ y'=y,\ z'=z,\ t'=\frac{-ax+t}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> === {{anchor|Herglotz1}} Herglotz (1909/10) – Special relativity=== In special relativity, [[w:Gustav Herglotz]] (1909/10) classified the one-parameter Lorentz transformations as loxodromic, hyperbolic, parabolic and elliptic, with the hyperbolic case being:<ref group=R>Herglotz (1909/10), pp. 404-408</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}Z=Z'e^{\vartheta}\\ \begin{aligned}x & =x', & t-z & =(t'-z')e^{\vartheta}\\ y & =y', & t+z & =(t'+z')e^{-\vartheta} \end{aligned} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Varicak}} Varićak (1910) – Special relativity=== In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[w:Vladimir Varićak]] in several papers starting from 1910, who represented the equations of special relativity on the basis of [[w:hyperbolic geometry]] in terms of Weierstrass coordinates. For instance, by setting ''l=ct'' and ''v/c=tanh(u)'' with ''u'' as rapidity he wrote the Lorentz transformation in agreement with ({{equationNote|4b}}):<ref group=R name=var1>Varićak (1910), p. 93</ref> :<math>\begin{align}l' & =-x\operatorname{sh}u+l\operatorname{ch}u,\\ x' & =x\operatorname{ch}u-l\operatorname{sh}u,\\ y' & =y,\quad z'=z,\\ \operatorname{ch}u & =\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v}{c}\right)^{2}}} \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> He showed the relation of rapidity to the [[w:Gudermannian function]] and the [[w:angle of parallelism]]:<ref group=R name=var1 /> :<math>\frac{v}{c}=\operatorname{th}u=\operatorname{tg}\psi=\sin\operatorname{gd}(u)=\cos\Pi(u)</math> He also related the velocity addition to the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:<ref group=R>Varićak (1910), p. 94</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\operatorname{ch}{u}=\operatorname{ch}{u_{1}}\operatorname ch{u_{2}}+\operatorname{sh}{u_{1}}\operatorname{sh}{u_{2}}\cos\alpha\\ \operatorname{ch}{u_{i}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v_{i}}{c}\right)^{2}}},\ \operatorname{sh}{u_{i}}=\frac{v_{i}}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v_{i}}{c}\right)^{2}}}\\ v=\sqrt{v_{1}^{2}+v_{2}^{2}-\left(\frac{v_{1}v_{2}}{c}\right)^{2}}\ \left(a=\frac{\pi}{2}\right) \end{matrix}</math> ==References== ===Historical mathematical sources=== {{reflist|3|group=M}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bel68sag}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bel68fond}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cox81hom}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cox82hom}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eli03}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|esch74}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eul35}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eul48a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|ger92}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|glai78}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|gud30}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|guen80}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kep09}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil93}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil97}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lag70}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lais74b}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lam67}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lam70}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lieb04}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lind90}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lip86}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|ric57}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu85}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu00}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu09}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|tau26}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|whit98}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo01}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo03}} ===Historical relativity sources=== {{reflist|3|group=R}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|frank09a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|herg10}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|var10}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|var12}} ===Secondary sources=== {{reflist|3}} {{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/secsource|L3}} [[Category:Special Relativity]] [[Category:History of Physics]] 7n4jic5t8vhnz863p33m9ptqak3qqm8 2415737 2415727 2022-08-17T06:23:14Z D.H 52339 /* Hyperbolic law of cosines */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{../Lorentz transformation (header)}} ==Lorentz transformation via hyperbolic functions== ===Translation in the hyperbolic plane=== The case of a Lorentz transformation without spatial rotation is called a [[w:Lorentz boost]]. The simplest case can be given, for instance, by setting ''n=1'' in the [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#math_1a|E:most general Lorentz transformation '''(1a)''']]: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{0}^{\prime} & =x_{0}g_{00}+x_{1}g_{01}\\ x_{1}^{\prime} & =x_{0}g_{10}+x_{1}g_{11}\\ \\ x_{0} & =x_{0}^{\prime}g_{00}-x_{1}^{\prime}g_{10}\\ x_{1} & =-x_{0}^{\prime}g_{01}+x_{1}^{\prime}g_{11} \end{align} \left|\begin{align}g_{01}^{2}-g_{00}^{2} & =-1\\ g_{11}^{2}-g_{10}^{2} & =1\\ g_{01}g_{11}-g_{00}g_{10} & =0\\ g_{10}^{2}-g_{00}^{2} & =-1\\ g_{11}^{2}-g_{01}^{2} & =1\\ g_{10}g_{11}-g_{00}g_{01} & =0 \end{align} \rightarrow\begin{align}g_{00}^{2} & =g_{11}^{2}\\ g_{01}^{2} & =g_{10}^{2} \end{align} \right. \end{matrix}</math> or in matrix notation <math>\left.\begin{align}\mathbf{x}' & =\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} & g_{01}\\ g_{10} & g_{11} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}\\ \mathbf{x} & =\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} & -g_{10}\\ -g_{01} & g_{11} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}' \end{align} \quad\right|\quad\det\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} & g_{01}\\ g_{10} & g_{11} \end{bmatrix}=1</math>|{{equationRef|3a}}}} which resembles precisely the relations of [[w:hyperbolic function]]s in terms of [[w:hyperbolic angle]] <math>\eta</math>. Thus a Lorentz boost or [[w:hyperbolic rotation]] (being the same as a rotation around an imaginary angle <math>i\eta=\phi</math> in [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#math_2b|E:'''(2b)''']] or a [[w:Translation (geometry)|translation]] in the hyperbolic plane in terms of the hyperboloid model) is given by {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\ \hline g_{00}=g_{11}=\cosh\eta,\ g_{01}=g_{10}=-\sinh\eta\\ \hline \left.\begin{align} & \quad\quad(A) & & \quad\quad(B) & & \quad\quad(C)\\ x_{0}^{\prime} & =x_{0}\cosh\eta-x_{1}\sinh\eta & & =\frac{x_{0}-x_{1}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & & =\frac{x_{0}-x_{1}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\ x_{1}^{\prime} & =-x_{0}\sinh\eta+x_{1}\cosh\eta & & =\frac{x_{1}-x_{0}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & & =\frac{x_{1}-x_{0}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\ \\ x_{0} & =x_{0}^{\prime}\cosh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta & & =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & & =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{1}^{\prime}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\ x_{1} & =x_{0}^{\prime}\sinh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta & & =\frac{x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & & =\frac{x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}} \end{align} \right|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\sinh^{2}\eta-\cosh^{2}\eta & =-1 & (a)\\ \cosh^{2}\eta-\sinh^{2}\eta & =1 & (b)\\ \frac{\sinh\eta}{\cosh\eta} & =\tanh\eta=v & (c)\\ \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & =\cosh\eta & (d)\\ \frac{\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & =\sinh\eta & (e)\\ \frac{\tanh q\pm\tanh\eta}{1\pm\tanh q\tanh\eta} & =\tanh\left(q\pm\eta\right) & (f) \end{align} } \end{matrix}</math> or in matrix notation <math>\left.\begin{align}\mathbf{x}' & =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & -\sinh\eta\\ -\sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}\\ \mathbf{x} & =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}' \end{align} \quad\right|\quad\det\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & -\sinh\eta\\ -\sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix}=1</math>|{{equationRef|3b}}}} Hyperbolic identities (a,b) on the right of ({{equationNote|3b}}) were given by [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]], all identities (a,b,c,d,e,f) by [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768–1770)]]. Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|3b}}-A) were given by [[#Laisant|Laisant (1874)]], [[#Cox|Cox (1882)]], [[#Lindemann|Lindemann (1890/91)]], [[#Gerard|Gérard (1892)]], [[#Killing2|Killing (1893, 1897/98)]], [[#Whitehead|Whitehead (1897/98)]], [[#Woods2|Woods (1903/05)]], [[#Elliott|Elliott (1903)]] and [[#Liebmann|Liebmann (1904/05)]] in terms of Weierstrass coordinates of the [[w:hyperboloid model]], while transformations similar to ({{equationNote|3b}}-C) have been used by [[#Lipschitz1|Lipschitz (1885/86)]]. In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[#Frank|Frank (1909)]] and [[#Varicak|Varićak (1910)]]. Rapidity can be composed of arbitrary many rapidities <math>\eta_{1},\eta_{2}\dots</math> as per the [[w:Hyperbolic functions#Sums of arguments|w:angle sum laws of hyperbolic sines and cosines]], so that one hyperbolic rotation can represent the sum of many other hyperbolic rotations, analogous to the relation between [[w:List of trigonometric identities#Angle sum and difference identities|w:angle sum laws of circular trigonometry]] and spatial rotations. Alternatively, the hyperbolic angle sum laws ''themselves'' can be interpreted as Lorentz boosts, as demonstrated by using the parameterization of the [[w:unit hyperbola]]: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}=1\\ \hline \left[\eta=\eta_{2}-\eta_{1}\right]\\ \begin{align}x_{0}^{\prime} & =\sinh\eta_{1}=\sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{2}\cosh\eta-\cosh\eta_{2}\sinh\eta & & =x_{0}\cosh\eta-x_{1}\sinh\eta\\ x_{1}^{\prime} & =\cosh\eta_{1}=\cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)=-\sinh\eta_{2}\sinh\eta+\cosh\eta_{2}\cosh\eta & & =-x_{0}\sinh\eta+x_{1}\cosh\eta\\ \\ x_{0} & =\sinh\eta_{2}=\sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{1}\cosh\eta+\cosh\eta_{1}\sinh\eta & & =x_{0}^{\prime}\cosh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta\\ x_{1} & =\cosh\eta_{2}=\cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{1}\sinh\eta+\cosh\eta_{1}\cosh\eta & & =x_{0}^{\prime}\sinh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> or in matrix notation <math>{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\begin{bmatrix}x_{1}^{\prime} & x_{0}^{\prime}\\ x_{0}^{\prime} & x_{1}^{\prime} \end{bmatrix} & =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{1} & \sinh\eta_{1}\\ \sinh\eta_{1} & \cosh\eta_{1} \end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right) & \sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)\\ \sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right) & \cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right) \end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{2} & \sinh\eta_{2}\\ \sinh\eta_{2} & \cosh\eta_{2} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & -\sinh\eta\\ -\sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix} & & =\begin{bmatrix}x_{1} & x_{0}\\ x_{0} & x_{1} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & -\sinh\eta\\ -\sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix}\\ \begin{bmatrix}x_{1} & x_{0}\\ x_{0} & x_{1} \end{bmatrix} & =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{2} & \sinh\eta_{2}\\ \sinh\eta_{2} & \cosh\eta_{2} \end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right) & \sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)\\ \sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right) & \cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right) \end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{1} & \sinh\eta_{1}\\ \sinh\eta_{1} & \cosh\eta_{1} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix} & & =\begin{bmatrix}x_{1}^{\prime} & x_{0}^{\prime}\\ x_{0}^{\prime} & x_{1}^{\prime} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix} \end{align} }</math>|{{equationRef|3c}}}} Hyperbolic angle sum laws were given by [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]] and [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768–1770)]] and many others, while matrix representations were given by [[#Glaisher|Glaisher (1878)]] and [[#Gunther1|Günther (1880/81)]]. Using the idendity <math>\cosh\eta+\sinh\eta=e^{\eta}</math>, Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) assumes a simple form by using [[w:squeeze mapping]]s in analogy to Euler's formula in [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#math_2c|E:'''(2c)''']]:<ref name=rind>Rindler (1969), p. 45</ref> {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\ \hline \begin{matrix}\begin{aligned}x_{1}^{\prime}-x_{0}^{\prime} & =k\left(x_{1}-x_{0}\right)\\ x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime} & =\frac{1}{k}\left(x_{1}+x_{0}\right) \end{aligned} & \Rightarrow & \begin{aligned}x_{1}^{\prime}-x_{0}^{\prime} & =e^{\eta}\left(x_{1}-x_{0}\right)\\ x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime} & =e^{-\eta}\left(x_{1}+x_{0}\right) \end{aligned} \end{matrix}\\ \hline k=e^{\eta}=\cosh\eta+\sinh\eta=\sqrt{\frac{1+\tanh\eta}{1-\tanh\eta}}=\sqrt{\frac{1+v}{1-v}} \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|3d}}}} Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|3d}}) for arbitrary ''k'' were given by many authors (see [[../Lorentz transformation (squeeze)|E:Lorentz transformations via squeeze mappings]]), while a form similar to <math>k=\sqrt{\tfrac{1+v}{1-v}}</math> was given by [[#Lipschitz1|Lipschitz (1885/86)]], and the exponential form was used by [[#Lindemann|Lindemann (1890/91)]], [[#Elliott|Elliott (1903)]], [[#Herglotz1|Herglotz (1909)]]. ===Hyperbolic law of cosines=== By adding an unchanged third coordinate <math>x_{2}^{\prime}=x_{2}</math> in Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3b}}) and interpreting <math>x_{0},x_{1},x_{2}</math> as [[w:homogeneous coordinates]], the Lorentz transformation can be rewritten in line with equation [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#math_1b|E:'''(1b)''']] by using coordinates <math>[u_{1},\ u_{2}]=\left[\tfrac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ \tfrac{x_{2}}{x_{0}}\right]</math> defined by <math>u_{1}^{2}+u_{2}^{2}\le1</math> inside the [[w:unit circle]] as follows: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{align} & \quad\quad(A) & & \quad\quad(B) & & \quad\quad(C)\\ u_{1}^{\prime} & =\frac{-\sinh\eta+u_{1}\cosh\eta}{\cosh\eta-u_{1}\sinh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{1}-\tanh\eta}{1-u_{1}\tanh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{1}-v}{1-u_{1}v}\\ u_{2}^{\prime} & =\frac{u_{2}}{\cosh\eta-u_{1}\sinh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{2}\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1-u_{1}\tanh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{2}\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-u_{1}v}\\ \\ u_{1} & =\frac{\sinh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta}{\cosh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{1}^{\prime}+\tanh\eta}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{1}^{\prime}+v}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}v}\\ u_{2} & =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}}{\cosh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}v} \end{align} </math>|{{equationRef|3e}}}} Transformations (A) were given by [[#Escherich|Escherich (1874)]] and [[#Killing2|Killing (1898)]], and transformations (C) by [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]] and [[#Schur|Schur (1885/86, 1900/02)]] in terms of [[w:Beltrami–Klein model|Beltrami coordinates]]<ref>Rosenfeld (1988), p. 231</ref> of hyperbolic geometry. By using the scalar product of <math>\left[u_{1},u_{2}\right]</math>, the resulting Lorentz transformation can be seen as equivalent to the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:<ref name=pau>Pauli (1921), p. 561</ref><ref group=R name=var>Varićak (1912), p. 108</ref><ref name=barr>Barrett (2006), chapter 4, section 2</ref> {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix} & \begin{matrix}u^{2}=u_{1}^{2}+u_{2}^{2}\\ u'^{2}=u_{1}^{\prime2}+u_{2}^{\prime2} \end{matrix}\left|\begin{matrix}u_{1}=u\cos\alpha\\ u_{2}=u\sin\alpha\\ \\ u_{1}^{\prime}=u'\cos\alpha'\\ u_{2}^{\prime}=u'\sin\alpha' \end{matrix}\right|\begin{align}u\cos\alpha & =\frac{u'\cos\alpha'+v}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'}, & u'\cos\alpha' & =\frac{u\cos\alpha-v}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\ u\sin\alpha & =\frac{u'\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'}, & u'\sin\alpha' & =\frac{u\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\ \tan\alpha & =\frac{u'\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{u'\cos\alpha'+v}, & \tan\alpha' & =\frac{u\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{u\cos\alpha-v} \end{align} \\ \Rightarrow & u=\frac{\sqrt{v^{2}+u^{\prime2}+2vu'\cos\alpha'-\left(vu'\sin\alpha'\right){}^{2}}}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'},\quad u'=\frac{\sqrt{-v^{2}-u^{2}+2vu\cos\alpha+\left(vu\sin\alpha\right){}^{2}}}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\ \Rightarrow & \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-u^{\prime2}}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-u^{2}}}-\frac{v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\frac{u}{\sqrt{1-u^{2}}}\cos\alpha & (B)\\ \Rightarrow & \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\xi}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\zeta}}-\frac{\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}\frac{\tanh\zeta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\zeta}}\cos\alpha\\ \Rightarrow & \cosh\xi=\cosh\eta\cosh\zeta-\sinh\eta\sinh\zeta\cos\alpha & (A) \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|3f}}}} The hyperbolic law of cosines (A) was given by [[#Taurinus|Taurinus (1826) and Lobachevsky (1829/30)]] and others, while variant (B) was given by [[#Schur|Schur (1900/02)]]. By further setting ''u=u′'' it follows: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{align} & \quad(A) & & \quad(B)\\ \cos\alpha & =\frac{\cos\alpha'+\tanh\eta}{1+\tanh\eta\cos\alpha'} & \cos\alpha & =\frac{\cos\alpha'+v}{1+v\cos\alpha'}\\ \sin\alpha & =\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1+\tanh\eta\cos\alpha'} & \sin\alpha & =\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+v\cos\alpha'}\\ \tan\alpha & =\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{\cos\alpha'+\tanh\eta} & \tan\alpha & =\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{\cos\alpha'+v}\\ \tan\frac{\alpha}{2} & =\sqrt{\frac{1-\tanh\eta}{1+\tanh\eta}}\tan\frac{\alpha'}{2} & \tan\frac{\alpha}{2} & =\sqrt{\frac{1-v}{1+v}}\tan\frac{\alpha'}{2}\\ \\ \cos\alpha' & =\frac{\cos\alpha-\tanh\eta}{1-\tanh\eta\cos\alpha} & \cos\alpha' & =\frac{\cos\alpha-v}{1-v\cos\alpha}\\ \sin\alpha' & =\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1-\tanh\eta\cos\alpha} & \sin\alpha' & =\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-v\cos\alpha}\\ \tan\alpha' & =\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{\cos\alpha-\tanh\eta} & \tan\alpha' & =\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{\cos\alpha-v}\\ \tan\frac{\alpha'}{2} & =\sqrt{\frac{1+\tanh\eta}{1-\tanh\eta}}\tan\frac{\alpha}{2} & \tan\frac{\alpha'}{2} & =\sqrt{\frac{1+v}{1-v}}\tan\frac{\alpha}{2} \end{align}</math>|{{equationRef|3g}}}} Formulas (3g-B) are the equations of an [[w:ellipse]] of [[w:Orbital eccentricity|eccentricity]] ''v'', [[w:eccentric anomaly]] α' and [[w:true anomaly]] α, first geometrically formulated by [[#Euler|Kepler (1609)]] and explicitly written down by [[#Euler|Euler (1735, 1748), Lagrange (1770)]] and many others in relation to planetary motions. They were also used by [[../Lorentz transformation (conformal)#Darboux|E:Darboux (1873)]] as a sphere transformation. In special relativity, these formulas describes the aberration of light, see [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#Velocity addition and aberration|E:velocity addition and aberration]]. ==Historical notation== ==={{anchor|Euler}} Euler (1735) – True and eccentric anomaly=== [[w:Johannes Kepler]] (1609) geometrically formulated [[w:Kepler's equation]] and the relations between the [[w:mean anomaly]], [[w:true anomaly]], and [[w:eccentric anomaly]].<ref group=M>Kepler (1609), chapter 60. The editors of Kepler's collected papers remark (p. 482), that Kepler's relations correspond to <math>{\scriptstyle \alpha=\beta+e\sin\beta}</math> and <math>{\scriptstyle \cos\nu=\frac{e+\cos\beta}{1+e\cos\beta}}</math> and <math>{\scriptstyle \cos\beta=\frac{\cos\nu-e}{1-e\cos\nu}}</math></ref><ref>Volk (1976), p. 366</ref> The relation between the true anomaly ''z'' and the eccentric anomaly ''P'' was algebraically expressed by [[w:Leonhard Euler]] (1735/40) as follows:<ref group=M>Euler (1735/40), § 19</ref> :<math>\cos z=\frac{\cos P+v}{1+v\cos P},\ \cos P=\frac{\cos z-v}{1-v\cos z},\ \int P=\frac{\int z\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-v\cos z}</math> and in 1748:<ref group=M>Euler (1748a), section VIII</ref> :<math>\cos z=\frac{n+\cos y}{1+n\cos y},\ \sin z=\frac{\sin y\sqrt{1-n^{2}}}{1+n\cos y},\ \tan z=\frac{\sin y\sqrt{1-n^{2}}}{n+\cos y}</math> while [[w:Joseph-Louis Lagrange]] (1770/71) expressed them as follows<ref group=M>Lagrange (1770/71), section I</ref> :<math>\sin u=\frac{m\sin x}{1+n\cos x},\ \cos u=\frac{n+\cos x}{1+n\cos x},\ \operatorname{tang}\frac{1}{2}u=\frac{m}{1+n}\operatorname{tang}\frac{1}{2}x,\ \left(m^{2}=1-n^{2}\right)</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black"> These relations resemble formulas ({{equationNote|3g}}), while ({{equationNote|3f}}) follows by setting <math>[\cos z,\sin z]=\left[u_{x},u_{y}\right]</math> in Euler's formulas or <math>[\cos u,\sin u]=\left[u_{x},u_{y}\right]</math> in Lagrange's formulas.</p> ==={{anchor|Riccati}} Riccati (1757) – hyperbolic addition=== [[w:Vincenzo Riccati]] introduced hyperbolic functions in 1757,<ref group=M>Riccati (1757), p. 71</ref><ref group=M>Günther (1880/81), pp. 7–13</ref> in particular he formulated the angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine: :<math>\begin{matrix}\mathrm{Ch}(\varphi+\pi)=\frac{\mathrm{Ch}\varphi\mathrm{Ch}\pi+\mathrm{Sh}\varphi\mathrm{Sh}\pi}{r}\\ \mathrm{Sh}(\varphi+\pi)=\frac{\mathrm{Ch}\varphi\mathrm{Sh}\pi+\mathrm{Ch}\pi\mathrm{Sh}\varphi}{r}\\ \left[\mathrm{Ch}^{2}-\mathrm{Sh}^{2}=rr\right] \end{matrix}</math> He furthermore showed that <math>\mathrm{Ch}(\varphi-\pi)</math> and <math>\mathrm{Sh}(\varphi-\pi)</math> follow by setting <math>\mathrm{Ch}(\pi)\Rightarrow\mathrm{Ch}(-\pi)</math> and <math>\mathrm{Sh}(\pi)\Rightarrow\mathrm{Sh}(-\pi)</math> in the above formulas. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine can be interpreted as hyperbolic rotations of points on a hyperbola, as in Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3c}}). (In modern publications, Riccati's additional factor ''r'' is set to unity.)</p> ==={{anchor|Lambert}} Lambert (1768–1770) – hyperbolic addition=== While [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]] discussed the hyperbolic sine and cosine, [[w:Johann Heinrich Lambert]] (read 1767, published 1768) introduced the expression ''tang φ'' or abbreviated ''tφ'' as the [[w:tangens hyperbolicus]] <math>{\scriptstyle \frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{e^{u}+e^{-u}}}</math> of a variable ''u'', or in modern notation ''tφ=tanh(u)'':<ref group=M>Lambert (1761/68), pp. 309–318</ref><ref>Barnett (2004), pp. 22–23</ref> :<math>\left.\begin{align}\xi\xi-1 & =\eta\eta & (a)\\ 1+\eta\eta & =\xi\xi & (b)\\ \frac{\eta}{\xi} & =tang\ \phi=t\phi & (c)\\ \xi & =\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-t\phi^{2}}} & (d)\\ \eta & =\frac{t\phi}{\sqrt{1-t\phi^{2}}} & (e)\\ t\phi'' & =\frac{t\phi+t\phi'}{1+t\phi\cdot t\phi'} & (f)\\ t\phi' & =\frac{t\phi''-t\phi}{1-t\phi\cdot t\phi''} & (g) \end{align} \right|\begin{align}2u & =\log\frac{1+t\phi}{1-t\phi}\\ \xi & =\frac{e^{u}+e^{-u}}{2}\\ \eta & =\frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{2}\\ t\phi & =\frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{e^{u}+e^{-u}}\\ e^{u} & =\xi+\eta\\ e^{-u} & =\xi-\eta \end{align}</math> In (1770) he rewrote the addition law for the hyperbolic tangens (f) or (g) as:<ref group=M>Lambert (1770), p. 335</ref> :<math>\begin{align}t(y+z) & =(ty+tz):(1+ty\cdot tz) & (f)\\ t(y-z) & =(ty-tz):(1-ty\cdot tz) & (g) \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The hyperbolic relations (a,b,c,d,e,f) are equivalent to the hyperbolic relations on the right of ({{equationNote|3b}}). Relations (f,g) can also be found in ({{equationNote|3e}}). By setting ''tφ=v/c'', formula (c) becomes the relative velocity between two frames, (d) the [[w:Lorentz factor]], (e) the [[w:proper velocity]], (f) or (g) becomes the Lorentz transformation of velocity (or relativistic [[w:velocity addition formula]]) for collinear velocities in [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4a|E:'''(4a)''']] and [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']].</p> Lambert also formulated the addition laws for the hyperbolic cosine and sine (Lambert's "cos" and "sin" actually mean "cosh" and "sinh"): :<math>\begin{align}\sin(y+z) & =\sin y\cos z+\cos y\sin z\\ \sin(y-z) & =\sin y\cos z-\cos y\sin z\\ \cos(y+z) & =\cos y\cos z+\sin y\sin z\\ \cos(y-z) & =\cos y\cos z-\sin y\sin z \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine can be interpreted as hyperbolic rotations of points on a hyperbola, as in Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3c}}).</p> ==={{Anchor|Taurinus}} Taurinus (1826) – Hyperbolic law of cosines=== After the addition theorem for the tangens hyperbolicus was given by [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768)]], [[w:hyperbolic geometry]] was used by [[w:Franz Taurinus]] (1826), and later by [[w:Nikolai Lobachevsky]] (1829/30) and others, to formulate the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:<ref group=M>Taurinus (1826), p. 66; see also p. 272 in the translation by Engel and Stäckel (1899)</ref><ref>Bonola (1912), p. 79</ref><ref>Gray (1979), p. 242</ref> :<math>A=\operatorname{arccos}\frac{\cos\left(\alpha\sqrt{-1}\right)-\cos\left(\beta\sqrt{-1}\right)\cos\left(\gamma\sqrt{-1}\right)}{\sin\left(\beta\sqrt{-1}\right)\sin\left(\gamma\sqrt{-1}\right)}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">When solved for <math>\cos\left(\alpha\sqrt{-1}\right)</math> it corresponds to the Lorentz transformation in Beltrami coordinates ({{equationNote|3f}}), and by defining the rapidities <math>{\scriptstyle \left(\left[\frac{U}{c},\ \frac{v}{c},\ \frac{u}{c}\right]=\left[\tanh\alpha,\ \tanh\beta,\ \tanh\gamma\right]\right)}</math> it corresponds to the relativistic velocity addition formula [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4e|E:'''(4e)''']].</p> ==={{anchor|Beltrami}} Beltrami (1868) – Beltrami coordinates=== [[w:Eugenio Beltrami]] (1868a) introduced coordinates of the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model]] of hyperbolic geometry, and formulated the corresponding transformations in terms of homographies:<ref group=M>Beltrami (1868a), pp. 287-288; Note I; Note II</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}ds^{2}=R^{2}\frac{\left(a^{2}+v^{2}\right)du^{2}-2uv\,du\,dv+\left(a^{2}+v^{2}\right)dv^{2}}{\left(a^{2}+u^{2}+v^{2}\right)^{2}}\\ u^{2}+v^{2}=a^{2}\\ \hline u''=\frac{aa_{0}\left(u'-r_{0}\right)}{a^{2}-r_{0}u'},\ v''=\frac{a_{0}w_{0}v'}{a^{2}-r_{0}u'},\\ \left(r_{0}=\sqrt{u_{0}^{2}+v_{0}^{2}},\ w_{0}=\sqrt{a^{2}-r_{0}^{2}}\right)\\ \hline ds^{2}=R^{2}\frac{\left(a^{2}-v^{2}\right)du^{2}+2uv\,du\,dv+\left(a^{2}-v^{2}\right)dv^{2}}{\left(a^{2}-u^{2}-v^{2}\right)^{2}}\\ (R=R\sqrt{-1},\ a=a\sqrt{-1}) \end{matrix}</math> (where the disk radius ''a'' and the [[w:radius of curvature]] ''R'' are real in spherical geometry, in hyperbolic geometry they are imaginary), and for arbitrary dimensions in (1868b)<ref group=M>Beltrami (1868b), pp. 232, 240–241, 253–254</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}ds=R\frac{\sqrt{dx^{2}+dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+\cdots+dx_{n}^{2}}}{x}\\ x^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}=a^{2}\\ \hline y_{1}=\frac{ab\left(x_{1}-a_{1}\right)}{a^{2}-a_{1}x_{1}}\ \text{or}\ x_{1}=\frac{a\left(ay_{1}+a_{1}b\right)}{ab+a_{1}y_{1}},\ x_{r}=\pm\frac{ay_{r}\sqrt{a^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}}{ab+a_{1}y_{1}}\ (r=2,3,\dots,n)\\ \hline ds=R\frac{\sqrt{dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+\cdots+dx_{n}^{2}-dx^{2}}}{x}\\ x^{2}=a^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}\\ \left(R=R\sqrt{-1},\ x=x\sqrt{-1},\ a=a\sqrt{-1}\right) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Setting ''a=a<sub>0</sub>'' Beltrami's (1868a) formulas become formulas ({{equationNote|3e}}), or in his (1868b) formulas one sets ''a=b'' for arbitrary dimensions.</p> === {{anchor|Laisant2}} Laisant (1874) – Equipollences=== In his French translation of [[w:Giusto Bellavitis]]' principal work on [[w:Equipollence (geometry)|w:equipollences]], [[w:Charles-Ange Laisant]] (1874) added a chapter related to hyperbolas. The equipollence OM and its tangent MT of a hyperbola is defined by Laisant as<ref group=M>Laisant (1874b), pp. 134–135</ref> :(1) <math>\begin{matrix} & \mathrm{OM}\bumpeq x\mathrm{OA}+y\mathrm{OB}\\ & \mathrm{MT}\bumpeq y\mathrm{OA}+x\mathrm{OB}\\ & \left[x^{2}-y^{2}=1;\ x=\cosh t,\ y=\sinh t\right]\\ \Rightarrow & \mathrm{OM}\bumpeq\cosh t\cdot\mathrm{OA}+\sinh t\cdot\mathrm{OB} \end{matrix}</math> Here, OA and OB are [[w:Conjugate diameters|conjugate semi-diameters]] of a hyperbola with OB being imaginary, both of which he related to two other conjugated semi-diameters OC and OD by the following transformation: :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{align}\mathrm{OC} & \bumpeq c\mathrm{OA}+d\mathrm{OB} & \qquad & & \mathrm{OA} & \bumpeq c\mathrm{OC}-d\mathrm{OD}\\ \mathrm{OD} & \bumpeq d\mathrm{OA}+c\mathrm{OB} & & & \mathrm{OB} & \bumpeq-d\mathrm{OC}+c\mathrm{OD} \end{align} \\ \left[c^{2}-d^{2}=1\right] \end{matrix}</math> producing the invariant relation :<math>(\mathrm{OC})^{2}-(\mathrm{OD})^{2}\bumpeq(\mathrm{OA})^{2}-(\mathrm{OB})^{2}</math>. Substituting into (1), he showed that OM retains its form :<math>\begin{matrix}\mathrm{OM}\bumpeq(cx-dy)\mathrm{OC}+(cy-dx)\mathrm{OD}\\ \left[(cx-dy)^{2}-(cy-dx)^{2}=1\right] \end{matrix}</math> He also defined velocity and acceleration by differentiation of (1). <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">These relations are equivalent to several Lorentz boosts or hyperbolic rotations producing the invariant Lorentz interval in line with ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Escherich}} Escherich (1874) – Beltrami coordinates=== [[w:Gustav von Escherich]] (1874) discussed the plane of constant negative curvature<ref>Sommerville (1911), p. 297</ref> based on the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model]] of hyperbolic geometry by [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]]. Similar to [[w:Christoph Gudermann]] (1830)<ref name=guder group=M>Gudermann (1830), §1–3, §18–19</ref> who introduced axial coordinates ''x''=tan(a) and ''y''=tan(b) in sphere geometry in order to perform coordinate transformations in the case of rotation and translation, Escherich used hyperbolic functions ''x''=tanh(a/k) and ''y''=tanh(b/k)<ref group=M>Escherich (1874), p. 508</ref> in order to give the corresponding coordinate transformations for the hyperbolic plane, which for the case of translation have the form:<ref group=M name=escher>Escherich (1874), p. 510</ref> :<math>x=\frac{\sinh\frac{a}{k}+x'\cosh\frac{a}{k}}{\cosh\frac{a}{k}+x'\sinh\frac{a}{k}}</math> and <math>y=\frac{y'}{\cosh\frac{a}{k}+x'\sinh\frac{a}{k}}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}), also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] by setting <math>\tfrac{a}{k}=\operatorname{atanh}\tfrac{v}{c}</math> and multiplying ''[x,y,x′,y′]'' by 1/''c'', and equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) by setting <math>\scriptstyle (x,\ y,\ x',\ y')=\left(\frac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ \frac{x_{2}}{x_{0}},\ \frac{x_{1}^{\prime}}{x_{0}^{\prime}},\ \frac{x_{2}^{\prime}}{x_{0}^{\prime}}\right)</math>. This is the relation between the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model|Beltrami coordinates]] in terms of Gudermann-Escherich coordinates, and the Weierstrass coordinates of the [[w:hyperboloid model]] introduced by [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Killing1|E:Killing (1878–1893)]], [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Poincare|E:Poincaré (1881)]], and [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Cox|E:Cox (1881)]]. Both coordinate systems were compared by Cox (1881).<ref group=M>Cox (1881), p. 186</ref></p> ==={{anchor|Glaisher}} Glaisher (1878) – hyperbolic addition=== It was shown by [[w:James Whitbread Lee Glaisher]] (1878) that the hyperbolic addition laws can be expressed by matrix multiplication:<ref group=M>Glaisher (1878), p. 30</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{vmatrix}\cosh x, & \sinh x\\ \sinh x, & \cosh x \end{vmatrix}=1,\ \begin{vmatrix}\cosh y, & \sinh y\\ \sinh y, & \cosh y \end{vmatrix}=1\\ \text{by multiplication:}\\ \Rightarrow\begin{vmatrix}c_{1}c_{2}+s_{1}s_{2}, & s_{1}c_{2}+c_{1}s_{2}\\ c_{1}s_{2}+s_{1}c_{2}, & s_{1}s_{2}+c_{1}c_{2} \end{vmatrix}=1\\ \text{where}\ \left[c_{1},c_{2},c_{3},c_{4}\right]=\left[\cosh x,\cosh y,\sinh x,\sinh y\right] \\ \Rightarrow\begin{vmatrix}\cosh(x+y), & \sinh(x+y)\\ \sinh(x+y), & \cosh(x+y) \end{vmatrix}=1 \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">In this matrix representation, the analogy between the hyperbolic angle sum laws and the Lorentz boost becomes obvious: In particular, the matrix <math>\scriptstyle\begin{vmatrix}\cosh y, & \sinh y\\ \sinh y, & \cosh y\end{vmatrix}</math> producing the hyperbolic addition is analogous to matrix <math>\scriptstyle\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta\end{bmatrix}</math> producing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3c}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Gunther1}} Günther (1880/81) – hyperbolic addition === Following [[#Glaisher|Glaisher (1878)]], [[w:Siegmund Günther]] (1880/81) expressed the hyperbolic addition laws by matrix multiplication:<ref group=M>Günther (1880/81), p. 405</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,x, & \mathfrak{Sin}\,x\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,x, & \mathfrak{Cos}\,x \end{vmatrix}\cdot\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,y, & \mathfrak{Sin}\,y\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,y, & \mathfrak{Cos}\,y \end{vmatrix}\\ =\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y+\mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, & \mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y+\mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y+\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, & \mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y+\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y \end{vmatrix}\\ =\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,(x+y), & \mathfrak{Sin}\,(x+y)\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,(x+y), & \mathfrak{Cos}\,(x+y) \end{vmatrix}=1 \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">In this matrix representation, the analogy between the hyperbolic angle sum laws and the Lorentz boost becomes obvious: In particular, the matrix <math>\scriptstyle\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,y, & \mathfrak{Sin}\,y\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,y, & \mathfrak{Cos}\,y \end{vmatrix}</math> producing the hyperbolic addition is analogous to matrix <math>\scriptstyle\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta\end{bmatrix}</math> producing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3c}}).</p> === {{anchor|Cox}} Cox (1881/82) – Weierstrass coordinates === [[w:Homersham Cox (mathematician)|w:Homersham Cox]] (1881/82) defined the case of translation in the hyperbolic plane with the ''y''-axis remaining unchanged:<ref group=M name=cox>Cox (1881/82), p. 194</ref> :<math>\begin{align}X & =x\cosh p-z\sinh p\\ Z & =-x\sinh p+z\cosh p \\ \\ x & =X\cosh p+Z\sinh p\\ z & =X\sinh p+Z\cosh p \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Lipschitz1}} Lipschitz (1885/86) === [[w:Rudolf Lipschitz]] (1885/86) formulated transformations leaving invariant the sum of squares <math>x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}\dots+x_{n}^{2}=y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n}^{2}</math>, which he rewrote as <math>x_{1}^{2}-y_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}-y_{2}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}-y_{n}^{2}=0</math>. This led to the problem of finding transformations leaving invariant the pairs <math>x_{a}^{2}-y_{a}^{2}</math> (''a''=1...n) for which he gave the following solution:<ref group=M>Lipschitz (1886), pp. 90–92</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x_{a}^{2}-y_{a}^{2}=\mathfrak{x}_{a}^{2}-\mathfrak{y}_{a}^{2}\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{a}-y_{a} & =\left(\mathfrak{x}_{a}-\mathfrak{y}_{a}\right)r_{a}\\ x_{a}+y_{a} & =\left(\mathfrak{x}_{a}+\mathfrak{y}_{a}\right)\frac{1}{r_{a}} \end{align} \quad(a)\\ \hline \begin{matrix}\begin{align}2\mathfrak{x}_{a} & =\left(r_{a}+\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)x_{a}+\left(r_{a}-\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)y_{a}\\ 2\mathfrak{y}_{a} & =\left(r_{a}-\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)x_{a}+\left(r_{a}+\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)y_{a} \end{align} \quad(b)\end{matrix}\\ \hline \left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}}\\ s_{a}>1 \end{matrix}\right\}\Rightarrow\begin{align}\mathfrak{x}_{a} & =\frac{s_{a}x_{a}+y_{a}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}\\ \mathfrak{y}_{a} & =\frac{x_{a}+s_{a}y_{a}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}\sqrt{s_{a}+1}} \end{align} \quad(c) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Equation (a) is identical to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}), while (c) is similar, though not identical, to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}-C). The difference stems from his definition<br><math>\qquad\left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}}\\ s_{a}>1 \end{matrix}\right\}</math><br>whereas in accordance to expression <math>\sqrt{\tfrac{1+v}{1-v}}</math> with <math>v<1</math> in ({{equationNote|3d}}) he should have stated <br><math>\qquad\left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}}\\ s_{a}<1 \end{matrix}\right\}</math>.<br>Using the latter choice, equations (c) would assume a form equivalent to ({{equationNote|3b}}):<br><math>\qquad\begin{align}\mathfrak{x}_{a} & =\frac{x_{a}+s_{a}y_{a}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}\\ \mathfrak{y}_{a} & =\frac{s_{a}x_{a}+y_{a}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}\end{align}</math></p> ==={{Anchor|Schur}} Schur (1885/86, 1900/02) – Beltrami coordinates=== [[w:Friedrich Schur]] (1885/86) discussed spaces of constant Riemann curvature, and by following [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]] he used the transformation<ref group=M>Schur (1885/86), p. 167</ref> :<math>x_{1}=R^{2}\frac{y_{1}+a_{1}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}},\ x_{2}=R\sqrt{R^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}\frac{y_{2}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}},\dots,\ x_{n}=R\sqrt{R^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}\frac{y_{n}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and therefore also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] in arbitrary dimensions by setting ''R=c'' as the speed of light and ''a<sub>1</sub>=v'' as relative velocity.</p> In (1900/02) he derived basic formulas of non-Eucliden geometry, including the case of translation for which he obtained the transformation similar to his previous one:<ref group=M>Schur (1900/02), p. 290; (1909), p. 83</ref> :<math>x'=\frac{x-a}{1-\mathfrak{k}ax},\quad y'=\frac{y\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}{1-\mathfrak{k}ax}</math> where <math>\mathfrak{k}</math> can have values >0, <0 or ∞. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and therefore also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] by setting ''a=v'' and <math>\mathfrak{k}=\tfrac{1}{c^{2}}</math>.</p> He also defined the triangle<ref group=M>Schur (1900/02), p. 291; (1909), p. 83</ref> :<math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}c^{2}}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}\cdot\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}b^{2}}}-\frac{a}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}\cdot\frac{b}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}b^{2}}}\cos\gamma</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to the hyperbolic law of cosines and the relativistic velocity addition ({{equationNote|3f}}, b) or [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4e|E:'''(4e)''']] by setting <math>[\mathfrak{k},\ c,\ a,\ b]=\left[\tfrac{1}{c^{2}},\ \sqrt{u_{x}^{\prime2}+u_{y}^{\prime2}},\ v,\ \sqrt{u_{x}^{2}+u_{y}^{2}}\right]</math>.</p> ==={{anchor|Lindemann}} Lindemann (1890–91) – Weierstrass coordinates and Cayley absolute=== [[w:Ferdinand von Lindemann]] discussed hyperbolic geometry in terms of the [[w:Cayley–Klein metric]] in his (1890/91) edition of the lectures on geometry of [[w:Alfred Clebsch]]. Citing [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Killing|E:Killing (1885)]] and [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Poincare|Poincaré (1887)]] in relation to the hyperboloid model in terms of Weierstrass coordinates for the hyperbolic plane and space, he set<ref group=M>Lindemann & Clebsch (1890/91), pp. 477–478, 524</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\Omega_{xx}=x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{3}^{2}=-4k^{2}\ \text{and}\ ds^{2}=dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}-4k^{2}dx_{3}^{2}\\ \Omega_{xx}=x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{4}^{2}=-4k^{2}\ \text{and}\ ds^{2}=dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+dx_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}dx_{4}^{2} \end{matrix}</math> and used the following transformation<ref group=M>Lindemann & Clebsch (1890/91), pp. 361–362</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}X_{1}X_{4}+X_{2}X_{3}=0\\ X_{1}X_{4}+X_{2}X_{3}=\Xi_{1}\Xi_{4}+\Xi_{2}\Xi_{3}\\ \hline \begin{align}X_{1} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{1}\right)U_{4} & \Xi_{1} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)U_{4} & X_{1} & =\frac{\lambda+\lambda_{1}}{\lambda-\lambda_{1}}\Xi_{1}\\ X_{2} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{3}\right)U_{4} & \Xi_{2} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)U_{4} & X_{2} & =\frac{\lambda+\lambda_{3}}{\lambda-\lambda_{3}}\Xi_{2}\\ X_{3} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)U_{2} & \Xi_{3} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{3}\right)U_{2} & X_{3} & =\frac{\lambda-\lambda_{3}}{\lambda+\lambda_{3}}\Xi_{3}\\ X_{4} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)U_{1} & \Xi_{4} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{1}\right)U_{1} & X_{4} & =\frac{\lambda-\lambda_{1}}{\lambda+\lambda_{1}}\Xi_{4} \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> into which he put<ref group=M name=linde>Lindemann & Clebsch (1890/91), p. 496</ref> :<math>\begin{align}X_{1} & =x_{1}+2kx_{4}, & X_{2} & =x_{2}+ix_{3}, & \lambda+\lambda_{1} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)e^{a},\\ X_{4} & =x_{1}-2kx_{4}, & X_{3} & =x_{2}-ix_{3}, & \lambda+\lambda_{3} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)e^{\alpha i}, \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}) with <math>e^{\alpha i}=1</math> and ''2k=1'' .</p> From that, he obtained the following Cayley absolute and the corresponding most general motion in hyperbolic space comprising ordinary rotations (''a''=0) or translations (α=0):<ref group=M name=linde /> :<math>\begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{4}^{2}=0\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{2} & =\xi_{2}\cos\alpha+\xi_{3}\sin\alpha, & x_{1} & =\xi_{1}\cos\frac{a}{i}+2ki\xi_{4}\sin\frac{a}{i},\\ x_{3} & =-\xi_{2}\sin\alpha+\xi_{3}\cos\alpha, & 2kx_{4} & =i\xi_{1}\sin\frac{a}{i}+2k\xi_{4}\cos\frac{a}{i}. \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with α=0 and ''2k=1''.</p> ==={{anchor|Gerard}} Gérard (1892) – Weierstrass coordinates=== [[w:Louis Gérard]] (1892) – in a thesis examined by Poincaré – discussed Weierstrass coordinates (without using that name) in the plane and gave the case of translation as follows:<ref group=M name=gerard>Gérard (1892), pp. 40–41</ref> :<math>\begin{align}X & =Z_{0}X'+X_{0}Z'\\ Y & =Y'\\ Z & =X_{0}X'+Z_{0}Z' \end{align} \ \text{with}\ \begin{align}X_{0} & =\operatorname{sh}OO'\\ Z_{0} & =\operatorname{ch}OO' \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Killing2}} Killing (1893,97) – Weierstrass coordinates=== [[w:Wilhelm Killing]] (1878–1880) gave case of translation in the form<ref group=M name=killtra>Killing (1893), p. 331</ref> :<math>y_{0}=x_{0}\operatorname{Ch}a+x_{1}\operatorname{Sh}a,\quad y_{1}=x_{0}\operatorname{Sh}a+x_{1}\operatorname{Ch}a,\quad y_{2}=x_{2}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> In 1898, Killing wrote that relation in a form similar to [[#Escherich|Escherich (1874)]], and derived the corresponding Lorentz transformation for the two cases were ''v'' is unchanged or ''u'' is unchanged:<ref group=M name=kill98>Killing (1898), p. 133</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\xi'=\frac{\xi\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}+l\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}}{\frac{\xi}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}},\ \eta'=\frac{\eta}{\frac{\xi}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}}\\ \hline \frac{u}{p}=\xi,\ \frac{v}{p}=\eta\\ \hline p'=p\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}+\frac{u}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l},\quad u'=pl\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+u\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l},\quad v'=v\\ \text{or}\\ p'=p\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\nu}{l}+\frac{v}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\nu}{l},\quad u'=u,\quad v'=pl\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\nu}{l}+v\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\nu}{l} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The upper transformation system is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and the velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] with ''l=c'' and <math>\mu=c\operatorname{atanh}\tfrac{v}{c}</math>, the system below is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Whitehead}} Whitehead (1897/98) – Universal algebra=== [[w:Alfred North Whitehead]] (1898) discussed the kinematics of hyperbolic space as part of his study of [[w:universal algebra]], and obtained the following transformation:<ref group=M name=white>Whitehead (1898), pp. 459–460</ref> :<math>\begin{align}x' & =\left(\eta\cosh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}+\eta_{1}\sinh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}\right)e+\left(\eta\sinh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}+\eta_{1}\cosh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}\right)e_{1}\\ & \qquad+\left(\eta_{2}\cos\alpha+\eta_{3}\sin\alpha\right)e_{2}+\left(\eta_{3}\cos\alpha-\eta_{2}\sin\alpha\right)e_{3} \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with α=0.</p> ==={{anchor|Elliott}} Elliott (1903) – Invariant theory === [[w:Edwin Bailey Elliott]] (1903) discussed a special cyclical subgroup of ternary linear transformations for which the (unit) determinant of transformation is resoluble into three ordinary algebraical factors, which he pointed out is in direct analogy to a subgroup formed by the following transformations:<ref group=M>Elliott (1903), p. 109</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x=X\cosh\phi+Y\sinh\phi,\quad y=X\sinh\phi+Y\cosh\phi\\ \hline X+Y=e^{-\phi}(x+y),\quad X-Y=e^{\phi}(x-y) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3d}}). The mentioned subgroup corresponds to the one-parameter subgroup generated by Lorentz boosts.</p> ==={{anchor|Woods2}} Woods (1903) – Weierstrass coordinates === [[w:Frederick S. Woods]] (1903, published 1905) gave the case of translation in hyperbolic space:<ref group=M>Woods (1903/05), p. 55</ref> :<math>x_{1}^{\prime}=x_{1}\cos kl+x_{0}\frac{\sin kl}{k},\quad x_{2}^{\prime}=x_{2},\quad x_{2}^{\prime}=x_{3},\quad x_{0}^{\prime}=-x_{1}k\sin kl+x_{0}\cos kl</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with ''k''<sup>2</sup>=-1.</p> and the loxodromic substitution for hyperbolic space:<ref group=M>Woods (1903/05), p. 72</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{align}x_{1}^{\prime} & =x_{1}\cosh\alpha-x_{0}\sinh\alpha\\ x_{2}^{\prime} & =x_{2}\cos\beta-x_{3}\sin\beta\\ x_{3}^{\prime} & =x_{2}\sin\beta+x_{3}\cos\beta\\ x_{0}^{\prime} & =-x_{1}\sinh\alpha+x_{0}\cosh\alpha \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with β=0.</p> ==={{anchor|Liebmann}} Liebmann (1904–05) – Weierstrass coordinates=== [[w:Heinrich Liebmann]] (1904/05) – citing Killing (1885), Gérard (1892), Hausdorff (1899) – gave the case of translation in the hyperbolic plane:<ref group=M name=lieb>Liebmann (1904/05), p. 174</ref> :<math>x_{1}^{\prime}=x'\operatorname{ch}a+p'\operatorname{sh}a,\quad y_{1}^{\prime}=y',\quad p_{1}^{\prime}=x'\operatorname{sh}a+p'\operatorname{ch}a</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Frank}} Frank (1909) – Special relativity=== In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[w:Philipp Frank]] (1909), who derived the Lorentz transformation using ''ψ'' as rapidity:<ref group=R>Frank (1909), pp. 423-425</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x'=x\varphi(a)\,{\rm ch}\,\psi+t\varphi(a)\,{\rm sh}\,\psi\\ t'=-x\varphi(a)\,{\rm sh}\,\psi+t\varphi(a)\,{\rm ch}\,\psi\\ \hline {\rm th}\,\psi=-a,\ {\rm sh}\,\psi=\frac{a}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ {\rm ch}\,\psi=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ \varphi(a)=1\\ \hline x'=\frac{x-at}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ y'=y,\ z'=z,\ t'=\frac{-ax+t}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> === {{anchor|Herglotz1}} Herglotz (1909/10) – Special relativity=== In special relativity, [[w:Gustav Herglotz]] (1909/10) classified the one-parameter Lorentz transformations as loxodromic, hyperbolic, parabolic and elliptic, with the hyperbolic case being:<ref group=R>Herglotz (1909/10), pp. 404-408</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}Z=Z'e^{\vartheta}\\ \begin{aligned}x & =x', & t-z & =(t'-z')e^{\vartheta}\\ y & =y', & t+z & =(t'+z')e^{-\vartheta} \end{aligned} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Varicak}} Varićak (1910) – Special relativity=== In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[w:Vladimir Varićak]] in several papers starting from 1910, who represented the equations of special relativity on the basis of [[w:hyperbolic geometry]] in terms of Weierstrass coordinates. For instance, by setting ''l=ct'' and ''v/c=tanh(u)'' with ''u'' as rapidity he wrote the Lorentz transformation in agreement with ({{equationNote|4b}}):<ref group=R name=var1>Varićak (1910), p. 93</ref> :<math>\begin{align}l' & =-x\operatorname{sh}u+l\operatorname{ch}u,\\ x' & =x\operatorname{ch}u-l\operatorname{sh}u,\\ y' & =y,\quad z'=z,\\ \operatorname{ch}u & =\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v}{c}\right)^{2}}} \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> He showed the relation of rapidity to the [[w:Gudermannian function]] and the [[w:angle of parallelism]]:<ref group=R name=var1 /> :<math>\frac{v}{c}=\operatorname{th}u=\operatorname{tg}\psi=\sin\operatorname{gd}(u)=\cos\Pi(u)</math> He also related the velocity addition to the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:<ref group=R>Varićak (1910), p. 94</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\operatorname{ch}{u}=\operatorname{ch}{u_{1}}\operatorname ch{u_{2}}+\operatorname{sh}{u_{1}}\operatorname{sh}{u_{2}}\cos\alpha\\ \operatorname{ch}{u_{i}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v_{i}}{c}\right)^{2}}},\ \operatorname{sh}{u_{i}}=\frac{v_{i}}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v_{i}}{c}\right)^{2}}}\\ v=\sqrt{v_{1}^{2}+v_{2}^{2}-\left(\frac{v_{1}v_{2}}{c}\right)^{2}}\ \left(a=\frac{\pi}{2}\right) \end{matrix}</math> ==References== ===Historical mathematical sources=== {{reflist|3|group=M}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bel68sag}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bel68fond}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cox81hom}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cox82hom}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eli03}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|esch74}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eul35}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eul48a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|ger92}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|glai78}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|gud30}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|guen80}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kep09}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil93}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil97}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lag70}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lais74b}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lam67}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lam70}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lieb04}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lind90}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lip86}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|ric57}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu85}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu00}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu09}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|tau26}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|whit98}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo01}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo03}} ===Historical relativity sources=== {{reflist|3|group=R}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|frank09a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|herg10}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|var10}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|var12}} ===Secondary sources=== {{reflist|3}} {{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/secsource|L3}} [[Category:Special Relativity]] [[Category:History of Physics]] apq1jd8sq11pk0wpasukj37h904pzf1 2415746 2415737 2022-08-17T06:29:39Z D.H 52339 /* Hyperbolic law of cosines */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{../Lorentz transformation (header)}} ==Lorentz transformation via hyperbolic functions== ===Translation in the hyperbolic plane=== The case of a Lorentz transformation without spatial rotation is called a [[w:Lorentz boost]]. The simplest case can be given, for instance, by setting ''n=1'' in the [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#math_1a|E:most general Lorentz transformation '''(1a)''']]: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{0}^{\prime} & =x_{0}g_{00}+x_{1}g_{01}\\ x_{1}^{\prime} & =x_{0}g_{10}+x_{1}g_{11}\\ \\ x_{0} & =x_{0}^{\prime}g_{00}-x_{1}^{\prime}g_{10}\\ x_{1} & =-x_{0}^{\prime}g_{01}+x_{1}^{\prime}g_{11} \end{align} \left|\begin{align}g_{01}^{2}-g_{00}^{2} & =-1\\ g_{11}^{2}-g_{10}^{2} & =1\\ g_{01}g_{11}-g_{00}g_{10} & =0\\ g_{10}^{2}-g_{00}^{2} & =-1\\ g_{11}^{2}-g_{01}^{2} & =1\\ g_{10}g_{11}-g_{00}g_{01} & =0 \end{align} \rightarrow\begin{align}g_{00}^{2} & =g_{11}^{2}\\ g_{01}^{2} & =g_{10}^{2} \end{align} \right. \end{matrix}</math> or in matrix notation <math>\left.\begin{align}\mathbf{x}' & =\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} & g_{01}\\ g_{10} & g_{11} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}\\ \mathbf{x} & =\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} & -g_{10}\\ -g_{01} & g_{11} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}' \end{align} \quad\right|\quad\det\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} & g_{01}\\ g_{10} & g_{11} \end{bmatrix}=1</math>|{{equationRef|3a}}}} which resembles precisely the relations of [[w:hyperbolic function]]s in terms of [[w:hyperbolic angle]] <math>\eta</math>. Thus a Lorentz boost or [[w:hyperbolic rotation]] (being the same as a rotation around an imaginary angle <math>i\eta=\phi</math> in [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#math_2b|E:'''(2b)''']] or a [[w:Translation (geometry)|translation]] in the hyperbolic plane in terms of the hyperboloid model) is given by {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\ \hline g_{00}=g_{11}=\cosh\eta,\ g_{01}=g_{10}=-\sinh\eta\\ \hline \left.\begin{align} & \quad\quad(A) & & \quad\quad(B) & & \quad\quad(C)\\ x_{0}^{\prime} & =x_{0}\cosh\eta-x_{1}\sinh\eta & & =\frac{x_{0}-x_{1}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & & =\frac{x_{0}-x_{1}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\ x_{1}^{\prime} & =-x_{0}\sinh\eta+x_{1}\cosh\eta & & =\frac{x_{1}-x_{0}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & & =\frac{x_{1}-x_{0}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\ \\ x_{0} & =x_{0}^{\prime}\cosh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta & & =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & & =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{1}^{\prime}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\ x_{1} & =x_{0}^{\prime}\sinh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta & & =\frac{x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & & =\frac{x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}} \end{align} \right|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\sinh^{2}\eta-\cosh^{2}\eta & =-1 & (a)\\ \cosh^{2}\eta-\sinh^{2}\eta & =1 & (b)\\ \frac{\sinh\eta}{\cosh\eta} & =\tanh\eta=v & (c)\\ \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & =\cosh\eta & (d)\\ \frac{\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & =\sinh\eta & (e)\\ \frac{\tanh q\pm\tanh\eta}{1\pm\tanh q\tanh\eta} & =\tanh\left(q\pm\eta\right) & (f) \end{align} } \end{matrix}</math> or in matrix notation <math>\left.\begin{align}\mathbf{x}' & =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & -\sinh\eta\\ -\sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}\\ \mathbf{x} & =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}' \end{align} \quad\right|\quad\det\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & -\sinh\eta\\ -\sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix}=1</math>|{{equationRef|3b}}}} Hyperbolic identities (a,b) on the right of ({{equationNote|3b}}) were given by [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]], all identities (a,b,c,d,e,f) by [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768–1770)]]. Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|3b}}-A) were given by [[#Laisant|Laisant (1874)]], [[#Cox|Cox (1882)]], [[#Lindemann|Lindemann (1890/91)]], [[#Gerard|Gérard (1892)]], [[#Killing2|Killing (1893, 1897/98)]], [[#Whitehead|Whitehead (1897/98)]], [[#Woods2|Woods (1903/05)]], [[#Elliott|Elliott (1903)]] and [[#Liebmann|Liebmann (1904/05)]] in terms of Weierstrass coordinates of the [[w:hyperboloid model]], while transformations similar to ({{equationNote|3b}}-C) have been used by [[#Lipschitz1|Lipschitz (1885/86)]]. In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[#Frank|Frank (1909)]] and [[#Varicak|Varićak (1910)]]. Rapidity can be composed of arbitrary many rapidities <math>\eta_{1},\eta_{2}\dots</math> as per the [[w:Hyperbolic functions#Sums of arguments|w:angle sum laws of hyperbolic sines and cosines]], so that one hyperbolic rotation can represent the sum of many other hyperbolic rotations, analogous to the relation between [[w:List of trigonometric identities#Angle sum and difference identities|w:angle sum laws of circular trigonometry]] and spatial rotations. Alternatively, the hyperbolic angle sum laws ''themselves'' can be interpreted as Lorentz boosts, as demonstrated by using the parameterization of the [[w:unit hyperbola]]: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}=1\\ \hline \left[\eta=\eta_{2}-\eta_{1}\right]\\ \begin{align}x_{0}^{\prime} & =\sinh\eta_{1}=\sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{2}\cosh\eta-\cosh\eta_{2}\sinh\eta & & =x_{0}\cosh\eta-x_{1}\sinh\eta\\ x_{1}^{\prime} & =\cosh\eta_{1}=\cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)=-\sinh\eta_{2}\sinh\eta+\cosh\eta_{2}\cosh\eta & & =-x_{0}\sinh\eta+x_{1}\cosh\eta\\ \\ x_{0} & =\sinh\eta_{2}=\sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{1}\cosh\eta+\cosh\eta_{1}\sinh\eta & & =x_{0}^{\prime}\cosh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta\\ x_{1} & =\cosh\eta_{2}=\cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{1}\sinh\eta+\cosh\eta_{1}\cosh\eta & & =x_{0}^{\prime}\sinh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> or in matrix notation <math>{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\begin{bmatrix}x_{1}^{\prime} & x_{0}^{\prime}\\ x_{0}^{\prime} & x_{1}^{\prime} \end{bmatrix} & =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{1} & \sinh\eta_{1}\\ \sinh\eta_{1} & \cosh\eta_{1} \end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right) & \sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)\\ \sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right) & \cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right) \end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{2} & \sinh\eta_{2}\\ \sinh\eta_{2} & \cosh\eta_{2} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & -\sinh\eta\\ -\sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix} & & =\begin{bmatrix}x_{1} & x_{0}\\ x_{0} & x_{1} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & -\sinh\eta\\ -\sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix}\\ \begin{bmatrix}x_{1} & x_{0}\\ x_{0} & x_{1} \end{bmatrix} & =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{2} & \sinh\eta_{2}\\ \sinh\eta_{2} & \cosh\eta_{2} \end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right) & \sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)\\ \sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right) & \cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right) \end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{1} & \sinh\eta_{1}\\ \sinh\eta_{1} & \cosh\eta_{1} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix} & & =\begin{bmatrix}x_{1}^{\prime} & x_{0}^{\prime}\\ x_{0}^{\prime} & x_{1}^{\prime} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix} \end{align} }</math>|{{equationRef|3c}}}} Hyperbolic angle sum laws were given by [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]] and [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768–1770)]] and many others, while matrix representations were given by [[#Glaisher|Glaisher (1878)]] and [[#Gunther1|Günther (1880/81)]]. Using the idendity <math>\cosh\eta+\sinh\eta=e^{\eta}</math>, Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) assumes a simple form by using [[w:squeeze mapping]]s in analogy to Euler's formula in [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#math_2c|E:'''(2c)''']]:<ref name=rind>Rindler (1969), p. 45</ref> {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\ \hline \begin{matrix}\begin{aligned}x_{1}^{\prime}-x_{0}^{\prime} & =k\left(x_{1}-x_{0}\right)\\ x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime} & =\frac{1}{k}\left(x_{1}+x_{0}\right) \end{aligned} & \Rightarrow & \begin{aligned}x_{1}^{\prime}-x_{0}^{\prime} & =e^{\eta}\left(x_{1}-x_{0}\right)\\ x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime} & =e^{-\eta}\left(x_{1}+x_{0}\right) \end{aligned} \end{matrix}\\ \hline k=e^{\eta}=\cosh\eta+\sinh\eta=\sqrt{\frac{1+\tanh\eta}{1-\tanh\eta}}=\sqrt{\frac{1+v}{1-v}} \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|3d}}}} Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|3d}}) for arbitrary ''k'' were given by many authors (see [[../Lorentz transformation (squeeze)|E:Lorentz transformations via squeeze mappings]]), while a form similar to <math>k=\sqrt{\tfrac{1+v}{1-v}}</math> was given by [[#Lipschitz1|Lipschitz (1885/86)]], and the exponential form was used by [[#Lindemann|Lindemann (1890/91)]], [[#Elliott|Elliott (1903)]], [[#Herglotz1|Herglotz (1909)]]. ===Hyperbolic law of cosines=== By adding an unchanged third coordinate <math>x_{2}^{\prime}=x_{2}</math> in Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3b}}) and interpreting <math>x_{0},x_{1},x_{2}</math> as [[w:homogeneous coordinates]], the Lorentz transformation can be rewritten in line with equation [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#math_1b|E:'''(1b)''']] by using coordinates <math>[u_{1},\ u_{2}]=\left[\tfrac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ \tfrac{x_{2}}{x_{0}}\right]</math> defined by <math>u_{1}^{2}+u_{2}^{2}\le1</math> inside the [[w:unit circle]] as follows: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{align} & \quad\quad(A) & & \quad\quad(B) & & \quad\quad(C)\\ u_{1}^{\prime} & =\frac{-\sinh\eta+u_{1}\cosh\eta}{\cosh\eta-u_{1}\sinh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{1}-\tanh\eta}{1-u_{1}\tanh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{1}-v}{1-u_{1}v}\\ u_{2}^{\prime} & =\frac{u_{2}}{\cosh\eta-u_{1}\sinh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{2}\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1-u_{1}\tanh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{2}\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-u_{1}v}\\ \\ u_{1} & =\frac{\sinh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta}{\cosh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{1}^{\prime}+\tanh\eta}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{1}^{\prime}+v}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}v}\\ u_{2} & =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}}{\cosh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}v} \end{align} </math>|{{equationRef|3e}}}} Transformations (A) were given by [[#Escherich|Escherich (1874)]] and [[#Killing2|Killing (1898)]], and transformations (C) by [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]] and [[#Schur|Schur (1885/86, 1900/02)]] in terms of [[w:Beltrami–Klein model|Beltrami coordinates]]<ref>Rosenfeld (1988), p. 231</ref> of hyperbolic geometry. By using the scalar product of <math>\left[u_{1},u_{2}\right]</math>, the resulting Lorentz transformation can be seen as equivalent to the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:<ref name=pau>Pauli (1921), p. 561</ref><ref group=R name=var>Varićak (1912), p. 108</ref><ref name=barr>Barrett (2006), chapter 4, section 2</ref> {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix} & \begin{matrix}u^{2}=u_{1}^{2}+u_{2}^{2}\\ u'^{2}=u_{1}^{\prime2}+u_{2}^{\prime2} \end{matrix}\left|\begin{matrix}u_{1}=u\cos\alpha\\ u_{2}=u\sin\alpha\\ \\ u_{1}^{\prime}=u'\cos\alpha'\\ u_{2}^{\prime}=u'\sin\alpha' \end{matrix}\right|\begin{align}u\cos\alpha & =\frac{u'\cos\alpha'+v}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'}, & u'\cos\alpha' & =\frac{u\cos\alpha-v}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\ u\sin\alpha & =\frac{u'\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'}, & u'\sin\alpha' & =\frac{u\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\ \tan\alpha & =\frac{u'\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{u'\cos\alpha'+v}, & \tan\alpha' & =\frac{u\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{u\cos\alpha-v} \end{align} \\ \Rightarrow & u=\frac{\sqrt{v^{2}+u^{\prime2}+2vu'\cos\alpha'-\left(vu'\sin\alpha'\right){}^{2}}}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'},\quad u'=\frac{\sqrt{-v^{2}-u^{2}+2vu\cos\alpha+\left(vu\sin\alpha\right){}^{2}}}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\ \Rightarrow & \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-u^{\prime2}}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-u^{2}}}-\frac{v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\frac{u}{\sqrt{1-u^{2}}}\cos\alpha & (B)\\ \Rightarrow & \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\xi}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\zeta}}-\frac{\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}\frac{\tanh\zeta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\zeta}}\cos\alpha\\ \Rightarrow & \cosh\xi=\cosh\eta\cosh\zeta-\sinh\eta\sinh\zeta\cos\alpha & (A) \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|3f}}}} The hyperbolic law of cosines (A) was given by [[#Taurinus|Taurinus (1826) and Lobachevsky (1829/30)]] and others, while variant (B) was given by [[#Schur|Schur (1900/02)]]. By further setting <math>\tanh\xi=\tanh\zeta=1</math> or <math>u'=u=1</math> it follows: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{align} & \quad(A) & & \quad(B)\\ \cos\alpha & =\frac{\cos\alpha'+\tanh\eta}{1+\tanh\eta\cos\alpha'} & \cos\alpha & =\frac{\cos\alpha'+v}{1+v\cos\alpha'}\\ \sin\alpha & =\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1+\tanh\eta\cos\alpha'} & \sin\alpha & =\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+v\cos\alpha'}\\ \tan\alpha & =\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{\cos\alpha'+\tanh\eta} & \tan\alpha & =\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{\cos\alpha'+v}\\ \tan\frac{\alpha}{2} & =\sqrt{\frac{1-\tanh\eta}{1+\tanh\eta}}\tan\frac{\alpha'}{2} & \tan\frac{\alpha}{2} & =\sqrt{\frac{1-v}{1+v}}\tan\frac{\alpha'}{2}\\ \\ \cos\alpha' & =\frac{\cos\alpha-\tanh\eta}{1-\tanh\eta\cos\alpha} & \cos\alpha' & =\frac{\cos\alpha-v}{1-v\cos\alpha}\\ \sin\alpha' & =\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1-\tanh\eta\cos\alpha} & \sin\alpha' & =\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-v\cos\alpha}\\ \tan\alpha' & =\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{\cos\alpha-\tanh\eta} & \tan\alpha' & =\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{\cos\alpha-v}\\ \tan\frac{\alpha'}{2} & =\sqrt{\frac{1+\tanh\eta}{1-\tanh\eta}}\tan\frac{\alpha}{2} & \tan\frac{\alpha'}{2} & =\sqrt{\frac{1+v}{1-v}}\tan\frac{\alpha}{2} \end{align}</math>|{{equationRef|3g}}}} Formulas (3g-B) are the equations of an [[w:ellipse]] of [[w:Orbital eccentricity|eccentricity]] ''v'', [[w:eccentric anomaly]] α' and [[w:true anomaly]] α, first geometrically formulated by [[#Euler|Kepler (1609)]] and explicitly written down by [[#Euler|Euler (1735, 1748), Lagrange (1770)]] and many others in relation to planetary motions. They were also used by [[../Lorentz transformation (conformal)#Darboux|E:Darboux (1873)]] as a sphere transformation. In special relativity, these formulas describes the aberration of light, see [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#Velocity addition and aberration|E:velocity addition and aberration]]. ==Historical notation== ==={{anchor|Euler}} Euler (1735) – True and eccentric anomaly=== [[w:Johannes Kepler]] (1609) geometrically formulated [[w:Kepler's equation]] and the relations between the [[w:mean anomaly]], [[w:true anomaly]], and [[w:eccentric anomaly]].<ref group=M>Kepler (1609), chapter 60. The editors of Kepler's collected papers remark (p. 482), that Kepler's relations correspond to <math>{\scriptstyle \alpha=\beta+e\sin\beta}</math> and <math>{\scriptstyle \cos\nu=\frac{e+\cos\beta}{1+e\cos\beta}}</math> and <math>{\scriptstyle \cos\beta=\frac{\cos\nu-e}{1-e\cos\nu}}</math></ref><ref>Volk (1976), p. 366</ref> The relation between the true anomaly ''z'' and the eccentric anomaly ''P'' was algebraically expressed by [[w:Leonhard Euler]] (1735/40) as follows:<ref group=M>Euler (1735/40), § 19</ref> :<math>\cos z=\frac{\cos P+v}{1+v\cos P},\ \cos P=\frac{\cos z-v}{1-v\cos z},\ \int P=\frac{\int z\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-v\cos z}</math> and in 1748:<ref group=M>Euler (1748a), section VIII</ref> :<math>\cos z=\frac{n+\cos y}{1+n\cos y},\ \sin z=\frac{\sin y\sqrt{1-n^{2}}}{1+n\cos y},\ \tan z=\frac{\sin y\sqrt{1-n^{2}}}{n+\cos y}</math> while [[w:Joseph-Louis Lagrange]] (1770/71) expressed them as follows<ref group=M>Lagrange (1770/71), section I</ref> :<math>\sin u=\frac{m\sin x}{1+n\cos x},\ \cos u=\frac{n+\cos x}{1+n\cos x},\ \operatorname{tang}\frac{1}{2}u=\frac{m}{1+n}\operatorname{tang}\frac{1}{2}x,\ \left(m^{2}=1-n^{2}\right)</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black"> These relations resemble formulas ({{equationNote|3g}}), while ({{equationNote|3f}}) follows by setting <math>[\cos z,\sin z]=\left[u_{x},u_{y}\right]</math> in Euler's formulas or <math>[\cos u,\sin u]=\left[u_{x},u_{y}\right]</math> in Lagrange's formulas.</p> ==={{anchor|Riccati}} Riccati (1757) – hyperbolic addition=== [[w:Vincenzo Riccati]] introduced hyperbolic functions in 1757,<ref group=M>Riccati (1757), p. 71</ref><ref group=M>Günther (1880/81), pp. 7–13</ref> in particular he formulated the angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine: :<math>\begin{matrix}\mathrm{Ch}(\varphi+\pi)=\frac{\mathrm{Ch}\varphi\mathrm{Ch}\pi+\mathrm{Sh}\varphi\mathrm{Sh}\pi}{r}\\ \mathrm{Sh}(\varphi+\pi)=\frac{\mathrm{Ch}\varphi\mathrm{Sh}\pi+\mathrm{Ch}\pi\mathrm{Sh}\varphi}{r}\\ \left[\mathrm{Ch}^{2}-\mathrm{Sh}^{2}=rr\right] \end{matrix}</math> He furthermore showed that <math>\mathrm{Ch}(\varphi-\pi)</math> and <math>\mathrm{Sh}(\varphi-\pi)</math> follow by setting <math>\mathrm{Ch}(\pi)\Rightarrow\mathrm{Ch}(-\pi)</math> and <math>\mathrm{Sh}(\pi)\Rightarrow\mathrm{Sh}(-\pi)</math> in the above formulas. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine can be interpreted as hyperbolic rotations of points on a hyperbola, as in Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3c}}). (In modern publications, Riccati's additional factor ''r'' is set to unity.)</p> ==={{anchor|Lambert}} Lambert (1768–1770) – hyperbolic addition=== While [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]] discussed the hyperbolic sine and cosine, [[w:Johann Heinrich Lambert]] (read 1767, published 1768) introduced the expression ''tang φ'' or abbreviated ''tφ'' as the [[w:tangens hyperbolicus]] <math>{\scriptstyle \frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{e^{u}+e^{-u}}}</math> of a variable ''u'', or in modern notation ''tφ=tanh(u)'':<ref group=M>Lambert (1761/68), pp. 309–318</ref><ref>Barnett (2004), pp. 22–23</ref> :<math>\left.\begin{align}\xi\xi-1 & =\eta\eta & (a)\\ 1+\eta\eta & =\xi\xi & (b)\\ \frac{\eta}{\xi} & =tang\ \phi=t\phi & (c)\\ \xi & =\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-t\phi^{2}}} & (d)\\ \eta & =\frac{t\phi}{\sqrt{1-t\phi^{2}}} & (e)\\ t\phi'' & =\frac{t\phi+t\phi'}{1+t\phi\cdot t\phi'} & (f)\\ t\phi' & =\frac{t\phi''-t\phi}{1-t\phi\cdot t\phi''} & (g) \end{align} \right|\begin{align}2u & =\log\frac{1+t\phi}{1-t\phi}\\ \xi & =\frac{e^{u}+e^{-u}}{2}\\ \eta & =\frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{2}\\ t\phi & =\frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{e^{u}+e^{-u}}\\ e^{u} & =\xi+\eta\\ e^{-u} & =\xi-\eta \end{align}</math> In (1770) he rewrote the addition law for the hyperbolic tangens (f) or (g) as:<ref group=M>Lambert (1770), p. 335</ref> :<math>\begin{align}t(y+z) & =(ty+tz):(1+ty\cdot tz) & (f)\\ t(y-z) & =(ty-tz):(1-ty\cdot tz) & (g) \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The hyperbolic relations (a,b,c,d,e,f) are equivalent to the hyperbolic relations on the right of ({{equationNote|3b}}). Relations (f,g) can also be found in ({{equationNote|3e}}). By setting ''tφ=v/c'', formula (c) becomes the relative velocity between two frames, (d) the [[w:Lorentz factor]], (e) the [[w:proper velocity]], (f) or (g) becomes the Lorentz transformation of velocity (or relativistic [[w:velocity addition formula]]) for collinear velocities in [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4a|E:'''(4a)''']] and [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']].</p> Lambert also formulated the addition laws for the hyperbolic cosine and sine (Lambert's "cos" and "sin" actually mean "cosh" and "sinh"): :<math>\begin{align}\sin(y+z) & =\sin y\cos z+\cos y\sin z\\ \sin(y-z) & =\sin y\cos z-\cos y\sin z\\ \cos(y+z) & =\cos y\cos z+\sin y\sin z\\ \cos(y-z) & =\cos y\cos z-\sin y\sin z \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine can be interpreted as hyperbolic rotations of points on a hyperbola, as in Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3c}}).</p> ==={{Anchor|Taurinus}} Taurinus (1826) – Hyperbolic law of cosines=== After the addition theorem for the tangens hyperbolicus was given by [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768)]], [[w:hyperbolic geometry]] was used by [[w:Franz Taurinus]] (1826), and later by [[w:Nikolai Lobachevsky]] (1829/30) and others, to formulate the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:<ref group=M>Taurinus (1826), p. 66; see also p. 272 in the translation by Engel and Stäckel (1899)</ref><ref>Bonola (1912), p. 79</ref><ref>Gray (1979), p. 242</ref> :<math>A=\operatorname{arccos}\frac{\cos\left(\alpha\sqrt{-1}\right)-\cos\left(\beta\sqrt{-1}\right)\cos\left(\gamma\sqrt{-1}\right)}{\sin\left(\beta\sqrt{-1}\right)\sin\left(\gamma\sqrt{-1}\right)}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">When solved for <math>\cos\left(\alpha\sqrt{-1}\right)</math> it corresponds to the Lorentz transformation in Beltrami coordinates ({{equationNote|3f}}), and by defining the rapidities <math>{\scriptstyle \left(\left[\frac{U}{c},\ \frac{v}{c},\ \frac{u}{c}\right]=\left[\tanh\alpha,\ \tanh\beta,\ \tanh\gamma\right]\right)}</math> it corresponds to the relativistic velocity addition formula [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4e|E:'''(4e)''']].</p> ==={{anchor|Beltrami}} Beltrami (1868) – Beltrami coordinates=== [[w:Eugenio Beltrami]] (1868a) introduced coordinates of the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model]] of hyperbolic geometry, and formulated the corresponding transformations in terms of homographies:<ref group=M>Beltrami (1868a), pp. 287-288; Note I; Note II</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}ds^{2}=R^{2}\frac{\left(a^{2}+v^{2}\right)du^{2}-2uv\,du\,dv+\left(a^{2}+v^{2}\right)dv^{2}}{\left(a^{2}+u^{2}+v^{2}\right)^{2}}\\ u^{2}+v^{2}=a^{2}\\ \hline u''=\frac{aa_{0}\left(u'-r_{0}\right)}{a^{2}-r_{0}u'},\ v''=\frac{a_{0}w_{0}v'}{a^{2}-r_{0}u'},\\ \left(r_{0}=\sqrt{u_{0}^{2}+v_{0}^{2}},\ w_{0}=\sqrt{a^{2}-r_{0}^{2}}\right)\\ \hline ds^{2}=R^{2}\frac{\left(a^{2}-v^{2}\right)du^{2}+2uv\,du\,dv+\left(a^{2}-v^{2}\right)dv^{2}}{\left(a^{2}-u^{2}-v^{2}\right)^{2}}\\ (R=R\sqrt{-1},\ a=a\sqrt{-1}) \end{matrix}</math> (where the disk radius ''a'' and the [[w:radius of curvature]] ''R'' are real in spherical geometry, in hyperbolic geometry they are imaginary), and for arbitrary dimensions in (1868b)<ref group=M>Beltrami (1868b), pp. 232, 240–241, 253–254</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}ds=R\frac{\sqrt{dx^{2}+dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+\cdots+dx_{n}^{2}}}{x}\\ x^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}=a^{2}\\ \hline y_{1}=\frac{ab\left(x_{1}-a_{1}\right)}{a^{2}-a_{1}x_{1}}\ \text{or}\ x_{1}=\frac{a\left(ay_{1}+a_{1}b\right)}{ab+a_{1}y_{1}},\ x_{r}=\pm\frac{ay_{r}\sqrt{a^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}}{ab+a_{1}y_{1}}\ (r=2,3,\dots,n)\\ \hline ds=R\frac{\sqrt{dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+\cdots+dx_{n}^{2}-dx^{2}}}{x}\\ x^{2}=a^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}\\ \left(R=R\sqrt{-1},\ x=x\sqrt{-1},\ a=a\sqrt{-1}\right) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Setting ''a=a<sub>0</sub>'' Beltrami's (1868a) formulas become formulas ({{equationNote|3e}}), or in his (1868b) formulas one sets ''a=b'' for arbitrary dimensions.</p> === {{anchor|Laisant2}} Laisant (1874) – Equipollences=== In his French translation of [[w:Giusto Bellavitis]]' principal work on [[w:Equipollence (geometry)|w:equipollences]], [[w:Charles-Ange Laisant]] (1874) added a chapter related to hyperbolas. The equipollence OM and its tangent MT of a hyperbola is defined by Laisant as<ref group=M>Laisant (1874b), pp. 134–135</ref> :(1) <math>\begin{matrix} & \mathrm{OM}\bumpeq x\mathrm{OA}+y\mathrm{OB}\\ & \mathrm{MT}\bumpeq y\mathrm{OA}+x\mathrm{OB}\\ & \left[x^{2}-y^{2}=1;\ x=\cosh t,\ y=\sinh t\right]\\ \Rightarrow & \mathrm{OM}\bumpeq\cosh t\cdot\mathrm{OA}+\sinh t\cdot\mathrm{OB} \end{matrix}</math> Here, OA and OB are [[w:Conjugate diameters|conjugate semi-diameters]] of a hyperbola with OB being imaginary, both of which he related to two other conjugated semi-diameters OC and OD by the following transformation: :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{align}\mathrm{OC} & \bumpeq c\mathrm{OA}+d\mathrm{OB} & \qquad & & \mathrm{OA} & \bumpeq c\mathrm{OC}-d\mathrm{OD}\\ \mathrm{OD} & \bumpeq d\mathrm{OA}+c\mathrm{OB} & & & \mathrm{OB} & \bumpeq-d\mathrm{OC}+c\mathrm{OD} \end{align} \\ \left[c^{2}-d^{2}=1\right] \end{matrix}</math> producing the invariant relation :<math>(\mathrm{OC})^{2}-(\mathrm{OD})^{2}\bumpeq(\mathrm{OA})^{2}-(\mathrm{OB})^{2}</math>. Substituting into (1), he showed that OM retains its form :<math>\begin{matrix}\mathrm{OM}\bumpeq(cx-dy)\mathrm{OC}+(cy-dx)\mathrm{OD}\\ \left[(cx-dy)^{2}-(cy-dx)^{2}=1\right] \end{matrix}</math> He also defined velocity and acceleration by differentiation of (1). <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">These relations are equivalent to several Lorentz boosts or hyperbolic rotations producing the invariant Lorentz interval in line with ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Escherich}} Escherich (1874) – Beltrami coordinates=== [[w:Gustav von Escherich]] (1874) discussed the plane of constant negative curvature<ref>Sommerville (1911), p. 297</ref> based on the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model]] of hyperbolic geometry by [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]]. Similar to [[w:Christoph Gudermann]] (1830)<ref name=guder group=M>Gudermann (1830), §1–3, §18–19</ref> who introduced axial coordinates ''x''=tan(a) and ''y''=tan(b) in sphere geometry in order to perform coordinate transformations in the case of rotation and translation, Escherich used hyperbolic functions ''x''=tanh(a/k) and ''y''=tanh(b/k)<ref group=M>Escherich (1874), p. 508</ref> in order to give the corresponding coordinate transformations for the hyperbolic plane, which for the case of translation have the form:<ref group=M name=escher>Escherich (1874), p. 510</ref> :<math>x=\frac{\sinh\frac{a}{k}+x'\cosh\frac{a}{k}}{\cosh\frac{a}{k}+x'\sinh\frac{a}{k}}</math> and <math>y=\frac{y'}{\cosh\frac{a}{k}+x'\sinh\frac{a}{k}}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}), also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] by setting <math>\tfrac{a}{k}=\operatorname{atanh}\tfrac{v}{c}</math> and multiplying ''[x,y,x′,y′]'' by 1/''c'', and equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) by setting <math>\scriptstyle (x,\ y,\ x',\ y')=\left(\frac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ \frac{x_{2}}{x_{0}},\ \frac{x_{1}^{\prime}}{x_{0}^{\prime}},\ \frac{x_{2}^{\prime}}{x_{0}^{\prime}}\right)</math>. This is the relation between the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model|Beltrami coordinates]] in terms of Gudermann-Escherich coordinates, and the Weierstrass coordinates of the [[w:hyperboloid model]] introduced by [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Killing1|E:Killing (1878–1893)]], [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Poincare|E:Poincaré (1881)]], and [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Cox|E:Cox (1881)]]. Both coordinate systems were compared by Cox (1881).<ref group=M>Cox (1881), p. 186</ref></p> ==={{anchor|Glaisher}} Glaisher (1878) – hyperbolic addition=== It was shown by [[w:James Whitbread Lee Glaisher]] (1878) that the hyperbolic addition laws can be expressed by matrix multiplication:<ref group=M>Glaisher (1878), p. 30</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{vmatrix}\cosh x, & \sinh x\\ \sinh x, & \cosh x \end{vmatrix}=1,\ \begin{vmatrix}\cosh y, & \sinh y\\ \sinh y, & \cosh y \end{vmatrix}=1\\ \text{by multiplication:}\\ \Rightarrow\begin{vmatrix}c_{1}c_{2}+s_{1}s_{2}, & s_{1}c_{2}+c_{1}s_{2}\\ c_{1}s_{2}+s_{1}c_{2}, & s_{1}s_{2}+c_{1}c_{2} \end{vmatrix}=1\\ \text{where}\ \left[c_{1},c_{2},c_{3},c_{4}\right]=\left[\cosh x,\cosh y,\sinh x,\sinh y\right] \\ \Rightarrow\begin{vmatrix}\cosh(x+y), & \sinh(x+y)\\ \sinh(x+y), & \cosh(x+y) \end{vmatrix}=1 \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">In this matrix representation, the analogy between the hyperbolic angle sum laws and the Lorentz boost becomes obvious: In particular, the matrix <math>\scriptstyle\begin{vmatrix}\cosh y, & \sinh y\\ \sinh y, & \cosh y\end{vmatrix}</math> producing the hyperbolic addition is analogous to matrix <math>\scriptstyle\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta\end{bmatrix}</math> producing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3c}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Gunther1}} Günther (1880/81) – hyperbolic addition === Following [[#Glaisher|Glaisher (1878)]], [[w:Siegmund Günther]] (1880/81) expressed the hyperbolic addition laws by matrix multiplication:<ref group=M>Günther (1880/81), p. 405</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,x, & \mathfrak{Sin}\,x\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,x, & \mathfrak{Cos}\,x \end{vmatrix}\cdot\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,y, & \mathfrak{Sin}\,y\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,y, & \mathfrak{Cos}\,y \end{vmatrix}\\ =\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y+\mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, & \mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y+\mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y+\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, & \mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y+\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y \end{vmatrix}\\ =\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,(x+y), & \mathfrak{Sin}\,(x+y)\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,(x+y), & \mathfrak{Cos}\,(x+y) \end{vmatrix}=1 \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">In this matrix representation, the analogy between the hyperbolic angle sum laws and the Lorentz boost becomes obvious: In particular, the matrix <math>\scriptstyle\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,y, & \mathfrak{Sin}\,y\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,y, & \mathfrak{Cos}\,y \end{vmatrix}</math> producing the hyperbolic addition is analogous to matrix <math>\scriptstyle\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta\end{bmatrix}</math> producing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3c}}).</p> === {{anchor|Cox}} Cox (1881/82) – Weierstrass coordinates === [[w:Homersham Cox (mathematician)|w:Homersham Cox]] (1881/82) defined the case of translation in the hyperbolic plane with the ''y''-axis remaining unchanged:<ref group=M name=cox>Cox (1881/82), p. 194</ref> :<math>\begin{align}X & =x\cosh p-z\sinh p\\ Z & =-x\sinh p+z\cosh p \\ \\ x & =X\cosh p+Z\sinh p\\ z & =X\sinh p+Z\cosh p \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Lipschitz1}} Lipschitz (1885/86) === [[w:Rudolf Lipschitz]] (1885/86) formulated transformations leaving invariant the sum of squares <math>x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}\dots+x_{n}^{2}=y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n}^{2}</math>, which he rewrote as <math>x_{1}^{2}-y_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}-y_{2}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}-y_{n}^{2}=0</math>. This led to the problem of finding transformations leaving invariant the pairs <math>x_{a}^{2}-y_{a}^{2}</math> (''a''=1...n) for which he gave the following solution:<ref group=M>Lipschitz (1886), pp. 90–92</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x_{a}^{2}-y_{a}^{2}=\mathfrak{x}_{a}^{2}-\mathfrak{y}_{a}^{2}\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{a}-y_{a} & =\left(\mathfrak{x}_{a}-\mathfrak{y}_{a}\right)r_{a}\\ x_{a}+y_{a} & =\left(\mathfrak{x}_{a}+\mathfrak{y}_{a}\right)\frac{1}{r_{a}} \end{align} \quad(a)\\ \hline \begin{matrix}\begin{align}2\mathfrak{x}_{a} & =\left(r_{a}+\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)x_{a}+\left(r_{a}-\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)y_{a}\\ 2\mathfrak{y}_{a} & =\left(r_{a}-\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)x_{a}+\left(r_{a}+\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)y_{a} \end{align} \quad(b)\end{matrix}\\ \hline \left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}}\\ s_{a}>1 \end{matrix}\right\}\Rightarrow\begin{align}\mathfrak{x}_{a} & =\frac{s_{a}x_{a}+y_{a}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}\\ \mathfrak{y}_{a} & =\frac{x_{a}+s_{a}y_{a}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}\sqrt{s_{a}+1}} \end{align} \quad(c) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Equation (a) is identical to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}), while (c) is similar, though not identical, to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}-C). The difference stems from his definition<br><math>\qquad\left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}}\\ s_{a}>1 \end{matrix}\right\}</math><br>whereas in accordance to expression <math>\sqrt{\tfrac{1+v}{1-v}}</math> with <math>v<1</math> in ({{equationNote|3d}}) he should have stated <br><math>\qquad\left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}}\\ s_{a}<1 \end{matrix}\right\}</math>.<br>Using the latter choice, equations (c) would assume a form equivalent to ({{equationNote|3b}}):<br><math>\qquad\begin{align}\mathfrak{x}_{a} & =\frac{x_{a}+s_{a}y_{a}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}\\ \mathfrak{y}_{a} & =\frac{s_{a}x_{a}+y_{a}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}\end{align}</math></p> ==={{Anchor|Schur}} Schur (1885/86, 1900/02) – Beltrami coordinates=== [[w:Friedrich Schur]] (1885/86) discussed spaces of constant Riemann curvature, and by following [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]] he used the transformation<ref group=M>Schur (1885/86), p. 167</ref> :<math>x_{1}=R^{2}\frac{y_{1}+a_{1}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}},\ x_{2}=R\sqrt{R^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}\frac{y_{2}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}},\dots,\ x_{n}=R\sqrt{R^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}\frac{y_{n}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and therefore also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] in arbitrary dimensions by setting ''R=c'' as the speed of light and ''a<sub>1</sub>=v'' as relative velocity.</p> In (1900/02) he derived basic formulas of non-Eucliden geometry, including the case of translation for which he obtained the transformation similar to his previous one:<ref group=M>Schur (1900/02), p. 290; (1909), p. 83</ref> :<math>x'=\frac{x-a}{1-\mathfrak{k}ax},\quad y'=\frac{y\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}{1-\mathfrak{k}ax}</math> where <math>\mathfrak{k}</math> can have values >0, <0 or ∞. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and therefore also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] by setting ''a=v'' and <math>\mathfrak{k}=\tfrac{1}{c^{2}}</math>.</p> He also defined the triangle<ref group=M>Schur (1900/02), p. 291; (1909), p. 83</ref> :<math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}c^{2}}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}\cdot\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}b^{2}}}-\frac{a}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}\cdot\frac{b}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}b^{2}}}\cos\gamma</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to the hyperbolic law of cosines and the relativistic velocity addition ({{equationNote|3f}}, b) or [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4e|E:'''(4e)''']] by setting <math>[\mathfrak{k},\ c,\ a,\ b]=\left[\tfrac{1}{c^{2}},\ \sqrt{u_{x}^{\prime2}+u_{y}^{\prime2}},\ v,\ \sqrt{u_{x}^{2}+u_{y}^{2}}\right]</math>.</p> ==={{anchor|Lindemann}} Lindemann (1890–91) – Weierstrass coordinates and Cayley absolute=== [[w:Ferdinand von Lindemann]] discussed hyperbolic geometry in terms of the [[w:Cayley–Klein metric]] in his (1890/91) edition of the lectures on geometry of [[w:Alfred Clebsch]]. Citing [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Killing|E:Killing (1885)]] and [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Poincare|Poincaré (1887)]] in relation to the hyperboloid model in terms of Weierstrass coordinates for the hyperbolic plane and space, he set<ref group=M>Lindemann & Clebsch (1890/91), pp. 477–478, 524</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\Omega_{xx}=x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{3}^{2}=-4k^{2}\ \text{and}\ ds^{2}=dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}-4k^{2}dx_{3}^{2}\\ \Omega_{xx}=x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{4}^{2}=-4k^{2}\ \text{and}\ ds^{2}=dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+dx_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}dx_{4}^{2} \end{matrix}</math> and used the following transformation<ref group=M>Lindemann & Clebsch (1890/91), pp. 361–362</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}X_{1}X_{4}+X_{2}X_{3}=0\\ X_{1}X_{4}+X_{2}X_{3}=\Xi_{1}\Xi_{4}+\Xi_{2}\Xi_{3}\\ \hline \begin{align}X_{1} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{1}\right)U_{4} & \Xi_{1} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)U_{4} & X_{1} & =\frac{\lambda+\lambda_{1}}{\lambda-\lambda_{1}}\Xi_{1}\\ X_{2} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{3}\right)U_{4} & \Xi_{2} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)U_{4} & X_{2} & =\frac{\lambda+\lambda_{3}}{\lambda-\lambda_{3}}\Xi_{2}\\ X_{3} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)U_{2} & \Xi_{3} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{3}\right)U_{2} & X_{3} & =\frac{\lambda-\lambda_{3}}{\lambda+\lambda_{3}}\Xi_{3}\\ X_{4} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)U_{1} & \Xi_{4} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{1}\right)U_{1} & X_{4} & =\frac{\lambda-\lambda_{1}}{\lambda+\lambda_{1}}\Xi_{4} \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> into which he put<ref group=M name=linde>Lindemann & Clebsch (1890/91), p. 496</ref> :<math>\begin{align}X_{1} & =x_{1}+2kx_{4}, & X_{2} & =x_{2}+ix_{3}, & \lambda+\lambda_{1} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)e^{a},\\ X_{4} & =x_{1}-2kx_{4}, & X_{3} & =x_{2}-ix_{3}, & \lambda+\lambda_{3} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)e^{\alpha i}, \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}) with <math>e^{\alpha i}=1</math> and ''2k=1'' .</p> From that, he obtained the following Cayley absolute and the corresponding most general motion in hyperbolic space comprising ordinary rotations (''a''=0) or translations (α=0):<ref group=M name=linde /> :<math>\begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{4}^{2}=0\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{2} & =\xi_{2}\cos\alpha+\xi_{3}\sin\alpha, & x_{1} & =\xi_{1}\cos\frac{a}{i}+2ki\xi_{4}\sin\frac{a}{i},\\ x_{3} & =-\xi_{2}\sin\alpha+\xi_{3}\cos\alpha, & 2kx_{4} & =i\xi_{1}\sin\frac{a}{i}+2k\xi_{4}\cos\frac{a}{i}. \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with α=0 and ''2k=1''.</p> ==={{anchor|Gerard}} Gérard (1892) – Weierstrass coordinates=== [[w:Louis Gérard]] (1892) – in a thesis examined by Poincaré – discussed Weierstrass coordinates (without using that name) in the plane and gave the case of translation as follows:<ref group=M name=gerard>Gérard (1892), pp. 40–41</ref> :<math>\begin{align}X & =Z_{0}X'+X_{0}Z'\\ Y & =Y'\\ Z & =X_{0}X'+Z_{0}Z' \end{align} \ \text{with}\ \begin{align}X_{0} & =\operatorname{sh}OO'\\ Z_{0} & =\operatorname{ch}OO' \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Killing2}} Killing (1893,97) – Weierstrass coordinates=== [[w:Wilhelm Killing]] (1878–1880) gave case of translation in the form<ref group=M name=killtra>Killing (1893), p. 331</ref> :<math>y_{0}=x_{0}\operatorname{Ch}a+x_{1}\operatorname{Sh}a,\quad y_{1}=x_{0}\operatorname{Sh}a+x_{1}\operatorname{Ch}a,\quad y_{2}=x_{2}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> In 1898, Killing wrote that relation in a form similar to [[#Escherich|Escherich (1874)]], and derived the corresponding Lorentz transformation for the two cases were ''v'' is unchanged or ''u'' is unchanged:<ref group=M name=kill98>Killing (1898), p. 133</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\xi'=\frac{\xi\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}+l\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}}{\frac{\xi}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}},\ \eta'=\frac{\eta}{\frac{\xi}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}}\\ \hline \frac{u}{p}=\xi,\ \frac{v}{p}=\eta\\ \hline p'=p\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}+\frac{u}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l},\quad u'=pl\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+u\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l},\quad v'=v\\ \text{or}\\ p'=p\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\nu}{l}+\frac{v}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\nu}{l},\quad u'=u,\quad v'=pl\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\nu}{l}+v\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\nu}{l} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The upper transformation system is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and the velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] with ''l=c'' and <math>\mu=c\operatorname{atanh}\tfrac{v}{c}</math>, the system below is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Whitehead}} Whitehead (1897/98) – Universal algebra=== [[w:Alfred North Whitehead]] (1898) discussed the kinematics of hyperbolic space as part of his study of [[w:universal algebra]], and obtained the following transformation:<ref group=M name=white>Whitehead (1898), pp. 459–460</ref> :<math>\begin{align}x' & =\left(\eta\cosh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}+\eta_{1}\sinh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}\right)e+\left(\eta\sinh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}+\eta_{1}\cosh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}\right)e_{1}\\ & \qquad+\left(\eta_{2}\cos\alpha+\eta_{3}\sin\alpha\right)e_{2}+\left(\eta_{3}\cos\alpha-\eta_{2}\sin\alpha\right)e_{3} \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with α=0.</p> ==={{anchor|Elliott}} Elliott (1903) – Invariant theory === [[w:Edwin Bailey Elliott]] (1903) discussed a special cyclical subgroup of ternary linear transformations for which the (unit) determinant of transformation is resoluble into three ordinary algebraical factors, which he pointed out is in direct analogy to a subgroup formed by the following transformations:<ref group=M>Elliott (1903), p. 109</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x=X\cosh\phi+Y\sinh\phi,\quad y=X\sinh\phi+Y\cosh\phi\\ \hline X+Y=e^{-\phi}(x+y),\quad X-Y=e^{\phi}(x-y) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3d}}). The mentioned subgroup corresponds to the one-parameter subgroup generated by Lorentz boosts.</p> ==={{anchor|Woods2}} Woods (1903) – Weierstrass coordinates === [[w:Frederick S. Woods]] (1903, published 1905) gave the case of translation in hyperbolic space:<ref group=M>Woods (1903/05), p. 55</ref> :<math>x_{1}^{\prime}=x_{1}\cos kl+x_{0}\frac{\sin kl}{k},\quad x_{2}^{\prime}=x_{2},\quad x_{2}^{\prime}=x_{3},\quad x_{0}^{\prime}=-x_{1}k\sin kl+x_{0}\cos kl</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with ''k''<sup>2</sup>=-1.</p> and the loxodromic substitution for hyperbolic space:<ref group=M>Woods (1903/05), p. 72</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{align}x_{1}^{\prime} & =x_{1}\cosh\alpha-x_{0}\sinh\alpha\\ x_{2}^{\prime} & =x_{2}\cos\beta-x_{3}\sin\beta\\ x_{3}^{\prime} & =x_{2}\sin\beta+x_{3}\cos\beta\\ x_{0}^{\prime} & =-x_{1}\sinh\alpha+x_{0}\cosh\alpha \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with β=0.</p> ==={{anchor|Liebmann}} Liebmann (1904–05) – Weierstrass coordinates=== [[w:Heinrich Liebmann]] (1904/05) – citing Killing (1885), Gérard (1892), Hausdorff (1899) – gave the case of translation in the hyperbolic plane:<ref group=M name=lieb>Liebmann (1904/05), p. 174</ref> :<math>x_{1}^{\prime}=x'\operatorname{ch}a+p'\operatorname{sh}a,\quad y_{1}^{\prime}=y',\quad p_{1}^{\prime}=x'\operatorname{sh}a+p'\operatorname{ch}a</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Frank}} Frank (1909) – Special relativity=== In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[w:Philipp Frank]] (1909), who derived the Lorentz transformation using ''ψ'' as rapidity:<ref group=R>Frank (1909), pp. 423-425</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x'=x\varphi(a)\,{\rm ch}\,\psi+t\varphi(a)\,{\rm sh}\,\psi\\ t'=-x\varphi(a)\,{\rm sh}\,\psi+t\varphi(a)\,{\rm ch}\,\psi\\ \hline {\rm th}\,\psi=-a,\ {\rm sh}\,\psi=\frac{a}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ {\rm ch}\,\psi=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ \varphi(a)=1\\ \hline x'=\frac{x-at}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ y'=y,\ z'=z,\ t'=\frac{-ax+t}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> === {{anchor|Herglotz1}} Herglotz (1909/10) – Special relativity=== In special relativity, [[w:Gustav Herglotz]] (1909/10) classified the one-parameter Lorentz transformations as loxodromic, hyperbolic, parabolic and elliptic, with the hyperbolic case being:<ref group=R>Herglotz (1909/10), pp. 404-408</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}Z=Z'e^{\vartheta}\\ \begin{aligned}x & =x', & t-z & =(t'-z')e^{\vartheta}\\ y & =y', & t+z & =(t'+z')e^{-\vartheta} \end{aligned} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Varicak}} Varićak (1910) – Special relativity=== In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[w:Vladimir Varićak]] in several papers starting from 1910, who represented the equations of special relativity on the basis of [[w:hyperbolic geometry]] in terms of Weierstrass coordinates. For instance, by setting ''l=ct'' and ''v/c=tanh(u)'' with ''u'' as rapidity he wrote the Lorentz transformation in agreement with ({{equationNote|4b}}):<ref group=R name=var1>Varićak (1910), p. 93</ref> :<math>\begin{align}l' & =-x\operatorname{sh}u+l\operatorname{ch}u,\\ x' & =x\operatorname{ch}u-l\operatorname{sh}u,\\ y' & =y,\quad z'=z,\\ \operatorname{ch}u & =\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v}{c}\right)^{2}}} \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> He showed the relation of rapidity to the [[w:Gudermannian function]] and the [[w:angle of parallelism]]:<ref group=R name=var1 /> :<math>\frac{v}{c}=\operatorname{th}u=\operatorname{tg}\psi=\sin\operatorname{gd}(u)=\cos\Pi(u)</math> He also related the velocity addition to the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:<ref group=R>Varićak (1910), p. 94</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\operatorname{ch}{u}=\operatorname{ch}{u_{1}}\operatorname ch{u_{2}}+\operatorname{sh}{u_{1}}\operatorname{sh}{u_{2}}\cos\alpha\\ \operatorname{ch}{u_{i}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v_{i}}{c}\right)^{2}}},\ \operatorname{sh}{u_{i}}=\frac{v_{i}}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v_{i}}{c}\right)^{2}}}\\ v=\sqrt{v_{1}^{2}+v_{2}^{2}-\left(\frac{v_{1}v_{2}}{c}\right)^{2}}\ \left(a=\frac{\pi}{2}\right) \end{matrix}</math> ==References== ===Historical mathematical sources=== {{reflist|3|group=M}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bel68sag}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bel68fond}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cox81hom}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cox82hom}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eli03}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|esch74}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eul35}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eul48a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|ger92}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|glai78}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|gud30}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|guen80}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kep09}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil93}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil97}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lag70}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lais74b}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lam67}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lam70}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lieb04}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lind90}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lip86}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|ric57}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu85}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu00}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu09}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|tau26}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|whit98}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo01}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo03}} ===Historical relativity sources=== {{reflist|3|group=R}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|frank09a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|herg10}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|var10}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|var12}} ===Secondary sources=== {{reflist|3}} {{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/secsource|L3}} [[Category:Special Relativity]] [[Category:History of Physics]] qroo0ie1w3hmjw7unxptr9tvbdmt2fr 2415796 2415746 2022-08-17T09:32:04Z D.H 52339 /* Hyperbolic law of cosines */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{../Lorentz transformation (header)}} ==Lorentz transformation via hyperbolic functions== ===Translation in the hyperbolic plane=== The case of a Lorentz transformation without spatial rotation is called a [[w:Lorentz boost]]. The simplest case can be given, for instance, by setting ''n=1'' in the [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#math_1a|E:most general Lorentz transformation '''(1a)''']]: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{0}^{\prime} & =x_{0}g_{00}+x_{1}g_{01}\\ x_{1}^{\prime} & =x_{0}g_{10}+x_{1}g_{11}\\ \\ x_{0} & =x_{0}^{\prime}g_{00}-x_{1}^{\prime}g_{10}\\ x_{1} & =-x_{0}^{\prime}g_{01}+x_{1}^{\prime}g_{11} \end{align} \left|\begin{align}g_{01}^{2}-g_{00}^{2} & =-1\\ g_{11}^{2}-g_{10}^{2} & =1\\ g_{01}g_{11}-g_{00}g_{10} & =0\\ g_{10}^{2}-g_{00}^{2} & =-1\\ g_{11}^{2}-g_{01}^{2} & =1\\ g_{10}g_{11}-g_{00}g_{01} & =0 \end{align} \rightarrow\begin{align}g_{00}^{2} & =g_{11}^{2}\\ g_{01}^{2} & =g_{10}^{2} \end{align} \right. \end{matrix}</math> or in matrix notation <math>\left.\begin{align}\mathbf{x}' & =\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} & g_{01}\\ g_{10} & g_{11} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}\\ \mathbf{x} & =\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} & -g_{10}\\ -g_{01} & g_{11} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}' \end{align} \quad\right|\quad\det\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} & g_{01}\\ g_{10} & g_{11} \end{bmatrix}=1</math>|{{equationRef|3a}}}} which resembles precisely the relations of [[w:hyperbolic function]]s in terms of [[w:hyperbolic angle]] <math>\eta</math>. Thus a Lorentz boost or [[w:hyperbolic rotation]] (being the same as a rotation around an imaginary angle <math>i\eta=\phi</math> in [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#math_2b|E:'''(2b)''']] or a [[w:Translation (geometry)|translation]] in the hyperbolic plane in terms of the hyperboloid model) is given by {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\ \hline g_{00}=g_{11}=\cosh\eta,\ g_{01}=g_{10}=-\sinh\eta\\ \hline \left.\begin{align} & \quad\quad(A) & & \quad\quad(B) & & \quad\quad(C)\\ x_{0}^{\prime} & =x_{0}\cosh\eta-x_{1}\sinh\eta & & =\frac{x_{0}-x_{1}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & & =\frac{x_{0}-x_{1}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\ x_{1}^{\prime} & =-x_{0}\sinh\eta+x_{1}\cosh\eta & & =\frac{x_{1}-x_{0}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & & =\frac{x_{1}-x_{0}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\ \\ x_{0} & =x_{0}^{\prime}\cosh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta & & =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & & =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{1}^{\prime}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\ x_{1} & =x_{0}^{\prime}\sinh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta & & =\frac{x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & & =\frac{x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}} \end{align} \right|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\sinh^{2}\eta-\cosh^{2}\eta & =-1 & (a)\\ \cosh^{2}\eta-\sinh^{2}\eta & =1 & (b)\\ \frac{\sinh\eta}{\cosh\eta} & =\tanh\eta=v & (c)\\ \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & =\cosh\eta & (d)\\ \frac{\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & =\sinh\eta & (e)\\ \frac{\tanh q\pm\tanh\eta}{1\pm\tanh q\tanh\eta} & =\tanh\left(q\pm\eta\right) & (f) \end{align} } \end{matrix}</math> or in matrix notation <math>\left.\begin{align}\mathbf{x}' & =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & -\sinh\eta\\ -\sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}\\ \mathbf{x} & =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}' \end{align} \quad\right|\quad\det\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & -\sinh\eta\\ -\sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix}=1</math>|{{equationRef|3b}}}} Hyperbolic identities (a,b) on the right of ({{equationNote|3b}}) were given by [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]], all identities (a,b,c,d,e,f) by [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768–1770)]]. Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|3b}}-A) were given by [[#Laisant|Laisant (1874)]], [[#Cox|Cox (1882)]], [[#Lindemann|Lindemann (1890/91)]], [[#Gerard|Gérard (1892)]], [[#Killing2|Killing (1893, 1897/98)]], [[#Whitehead|Whitehead (1897/98)]], [[#Woods2|Woods (1903/05)]], [[#Elliott|Elliott (1903)]] and [[#Liebmann|Liebmann (1904/05)]] in terms of Weierstrass coordinates of the [[w:hyperboloid model]], while transformations similar to ({{equationNote|3b}}-C) have been used by [[#Lipschitz1|Lipschitz (1885/86)]]. In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[#Frank|Frank (1909)]] and [[#Varicak|Varićak (1910)]]. Rapidity can be composed of arbitrary many rapidities <math>\eta_{1},\eta_{2}\dots</math> as per the [[w:Hyperbolic functions#Sums of arguments|w:angle sum laws of hyperbolic sines and cosines]], so that one hyperbolic rotation can represent the sum of many other hyperbolic rotations, analogous to the relation between [[w:List of trigonometric identities#Angle sum and difference identities|w:angle sum laws of circular trigonometry]] and spatial rotations. Alternatively, the hyperbolic angle sum laws ''themselves'' can be interpreted as Lorentz boosts, as demonstrated by using the parameterization of the [[w:unit hyperbola]]: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}=1\\ \hline \left[\eta=\eta_{2}-\eta_{1}\right]\\ \begin{align}x_{0}^{\prime} & =\sinh\eta_{1}=\sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{2}\cosh\eta-\cosh\eta_{2}\sinh\eta & & =x_{0}\cosh\eta-x_{1}\sinh\eta\\ x_{1}^{\prime} & =\cosh\eta_{1}=\cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)=-\sinh\eta_{2}\sinh\eta+\cosh\eta_{2}\cosh\eta & & =-x_{0}\sinh\eta+x_{1}\cosh\eta\\ \\ x_{0} & =\sinh\eta_{2}=\sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{1}\cosh\eta+\cosh\eta_{1}\sinh\eta & & =x_{0}^{\prime}\cosh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta\\ x_{1} & =\cosh\eta_{2}=\cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{1}\sinh\eta+\cosh\eta_{1}\cosh\eta & & =x_{0}^{\prime}\sinh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> or in matrix notation <math>{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\begin{bmatrix}x_{1}^{\prime} & x_{0}^{\prime}\\ x_{0}^{\prime} & x_{1}^{\prime} \end{bmatrix} & =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{1} & \sinh\eta_{1}\\ \sinh\eta_{1} & \cosh\eta_{1} \end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right) & \sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)\\ \sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right) & \cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right) \end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{2} & \sinh\eta_{2}\\ \sinh\eta_{2} & \cosh\eta_{2} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & -\sinh\eta\\ -\sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix} & & =\begin{bmatrix}x_{1} & x_{0}\\ x_{0} & x_{1} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & -\sinh\eta\\ -\sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix}\\ \begin{bmatrix}x_{1} & x_{0}\\ x_{0} & x_{1} \end{bmatrix} & =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{2} & \sinh\eta_{2}\\ \sinh\eta_{2} & \cosh\eta_{2} \end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right) & \sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)\\ \sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right) & \cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right) \end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{1} & \sinh\eta_{1}\\ \sinh\eta_{1} & \cosh\eta_{1} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix} & & =\begin{bmatrix}x_{1}^{\prime} & x_{0}^{\prime}\\ x_{0}^{\prime} & x_{1}^{\prime} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix} \end{align} }</math>|{{equationRef|3c}}}} Hyperbolic angle sum laws were given by [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]] and [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768–1770)]] and many others, while matrix representations were given by [[#Glaisher|Glaisher (1878)]] and [[#Gunther1|Günther (1880/81)]]. Using the idendity <math>\cosh\eta+\sinh\eta=e^{\eta}</math>, Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) assumes a simple form by using [[w:squeeze mapping]]s in analogy to Euler's formula in [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#math_2c|E:'''(2c)''']]:<ref name=rind>Rindler (1969), p. 45</ref> {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\ \hline \begin{matrix}\begin{aligned}x_{1}^{\prime}-x_{0}^{\prime} & =k\left(x_{1}-x_{0}\right)\\ x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime} & =\frac{1}{k}\left(x_{1}+x_{0}\right) \end{aligned} & \Rightarrow & \begin{aligned}x_{1}^{\prime}-x_{0}^{\prime} & =e^{\eta}\left(x_{1}-x_{0}\right)\\ x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime} & =e^{-\eta}\left(x_{1}+x_{0}\right) \end{aligned} \end{matrix}\\ \hline k=e^{\eta}=\cosh\eta+\sinh\eta=\sqrt{\frac{1+\tanh\eta}{1-\tanh\eta}}=\sqrt{\frac{1+v}{1-v}} \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|3d}}}} Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|3d}}) for arbitrary ''k'' were given by many authors (see [[../Lorentz transformation (squeeze)|E:Lorentz transformations via squeeze mappings]]), while a form similar to <math>k=\sqrt{\tfrac{1+v}{1-v}}</math> was given by [[#Lipschitz1|Lipschitz (1885/86)]], and the exponential form was used by [[#Lindemann|Lindemann (1890/91)]], [[#Elliott|Elliott (1903)]], [[#Herglotz1|Herglotz (1909)]]. ===Hyperbolic law of cosines=== By adding an unchanged third coordinate <math>x_{2}^{\prime}=x_{2}</math> in Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3b}}) and interpreting <math>x_{0},x_{1},x_{2}</math> as [[w:homogeneous coordinates]], the Lorentz transformation can be rewritten in line with equation [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#math_1b|E:'''(1b)''']] by using coordinates <math>[u_{1},\ u_{2}]=\left[\tfrac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ \tfrac{x_{2}}{x_{0}}\right]</math> defined by <math>u_{1}^{2}+u_{2}^{2}\le1</math> inside the [[w:unit circle]] as follows: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{align} & \quad\quad(A) & & \quad\quad(B) & & \quad\quad(C)\\ u_{1}^{\prime} & =\frac{-\sinh\eta+u_{1}\cosh\eta}{\cosh\eta-u_{1}\sinh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{1}-\tanh\eta}{1-u_{1}\tanh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{1}-v}{1-u_{1}v}\\ u_{2}^{\prime} & =\frac{u_{2}}{\cosh\eta-u_{1}\sinh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{2}\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1-u_{1}\tanh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{2}\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-u_{1}v}\\ \\ u_{1} & =\frac{\sinh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta}{\cosh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{1}^{\prime}+\tanh\eta}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{1}^{\prime}+v}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}v}\\ u_{2} & =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}}{\cosh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}v} \end{align} </math>|{{equationRef|3e}}}} Transformations (A) were given by [[#Escherich|Escherich (1874)]] and [[#Killing2|Killing (1898)]], and transformations (C) by [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]] and [[#Schur|Schur (1885/86, 1900/02)]] in terms of [[w:Beltrami–Klein model|Beltrami coordinates]]<ref>Rosenfeld (1988), p. 231</ref> of hyperbolic geometry. By using the scalar product of <math>\left[u_{1},u_{2}\right]</math>, the resulting Lorentz transformation can be seen as equivalent to the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:<ref name=pau>Pauli (1921), p. 561</ref><ref group=R name=var>Varićak (1912), p. 108</ref><ref name=barr>Barrett (2006), chapter 4, section 2</ref> {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix} & \begin{matrix}u^{2}=u_{1}^{2}+u_{2}^{2}\\ u'^{2}=u_{1}^{\prime2}+u_{2}^{\prime2} \end{matrix}\left|\begin{matrix}u_{1}=u\cos\alpha\\ u_{2}=u\sin\alpha\\ \\ u_{1}^{\prime}=u'\cos\alpha'\\ u_{2}^{\prime}=u'\sin\alpha' \end{matrix}\right|\begin{align}u\cos\alpha & =\frac{u'\cos\alpha'+v}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'}, & u'\cos\alpha' & =\frac{u\cos\alpha-v}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\ u\sin\alpha & =\frac{u'\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'}, & u'\sin\alpha' & =\frac{u\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\ \tan\alpha & =\frac{u'\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{u'\cos\alpha'+v}, & \tan\alpha' & =\frac{u\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{u\cos\alpha-v} \end{align} \\ \Rightarrow & u=\frac{\sqrt{v^{2}+u^{\prime2}+2vu'\cos\alpha'-\left(vu'\sin\alpha'\right){}^{2}}}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'},\quad u'=\frac{\sqrt{-v^{2}-u^{2}+2vu\cos\alpha+\left(vu\sin\alpha\right){}^{2}}}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\ \Rightarrow & \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-u^{\prime2}}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-u^{2}}}-\frac{v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\frac{u}{\sqrt{1-u^{2}}}\cos\alpha & (B)\\ \Rightarrow & \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\xi}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\zeta}}-\frac{\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}\frac{\tanh\zeta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\zeta}}\cos\alpha\\ \Rightarrow & \cosh\xi=\cosh\eta\cosh\zeta-\sinh\eta\sinh\zeta\cos\alpha & (A) \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|3f}}}} The hyperbolic law of cosines (A) was given by [[#Taurinus|Taurinus (1826) and Lobachevsky (1829/30)]] and others, while variant (B) was given by [[#Schur|Schur (1900/02)]]. By further setting <math>\tanh\xi=\tanh\zeta=1</math> or <math>u'=u=1</math> it follows: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}(A) & & \ \cos\alpha=\frac{\cos\alpha'+\tanh\eta}{1+\tanh\eta\cos\alpha'}; & \ \sin\alpha=\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1+\tanh\eta\cos\alpha'}; & \ \tan\alpha=\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{\cos\alpha'+\tanh\eta}; & \ \tan\frac{\alpha}{2}=\sqrt{\frac{1-\tanh\eta}{1+\tanh\eta}}\tan\frac{\alpha'}{2}\\ & & \ \cos\alpha'=\frac{\cos\alpha-\tanh\eta}{1-\tanh\eta\cos\alpha}; & \ \sin\alpha'=\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1-\tanh\eta\cos\alpha}; & \ \tan\alpha'=\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{\cos\alpha-\tanh\eta}; & \ \tan\frac{\alpha'}{2}=\sqrt{\frac{1+\tanh\eta}{1-\tanh\eta}}\tan\frac{\alpha}{2}\\ \\ (B) & & \ \cos\alpha=\frac{\cos\alpha'+v}{1+v\cos\alpha'}; & \ \sin\alpha=\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+v\cos\alpha'}; & \ \tan\alpha=\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{\cos\alpha'+v}; & \ \tan\frac{\alpha}{2}=\sqrt{\frac{1-v}{1+v}}\tan\frac{\alpha'}{2}\\ & & \ \cos\alpha'=\frac{\cos\alpha-v}{1-v\cos\alpha}; & \ \sin\alpha'=\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-v\cos\alpha}; & \ \tan\alpha'=\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{\cos\alpha-v}; & \ \tan\frac{\alpha'}{2}=\sqrt{\frac{1+v}{1-v}}\tan\frac{\alpha}{2} \end{matrix} </math>|{{equationRef|3g}}}} Formulas (3g-B) are the equations of an [[w:ellipse]] of [[w:Orbital eccentricity|eccentricity]] ''v'', [[w:eccentric anomaly]] α' and [[w:true anomaly]] α, first geometrically formulated by [[#Euler|Kepler (1609)]] and explicitly written down by [[#Euler|Euler (1735, 1748), Lagrange (1770)]] and many others in relation to planetary motions. They were also used by [[../Lorentz transformation (conformal)#Darboux|E:Darboux (1873)]] as a sphere transformation. In special relativity, these formulas describes the aberration of light, see [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#Velocity addition and aberration|E:velocity addition and aberration]]. ==Historical notation== ==={{anchor|Euler}} Euler (1735) – True and eccentric anomaly=== [[w:Johannes Kepler]] (1609) geometrically formulated [[w:Kepler's equation]] and the relations between the [[w:mean anomaly]], [[w:true anomaly]], and [[w:eccentric anomaly]].<ref group=M>Kepler (1609), chapter 60. The editors of Kepler's collected papers remark (p. 482), that Kepler's relations correspond to <math>{\scriptstyle \alpha=\beta+e\sin\beta}</math> and <math>{\scriptstyle \cos\nu=\frac{e+\cos\beta}{1+e\cos\beta}}</math> and <math>{\scriptstyle \cos\beta=\frac{\cos\nu-e}{1-e\cos\nu}}</math></ref><ref>Volk (1976), p. 366</ref> The relation between the true anomaly ''z'' and the eccentric anomaly ''P'' was algebraically expressed by [[w:Leonhard Euler]] (1735/40) as follows:<ref group=M>Euler (1735/40), § 19</ref> :<math>\cos z=\frac{\cos P+v}{1+v\cos P},\ \cos P=\frac{\cos z-v}{1-v\cos z},\ \int P=\frac{\int z\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-v\cos z}</math> and in 1748:<ref group=M>Euler (1748a), section VIII</ref> :<math>\cos z=\frac{n+\cos y}{1+n\cos y},\ \sin z=\frac{\sin y\sqrt{1-n^{2}}}{1+n\cos y},\ \tan z=\frac{\sin y\sqrt{1-n^{2}}}{n+\cos y}</math> while [[w:Joseph-Louis Lagrange]] (1770/71) expressed them as follows<ref group=M>Lagrange (1770/71), section I</ref> :<math>\sin u=\frac{m\sin x}{1+n\cos x},\ \cos u=\frac{n+\cos x}{1+n\cos x},\ \operatorname{tang}\frac{1}{2}u=\frac{m}{1+n}\operatorname{tang}\frac{1}{2}x,\ \left(m^{2}=1-n^{2}\right)</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black"> These relations resemble formulas ({{equationNote|3g}}), while ({{equationNote|3f}}) follows by setting <math>[\cos z,\sin z]=\left[u_{x},u_{y}\right]</math> in Euler's formulas or <math>[\cos u,\sin u]=\left[u_{x},u_{y}\right]</math> in Lagrange's formulas.</p> ==={{anchor|Riccati}} Riccati (1757) – hyperbolic addition=== [[w:Vincenzo Riccati]] introduced hyperbolic functions in 1757,<ref group=M>Riccati (1757), p. 71</ref><ref group=M>Günther (1880/81), pp. 7–13</ref> in particular he formulated the angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine: :<math>\begin{matrix}\mathrm{Ch}(\varphi+\pi)=\frac{\mathrm{Ch}\varphi\mathrm{Ch}\pi+\mathrm{Sh}\varphi\mathrm{Sh}\pi}{r}\\ \mathrm{Sh}(\varphi+\pi)=\frac{\mathrm{Ch}\varphi\mathrm{Sh}\pi+\mathrm{Ch}\pi\mathrm{Sh}\varphi}{r}\\ \left[\mathrm{Ch}^{2}-\mathrm{Sh}^{2}=rr\right] \end{matrix}</math> He furthermore showed that <math>\mathrm{Ch}(\varphi-\pi)</math> and <math>\mathrm{Sh}(\varphi-\pi)</math> follow by setting <math>\mathrm{Ch}(\pi)\Rightarrow\mathrm{Ch}(-\pi)</math> and <math>\mathrm{Sh}(\pi)\Rightarrow\mathrm{Sh}(-\pi)</math> in the above formulas. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine can be interpreted as hyperbolic rotations of points on a hyperbola, as in Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3c}}). (In modern publications, Riccati's additional factor ''r'' is set to unity.)</p> ==={{anchor|Lambert}} Lambert (1768–1770) – hyperbolic addition=== While [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]] discussed the hyperbolic sine and cosine, [[w:Johann Heinrich Lambert]] (read 1767, published 1768) introduced the expression ''tang φ'' or abbreviated ''tφ'' as the [[w:tangens hyperbolicus]] <math>{\scriptstyle \frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{e^{u}+e^{-u}}}</math> of a variable ''u'', or in modern notation ''tφ=tanh(u)'':<ref group=M>Lambert (1761/68), pp. 309–318</ref><ref>Barnett (2004), pp. 22–23</ref> :<math>\left.\begin{align}\xi\xi-1 & =\eta\eta & (a)\\ 1+\eta\eta & =\xi\xi & (b)\\ \frac{\eta}{\xi} & =tang\ \phi=t\phi & (c)\\ \xi & =\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-t\phi^{2}}} & (d)\\ \eta & =\frac{t\phi}{\sqrt{1-t\phi^{2}}} & (e)\\ t\phi'' & =\frac{t\phi+t\phi'}{1+t\phi\cdot t\phi'} & (f)\\ t\phi' & =\frac{t\phi''-t\phi}{1-t\phi\cdot t\phi''} & (g) \end{align} \right|\begin{align}2u & =\log\frac{1+t\phi}{1-t\phi}\\ \xi & =\frac{e^{u}+e^{-u}}{2}\\ \eta & =\frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{2}\\ t\phi & =\frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{e^{u}+e^{-u}}\\ e^{u} & =\xi+\eta\\ e^{-u} & =\xi-\eta \end{align}</math> In (1770) he rewrote the addition law for the hyperbolic tangens (f) or (g) as:<ref group=M>Lambert (1770), p. 335</ref> :<math>\begin{align}t(y+z) & =(ty+tz):(1+ty\cdot tz) & (f)\\ t(y-z) & =(ty-tz):(1-ty\cdot tz) & (g) \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The hyperbolic relations (a,b,c,d,e,f) are equivalent to the hyperbolic relations on the right of ({{equationNote|3b}}). Relations (f,g) can also be found in ({{equationNote|3e}}). By setting ''tφ=v/c'', formula (c) becomes the relative velocity between two frames, (d) the [[w:Lorentz factor]], (e) the [[w:proper velocity]], (f) or (g) becomes the Lorentz transformation of velocity (or relativistic [[w:velocity addition formula]]) for collinear velocities in [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4a|E:'''(4a)''']] and [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']].</p> Lambert also formulated the addition laws for the hyperbolic cosine and sine (Lambert's "cos" and "sin" actually mean "cosh" and "sinh"): :<math>\begin{align}\sin(y+z) & =\sin y\cos z+\cos y\sin z\\ \sin(y-z) & =\sin y\cos z-\cos y\sin z\\ \cos(y+z) & =\cos y\cos z+\sin y\sin z\\ \cos(y-z) & =\cos y\cos z-\sin y\sin z \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine can be interpreted as hyperbolic rotations of points on a hyperbola, as in Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3c}}).</p> ==={{Anchor|Taurinus}} Taurinus (1826) – Hyperbolic law of cosines=== After the addition theorem for the tangens hyperbolicus was given by [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768)]], [[w:hyperbolic geometry]] was used by [[w:Franz Taurinus]] (1826), and later by [[w:Nikolai Lobachevsky]] (1829/30) and others, to formulate the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:<ref group=M>Taurinus (1826), p. 66; see also p. 272 in the translation by Engel and Stäckel (1899)</ref><ref>Bonola (1912), p. 79</ref><ref>Gray (1979), p. 242</ref> :<math>A=\operatorname{arccos}\frac{\cos\left(\alpha\sqrt{-1}\right)-\cos\left(\beta\sqrt{-1}\right)\cos\left(\gamma\sqrt{-1}\right)}{\sin\left(\beta\sqrt{-1}\right)\sin\left(\gamma\sqrt{-1}\right)}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">When solved for <math>\cos\left(\alpha\sqrt{-1}\right)</math> it corresponds to the Lorentz transformation in Beltrami coordinates ({{equationNote|3f}}), and by defining the rapidities <math>{\scriptstyle \left(\left[\frac{U}{c},\ \frac{v}{c},\ \frac{u}{c}\right]=\left[\tanh\alpha,\ \tanh\beta,\ \tanh\gamma\right]\right)}</math> it corresponds to the relativistic velocity addition formula [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4e|E:'''(4e)''']].</p> ==={{anchor|Beltrami}} Beltrami (1868) – Beltrami coordinates=== [[w:Eugenio Beltrami]] (1868a) introduced coordinates of the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model]] of hyperbolic geometry, and formulated the corresponding transformations in terms of homographies:<ref group=M>Beltrami (1868a), pp. 287-288; Note I; Note II</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}ds^{2}=R^{2}\frac{\left(a^{2}+v^{2}\right)du^{2}-2uv\,du\,dv+\left(a^{2}+v^{2}\right)dv^{2}}{\left(a^{2}+u^{2}+v^{2}\right)^{2}}\\ u^{2}+v^{2}=a^{2}\\ \hline u''=\frac{aa_{0}\left(u'-r_{0}\right)}{a^{2}-r_{0}u'},\ v''=\frac{a_{0}w_{0}v'}{a^{2}-r_{0}u'},\\ \left(r_{0}=\sqrt{u_{0}^{2}+v_{0}^{2}},\ w_{0}=\sqrt{a^{2}-r_{0}^{2}}\right)\\ \hline ds^{2}=R^{2}\frac{\left(a^{2}-v^{2}\right)du^{2}+2uv\,du\,dv+\left(a^{2}-v^{2}\right)dv^{2}}{\left(a^{2}-u^{2}-v^{2}\right)^{2}}\\ (R=R\sqrt{-1},\ a=a\sqrt{-1}) \end{matrix}</math> (where the disk radius ''a'' and the [[w:radius of curvature]] ''R'' are real in spherical geometry, in hyperbolic geometry they are imaginary), and for arbitrary dimensions in (1868b)<ref group=M>Beltrami (1868b), pp. 232, 240–241, 253–254</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}ds=R\frac{\sqrt{dx^{2}+dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+\cdots+dx_{n}^{2}}}{x}\\ x^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}=a^{2}\\ \hline y_{1}=\frac{ab\left(x_{1}-a_{1}\right)}{a^{2}-a_{1}x_{1}}\ \text{or}\ x_{1}=\frac{a\left(ay_{1}+a_{1}b\right)}{ab+a_{1}y_{1}},\ x_{r}=\pm\frac{ay_{r}\sqrt{a^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}}{ab+a_{1}y_{1}}\ (r=2,3,\dots,n)\\ \hline ds=R\frac{\sqrt{dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+\cdots+dx_{n}^{2}-dx^{2}}}{x}\\ x^{2}=a^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}\\ \left(R=R\sqrt{-1},\ x=x\sqrt{-1},\ a=a\sqrt{-1}\right) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Setting ''a=a<sub>0</sub>'' Beltrami's (1868a) formulas become formulas ({{equationNote|3e}}), or in his (1868b) formulas one sets ''a=b'' for arbitrary dimensions.</p> === {{anchor|Laisant2}} Laisant (1874) – Equipollences=== In his French translation of [[w:Giusto Bellavitis]]' principal work on [[w:Equipollence (geometry)|w:equipollences]], [[w:Charles-Ange Laisant]] (1874) added a chapter related to hyperbolas. The equipollence OM and its tangent MT of a hyperbola is defined by Laisant as<ref group=M>Laisant (1874b), pp. 134–135</ref> :(1) <math>\begin{matrix} & \mathrm{OM}\bumpeq x\mathrm{OA}+y\mathrm{OB}\\ & \mathrm{MT}\bumpeq y\mathrm{OA}+x\mathrm{OB}\\ & \left[x^{2}-y^{2}=1;\ x=\cosh t,\ y=\sinh t\right]\\ \Rightarrow & \mathrm{OM}\bumpeq\cosh t\cdot\mathrm{OA}+\sinh t\cdot\mathrm{OB} \end{matrix}</math> Here, OA and OB are [[w:Conjugate diameters|conjugate semi-diameters]] of a hyperbola with OB being imaginary, both of which he related to two other conjugated semi-diameters OC and OD by the following transformation: :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{align}\mathrm{OC} & \bumpeq c\mathrm{OA}+d\mathrm{OB} & \qquad & & \mathrm{OA} & \bumpeq c\mathrm{OC}-d\mathrm{OD}\\ \mathrm{OD} & \bumpeq d\mathrm{OA}+c\mathrm{OB} & & & \mathrm{OB} & \bumpeq-d\mathrm{OC}+c\mathrm{OD} \end{align} \\ \left[c^{2}-d^{2}=1\right] \end{matrix}</math> producing the invariant relation :<math>(\mathrm{OC})^{2}-(\mathrm{OD})^{2}\bumpeq(\mathrm{OA})^{2}-(\mathrm{OB})^{2}</math>. Substituting into (1), he showed that OM retains its form :<math>\begin{matrix}\mathrm{OM}\bumpeq(cx-dy)\mathrm{OC}+(cy-dx)\mathrm{OD}\\ \left[(cx-dy)^{2}-(cy-dx)^{2}=1\right] \end{matrix}</math> He also defined velocity and acceleration by differentiation of (1). <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">These relations are equivalent to several Lorentz boosts or hyperbolic rotations producing the invariant Lorentz interval in line with ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Escherich}} Escherich (1874) – Beltrami coordinates=== [[w:Gustav von Escherich]] (1874) discussed the plane of constant negative curvature<ref>Sommerville (1911), p. 297</ref> based on the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model]] of hyperbolic geometry by [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]]. Similar to [[w:Christoph Gudermann]] (1830)<ref name=guder group=M>Gudermann (1830), §1–3, §18–19</ref> who introduced axial coordinates ''x''=tan(a) and ''y''=tan(b) in sphere geometry in order to perform coordinate transformations in the case of rotation and translation, Escherich used hyperbolic functions ''x''=tanh(a/k) and ''y''=tanh(b/k)<ref group=M>Escherich (1874), p. 508</ref> in order to give the corresponding coordinate transformations for the hyperbolic plane, which for the case of translation have the form:<ref group=M name=escher>Escherich (1874), p. 510</ref> :<math>x=\frac{\sinh\frac{a}{k}+x'\cosh\frac{a}{k}}{\cosh\frac{a}{k}+x'\sinh\frac{a}{k}}</math> and <math>y=\frac{y'}{\cosh\frac{a}{k}+x'\sinh\frac{a}{k}}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}), also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] by setting <math>\tfrac{a}{k}=\operatorname{atanh}\tfrac{v}{c}</math> and multiplying ''[x,y,x′,y′]'' by 1/''c'', and equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) by setting <math>\scriptstyle (x,\ y,\ x',\ y')=\left(\frac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ \frac{x_{2}}{x_{0}},\ \frac{x_{1}^{\prime}}{x_{0}^{\prime}},\ \frac{x_{2}^{\prime}}{x_{0}^{\prime}}\right)</math>. This is the relation between the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model|Beltrami coordinates]] in terms of Gudermann-Escherich coordinates, and the Weierstrass coordinates of the [[w:hyperboloid model]] introduced by [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Killing1|E:Killing (1878–1893)]], [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Poincare|E:Poincaré (1881)]], and [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Cox|E:Cox (1881)]]. Both coordinate systems were compared by Cox (1881).<ref group=M>Cox (1881), p. 186</ref></p> ==={{anchor|Glaisher}} Glaisher (1878) – hyperbolic addition=== It was shown by [[w:James Whitbread Lee Glaisher]] (1878) that the hyperbolic addition laws can be expressed by matrix multiplication:<ref group=M>Glaisher (1878), p. 30</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{vmatrix}\cosh x, & \sinh x\\ \sinh x, & \cosh x \end{vmatrix}=1,\ \begin{vmatrix}\cosh y, & \sinh y\\ \sinh y, & \cosh y \end{vmatrix}=1\\ \text{by multiplication:}\\ \Rightarrow\begin{vmatrix}c_{1}c_{2}+s_{1}s_{2}, & s_{1}c_{2}+c_{1}s_{2}\\ c_{1}s_{2}+s_{1}c_{2}, & s_{1}s_{2}+c_{1}c_{2} \end{vmatrix}=1\\ \text{where}\ \left[c_{1},c_{2},c_{3},c_{4}\right]=\left[\cosh x,\cosh y,\sinh x,\sinh y\right] \\ \Rightarrow\begin{vmatrix}\cosh(x+y), & \sinh(x+y)\\ \sinh(x+y), & \cosh(x+y) \end{vmatrix}=1 \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">In this matrix representation, the analogy between the hyperbolic angle sum laws and the Lorentz boost becomes obvious: In particular, the matrix <math>\scriptstyle\begin{vmatrix}\cosh y, & \sinh y\\ \sinh y, & \cosh y\end{vmatrix}</math> producing the hyperbolic addition is analogous to matrix <math>\scriptstyle\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta\end{bmatrix}</math> producing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3c}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Gunther1}} Günther (1880/81) – hyperbolic addition === Following [[#Glaisher|Glaisher (1878)]], [[w:Siegmund Günther]] (1880/81) expressed the hyperbolic addition laws by matrix multiplication:<ref group=M>Günther (1880/81), p. 405</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,x, & \mathfrak{Sin}\,x\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,x, & \mathfrak{Cos}\,x \end{vmatrix}\cdot\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,y, & \mathfrak{Sin}\,y\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,y, & \mathfrak{Cos}\,y \end{vmatrix}\\ =\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y+\mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, & \mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y+\mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y+\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, & \mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y+\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y \end{vmatrix}\\ =\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,(x+y), & \mathfrak{Sin}\,(x+y)\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,(x+y), & \mathfrak{Cos}\,(x+y) \end{vmatrix}=1 \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">In this matrix representation, the analogy between the hyperbolic angle sum laws and the Lorentz boost becomes obvious: In particular, the matrix <math>\scriptstyle\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,y, & \mathfrak{Sin}\,y\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,y, & \mathfrak{Cos}\,y \end{vmatrix}</math> producing the hyperbolic addition is analogous to matrix <math>\scriptstyle\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta\end{bmatrix}</math> producing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3c}}).</p> === {{anchor|Cox}} Cox (1881/82) – Weierstrass coordinates === [[w:Homersham Cox (mathematician)|w:Homersham Cox]] (1881/82) defined the case of translation in the hyperbolic plane with the ''y''-axis remaining unchanged:<ref group=M name=cox>Cox (1881/82), p. 194</ref> :<math>\begin{align}X & =x\cosh p-z\sinh p\\ Z & =-x\sinh p+z\cosh p \\ \\ x & =X\cosh p+Z\sinh p\\ z & =X\sinh p+Z\cosh p \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Lipschitz1}} Lipschitz (1885/86) === [[w:Rudolf Lipschitz]] (1885/86) formulated transformations leaving invariant the sum of squares <math>x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}\dots+x_{n}^{2}=y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n}^{2}</math>, which he rewrote as <math>x_{1}^{2}-y_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}-y_{2}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}-y_{n}^{2}=0</math>. This led to the problem of finding transformations leaving invariant the pairs <math>x_{a}^{2}-y_{a}^{2}</math> (''a''=1...n) for which he gave the following solution:<ref group=M>Lipschitz (1886), pp. 90–92</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x_{a}^{2}-y_{a}^{2}=\mathfrak{x}_{a}^{2}-\mathfrak{y}_{a}^{2}\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{a}-y_{a} & =\left(\mathfrak{x}_{a}-\mathfrak{y}_{a}\right)r_{a}\\ x_{a}+y_{a} & =\left(\mathfrak{x}_{a}+\mathfrak{y}_{a}\right)\frac{1}{r_{a}} \end{align} \quad(a)\\ \hline \begin{matrix}\begin{align}2\mathfrak{x}_{a} & =\left(r_{a}+\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)x_{a}+\left(r_{a}-\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)y_{a}\\ 2\mathfrak{y}_{a} & =\left(r_{a}-\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)x_{a}+\left(r_{a}+\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)y_{a} \end{align} \quad(b)\end{matrix}\\ \hline \left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}}\\ s_{a}>1 \end{matrix}\right\}\Rightarrow\begin{align}\mathfrak{x}_{a} & =\frac{s_{a}x_{a}+y_{a}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}\\ \mathfrak{y}_{a} & =\frac{x_{a}+s_{a}y_{a}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}\sqrt{s_{a}+1}} \end{align} \quad(c) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Equation (a) is identical to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}), while (c) is similar, though not identical, to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}-C). The difference stems from his definition<br><math>\qquad\left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}}\\ s_{a}>1 \end{matrix}\right\}</math><br>whereas in accordance to expression <math>\sqrt{\tfrac{1+v}{1-v}}</math> with <math>v<1</math> in ({{equationNote|3d}}) he should have stated <br><math>\qquad\left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}}\\ s_{a}<1 \end{matrix}\right\}</math>.<br>Using the latter choice, equations (c) would assume a form equivalent to ({{equationNote|3b}}):<br><math>\qquad\begin{align}\mathfrak{x}_{a} & =\frac{x_{a}+s_{a}y_{a}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}\\ \mathfrak{y}_{a} & =\frac{s_{a}x_{a}+y_{a}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}\end{align}</math></p> ==={{Anchor|Schur}} Schur (1885/86, 1900/02) – Beltrami coordinates=== [[w:Friedrich Schur]] (1885/86) discussed spaces of constant Riemann curvature, and by following [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]] he used the transformation<ref group=M>Schur (1885/86), p. 167</ref> :<math>x_{1}=R^{2}\frac{y_{1}+a_{1}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}},\ x_{2}=R\sqrt{R^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}\frac{y_{2}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}},\dots,\ x_{n}=R\sqrt{R^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}\frac{y_{n}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and therefore also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] in arbitrary dimensions by setting ''R=c'' as the speed of light and ''a<sub>1</sub>=v'' as relative velocity.</p> In (1900/02) he derived basic formulas of non-Eucliden geometry, including the case of translation for which he obtained the transformation similar to his previous one:<ref group=M>Schur (1900/02), p. 290; (1909), p. 83</ref> :<math>x'=\frac{x-a}{1-\mathfrak{k}ax},\quad y'=\frac{y\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}{1-\mathfrak{k}ax}</math> where <math>\mathfrak{k}</math> can have values >0, <0 or ∞. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and therefore also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] by setting ''a=v'' and <math>\mathfrak{k}=\tfrac{1}{c^{2}}</math>.</p> He also defined the triangle<ref group=M>Schur (1900/02), p. 291; (1909), p. 83</ref> :<math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}c^{2}}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}\cdot\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}b^{2}}}-\frac{a}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}\cdot\frac{b}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}b^{2}}}\cos\gamma</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to the hyperbolic law of cosines and the relativistic velocity addition ({{equationNote|3f}}, b) or [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4e|E:'''(4e)''']] by setting <math>[\mathfrak{k},\ c,\ a,\ b]=\left[\tfrac{1}{c^{2}},\ \sqrt{u_{x}^{\prime2}+u_{y}^{\prime2}},\ v,\ \sqrt{u_{x}^{2}+u_{y}^{2}}\right]</math>.</p> ==={{anchor|Lindemann}} Lindemann (1890–91) – Weierstrass coordinates and Cayley absolute=== [[w:Ferdinand von Lindemann]] discussed hyperbolic geometry in terms of the [[w:Cayley–Klein metric]] in his (1890/91) edition of the lectures on geometry of [[w:Alfred Clebsch]]. Citing [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Killing|E:Killing (1885)]] and [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Poincare|Poincaré (1887)]] in relation to the hyperboloid model in terms of Weierstrass coordinates for the hyperbolic plane and space, he set<ref group=M>Lindemann & Clebsch (1890/91), pp. 477–478, 524</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\Omega_{xx}=x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{3}^{2}=-4k^{2}\ \text{and}\ ds^{2}=dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}-4k^{2}dx_{3}^{2}\\ \Omega_{xx}=x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{4}^{2}=-4k^{2}\ \text{and}\ ds^{2}=dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+dx_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}dx_{4}^{2} \end{matrix}</math> and used the following transformation<ref group=M>Lindemann & Clebsch (1890/91), pp. 361–362</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}X_{1}X_{4}+X_{2}X_{3}=0\\ X_{1}X_{4}+X_{2}X_{3}=\Xi_{1}\Xi_{4}+\Xi_{2}\Xi_{3}\\ \hline \begin{align}X_{1} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{1}\right)U_{4} & \Xi_{1} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)U_{4} & X_{1} & =\frac{\lambda+\lambda_{1}}{\lambda-\lambda_{1}}\Xi_{1}\\ X_{2} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{3}\right)U_{4} & \Xi_{2} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)U_{4} & X_{2} & =\frac{\lambda+\lambda_{3}}{\lambda-\lambda_{3}}\Xi_{2}\\ X_{3} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)U_{2} & \Xi_{3} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{3}\right)U_{2} & X_{3} & =\frac{\lambda-\lambda_{3}}{\lambda+\lambda_{3}}\Xi_{3}\\ X_{4} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)U_{1} & \Xi_{4} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{1}\right)U_{1} & X_{4} & =\frac{\lambda-\lambda_{1}}{\lambda+\lambda_{1}}\Xi_{4} \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> into which he put<ref group=M name=linde>Lindemann & Clebsch (1890/91), p. 496</ref> :<math>\begin{align}X_{1} & =x_{1}+2kx_{4}, & X_{2} & =x_{2}+ix_{3}, & \lambda+\lambda_{1} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)e^{a},\\ X_{4} & =x_{1}-2kx_{4}, & X_{3} & =x_{2}-ix_{3}, & \lambda+\lambda_{3} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)e^{\alpha i}, \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}) with <math>e^{\alpha i}=1</math> and ''2k=1'' .</p> From that, he obtained the following Cayley absolute and the corresponding most general motion in hyperbolic space comprising ordinary rotations (''a''=0) or translations (α=0):<ref group=M name=linde /> :<math>\begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{4}^{2}=0\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{2} & =\xi_{2}\cos\alpha+\xi_{3}\sin\alpha, & x_{1} & =\xi_{1}\cos\frac{a}{i}+2ki\xi_{4}\sin\frac{a}{i},\\ x_{3} & =-\xi_{2}\sin\alpha+\xi_{3}\cos\alpha, & 2kx_{4} & =i\xi_{1}\sin\frac{a}{i}+2k\xi_{4}\cos\frac{a}{i}. \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with α=0 and ''2k=1''.</p> ==={{anchor|Gerard}} Gérard (1892) – Weierstrass coordinates=== [[w:Louis Gérard]] (1892) – in a thesis examined by Poincaré – discussed Weierstrass coordinates (without using that name) in the plane and gave the case of translation as follows:<ref group=M name=gerard>Gérard (1892), pp. 40–41</ref> :<math>\begin{align}X & =Z_{0}X'+X_{0}Z'\\ Y & =Y'\\ Z & =X_{0}X'+Z_{0}Z' \end{align} \ \text{with}\ \begin{align}X_{0} & =\operatorname{sh}OO'\\ Z_{0} & =\operatorname{ch}OO' \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Killing2}} Killing (1893,97) – Weierstrass coordinates=== [[w:Wilhelm Killing]] (1878–1880) gave case of translation in the form<ref group=M name=killtra>Killing (1893), p. 331</ref> :<math>y_{0}=x_{0}\operatorname{Ch}a+x_{1}\operatorname{Sh}a,\quad y_{1}=x_{0}\operatorname{Sh}a+x_{1}\operatorname{Ch}a,\quad y_{2}=x_{2}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> In 1898, Killing wrote that relation in a form similar to [[#Escherich|Escherich (1874)]], and derived the corresponding Lorentz transformation for the two cases were ''v'' is unchanged or ''u'' is unchanged:<ref group=M name=kill98>Killing (1898), p. 133</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\xi'=\frac{\xi\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}+l\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}}{\frac{\xi}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}},\ \eta'=\frac{\eta}{\frac{\xi}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}}\\ \hline \frac{u}{p}=\xi,\ \frac{v}{p}=\eta\\ \hline p'=p\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}+\frac{u}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l},\quad u'=pl\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+u\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l},\quad v'=v\\ \text{or}\\ p'=p\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\nu}{l}+\frac{v}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\nu}{l},\quad u'=u,\quad v'=pl\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\nu}{l}+v\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\nu}{l} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The upper transformation system is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and the velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] with ''l=c'' and <math>\mu=c\operatorname{atanh}\tfrac{v}{c}</math>, the system below is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Whitehead}} Whitehead (1897/98) – Universal algebra=== [[w:Alfred North Whitehead]] (1898) discussed the kinematics of hyperbolic space as part of his study of [[w:universal algebra]], and obtained the following transformation:<ref group=M name=white>Whitehead (1898), pp. 459–460</ref> :<math>\begin{align}x' & =\left(\eta\cosh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}+\eta_{1}\sinh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}\right)e+\left(\eta\sinh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}+\eta_{1}\cosh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}\right)e_{1}\\ & \qquad+\left(\eta_{2}\cos\alpha+\eta_{3}\sin\alpha\right)e_{2}+\left(\eta_{3}\cos\alpha-\eta_{2}\sin\alpha\right)e_{3} \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with α=0.</p> ==={{anchor|Elliott}} Elliott (1903) – Invariant theory === [[w:Edwin Bailey Elliott]] (1903) discussed a special cyclical subgroup of ternary linear transformations for which the (unit) determinant of transformation is resoluble into three ordinary algebraical factors, which he pointed out is in direct analogy to a subgroup formed by the following transformations:<ref group=M>Elliott (1903), p. 109</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x=X\cosh\phi+Y\sinh\phi,\quad y=X\sinh\phi+Y\cosh\phi\\ \hline X+Y=e^{-\phi}(x+y),\quad X-Y=e^{\phi}(x-y) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3d}}). The mentioned subgroup corresponds to the one-parameter subgroup generated by Lorentz boosts.</p> ==={{anchor|Woods2}} Woods (1903) – Weierstrass coordinates === [[w:Frederick S. Woods]] (1903, published 1905) gave the case of translation in hyperbolic space:<ref group=M>Woods (1903/05), p. 55</ref> :<math>x_{1}^{\prime}=x_{1}\cos kl+x_{0}\frac{\sin kl}{k},\quad x_{2}^{\prime}=x_{2},\quad x_{2}^{\prime}=x_{3},\quad x_{0}^{\prime}=-x_{1}k\sin kl+x_{0}\cos kl</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with ''k''<sup>2</sup>=-1.</p> and the loxodromic substitution for hyperbolic space:<ref group=M>Woods (1903/05), p. 72</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{align}x_{1}^{\prime} & =x_{1}\cosh\alpha-x_{0}\sinh\alpha\\ x_{2}^{\prime} & =x_{2}\cos\beta-x_{3}\sin\beta\\ x_{3}^{\prime} & =x_{2}\sin\beta+x_{3}\cos\beta\\ x_{0}^{\prime} & =-x_{1}\sinh\alpha+x_{0}\cosh\alpha \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with β=0.</p> ==={{anchor|Liebmann}} Liebmann (1904–05) – Weierstrass coordinates=== [[w:Heinrich Liebmann]] (1904/05) – citing Killing (1885), Gérard (1892), Hausdorff (1899) – gave the case of translation in the hyperbolic plane:<ref group=M name=lieb>Liebmann (1904/05), p. 174</ref> :<math>x_{1}^{\prime}=x'\operatorname{ch}a+p'\operatorname{sh}a,\quad y_{1}^{\prime}=y',\quad p_{1}^{\prime}=x'\operatorname{sh}a+p'\operatorname{ch}a</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Frank}} Frank (1909) – Special relativity=== In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[w:Philipp Frank]] (1909), who derived the Lorentz transformation using ''ψ'' as rapidity:<ref group=R>Frank (1909), pp. 423-425</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x'=x\varphi(a)\,{\rm ch}\,\psi+t\varphi(a)\,{\rm sh}\,\psi\\ t'=-x\varphi(a)\,{\rm sh}\,\psi+t\varphi(a)\,{\rm ch}\,\psi\\ \hline {\rm th}\,\psi=-a,\ {\rm sh}\,\psi=\frac{a}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ {\rm ch}\,\psi=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ \varphi(a)=1\\ \hline x'=\frac{x-at}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ y'=y,\ z'=z,\ t'=\frac{-ax+t}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> === {{anchor|Herglotz1}} Herglotz (1909/10) – Special relativity=== In special relativity, [[w:Gustav Herglotz]] (1909/10) classified the one-parameter Lorentz transformations as loxodromic, hyperbolic, parabolic and elliptic, with the hyperbolic case being:<ref group=R>Herglotz (1909/10), pp. 404-408</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}Z=Z'e^{\vartheta}\\ \begin{aligned}x & =x', & t-z & =(t'-z')e^{\vartheta}\\ y & =y', & t+z & =(t'+z')e^{-\vartheta} \end{aligned} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Varicak}} Varićak (1910) – Special relativity=== In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[w:Vladimir Varićak]] in several papers starting from 1910, who represented the equations of special relativity on the basis of [[w:hyperbolic geometry]] in terms of Weierstrass coordinates. For instance, by setting ''l=ct'' and ''v/c=tanh(u)'' with ''u'' as rapidity he wrote the Lorentz transformation in agreement with ({{equationNote|4b}}):<ref group=R name=var1>Varićak (1910), p. 93</ref> :<math>\begin{align}l' & =-x\operatorname{sh}u+l\operatorname{ch}u,\\ x' & =x\operatorname{ch}u-l\operatorname{sh}u,\\ y' & =y,\quad z'=z,\\ \operatorname{ch}u & =\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v}{c}\right)^{2}}} \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> He showed the relation of rapidity to the [[w:Gudermannian function]] and the [[w:angle of parallelism]]:<ref group=R name=var1 /> :<math>\frac{v}{c}=\operatorname{th}u=\operatorname{tg}\psi=\sin\operatorname{gd}(u)=\cos\Pi(u)</math> He also related the velocity addition to the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:<ref group=R>Varićak (1910), p. 94</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\operatorname{ch}{u}=\operatorname{ch}{u_{1}}\operatorname ch{u_{2}}+\operatorname{sh}{u_{1}}\operatorname{sh}{u_{2}}\cos\alpha\\ \operatorname{ch}{u_{i}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v_{i}}{c}\right)^{2}}},\ \operatorname{sh}{u_{i}}=\frac{v_{i}}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v_{i}}{c}\right)^{2}}}\\ v=\sqrt{v_{1}^{2}+v_{2}^{2}-\left(\frac{v_{1}v_{2}}{c}\right)^{2}}\ \left(a=\frac{\pi}{2}\right) \end{matrix}</math> ==References== ===Historical mathematical sources=== {{reflist|3|group=M}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bel68sag}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bel68fond}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cox81hom}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cox82hom}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eli03}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|esch74}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eul35}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eul48a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|ger92}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|glai78}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|gud30}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|guen80}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kep09}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil93}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil97}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lag70}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lais74b}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lam67}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lam70}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lieb04}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lind90}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lip86}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|ric57}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu85}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu00}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu09}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|tau26}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|whit98}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo01}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo03}} ===Historical relativity sources=== {{reflist|3|group=R}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|frank09a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|herg10}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|var10}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|var12}} ===Secondary sources=== {{reflist|3}} {{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/secsource|L3}} [[Category:Special Relativity]] [[Category:History of Physics]] 1nn7gl5nl8upt0n4qevjmm6jmm6o3lr 2415797 2415796 2022-08-17T09:35:15Z D.H 52339 /* {{anchor|Lipschitz1}} Lipschitz (1885/86) */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{../Lorentz transformation (header)}} ==Lorentz transformation via hyperbolic functions== ===Translation in the hyperbolic plane=== The case of a Lorentz transformation without spatial rotation is called a [[w:Lorentz boost]]. The simplest case can be given, for instance, by setting ''n=1'' in the [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#math_1a|E:most general Lorentz transformation '''(1a)''']]: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{0}^{\prime} & =x_{0}g_{00}+x_{1}g_{01}\\ x_{1}^{\prime} & =x_{0}g_{10}+x_{1}g_{11}\\ \\ x_{0} & =x_{0}^{\prime}g_{00}-x_{1}^{\prime}g_{10}\\ x_{1} & =-x_{0}^{\prime}g_{01}+x_{1}^{\prime}g_{11} \end{align} \left|\begin{align}g_{01}^{2}-g_{00}^{2} & =-1\\ g_{11}^{2}-g_{10}^{2} & =1\\ g_{01}g_{11}-g_{00}g_{10} & =0\\ g_{10}^{2}-g_{00}^{2} & =-1\\ g_{11}^{2}-g_{01}^{2} & =1\\ g_{10}g_{11}-g_{00}g_{01} & =0 \end{align} \rightarrow\begin{align}g_{00}^{2} & =g_{11}^{2}\\ g_{01}^{2} & =g_{10}^{2} \end{align} \right. \end{matrix}</math> or in matrix notation <math>\left.\begin{align}\mathbf{x}' & =\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} & g_{01}\\ g_{10} & g_{11} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}\\ \mathbf{x} & =\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} & -g_{10}\\ -g_{01} & g_{11} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}' \end{align} \quad\right|\quad\det\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} & g_{01}\\ g_{10} & g_{11} \end{bmatrix}=1</math>|{{equationRef|3a}}}} which resembles precisely the relations of [[w:hyperbolic function]]s in terms of [[w:hyperbolic angle]] <math>\eta</math>. Thus a Lorentz boost or [[w:hyperbolic rotation]] (being the same as a rotation around an imaginary angle <math>i\eta=\phi</math> in [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#math_2b|E:'''(2b)''']] or a [[w:Translation (geometry)|translation]] in the hyperbolic plane in terms of the hyperboloid model) is given by {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\ \hline g_{00}=g_{11}=\cosh\eta,\ g_{01}=g_{10}=-\sinh\eta\\ \hline \left.\begin{align} & \quad\quad(A) & & \quad\quad(B) & & \quad\quad(C)\\ x_{0}^{\prime} & =x_{0}\cosh\eta-x_{1}\sinh\eta & & =\frac{x_{0}-x_{1}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & & =\frac{x_{0}-x_{1}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\ x_{1}^{\prime} & =-x_{0}\sinh\eta+x_{1}\cosh\eta & & =\frac{x_{1}-x_{0}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & & =\frac{x_{1}-x_{0}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\ \\ x_{0} & =x_{0}^{\prime}\cosh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta & & =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & & =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{1}^{\prime}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\ x_{1} & =x_{0}^{\prime}\sinh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta & & =\frac{x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & & =\frac{x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}} \end{align} \right|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\sinh^{2}\eta-\cosh^{2}\eta & =-1 & (a)\\ \cosh^{2}\eta-\sinh^{2}\eta & =1 & (b)\\ \frac{\sinh\eta}{\cosh\eta} & =\tanh\eta=v & (c)\\ \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & =\cosh\eta & (d)\\ \frac{\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & =\sinh\eta & (e)\\ \frac{\tanh q\pm\tanh\eta}{1\pm\tanh q\tanh\eta} & =\tanh\left(q\pm\eta\right) & (f) \end{align} } \end{matrix}</math> or in matrix notation <math>\left.\begin{align}\mathbf{x}' & =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & -\sinh\eta\\ -\sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}\\ \mathbf{x} & =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}' \end{align} \quad\right|\quad\det\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & -\sinh\eta\\ -\sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix}=1</math>|{{equationRef|3b}}}} Hyperbolic identities (a,b) on the right of ({{equationNote|3b}}) were given by [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]], all identities (a,b,c,d,e,f) by [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768–1770)]]. Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|3b}}-A) were given by [[#Laisant|Laisant (1874)]], [[#Cox|Cox (1882)]], [[#Lindemann|Lindemann (1890/91)]], [[#Gerard|Gérard (1892)]], [[#Killing2|Killing (1893, 1897/98)]], [[#Whitehead|Whitehead (1897/98)]], [[#Woods2|Woods (1903/05)]], [[#Elliott|Elliott (1903)]] and [[#Liebmann|Liebmann (1904/05)]] in terms of Weierstrass coordinates of the [[w:hyperboloid model]], while transformations similar to ({{equationNote|3b}}-C) have been used by [[#Lipschitz1|Lipschitz (1885/86)]]. In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[#Frank|Frank (1909)]] and [[#Varicak|Varićak (1910)]]. Rapidity can be composed of arbitrary many rapidities <math>\eta_{1},\eta_{2}\dots</math> as per the [[w:Hyperbolic functions#Sums of arguments|w:angle sum laws of hyperbolic sines and cosines]], so that one hyperbolic rotation can represent the sum of many other hyperbolic rotations, analogous to the relation between [[w:List of trigonometric identities#Angle sum and difference identities|w:angle sum laws of circular trigonometry]] and spatial rotations. Alternatively, the hyperbolic angle sum laws ''themselves'' can be interpreted as Lorentz boosts, as demonstrated by using the parameterization of the [[w:unit hyperbola]]: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}=1\\ \hline \left[\eta=\eta_{2}-\eta_{1}\right]\\ \begin{align}x_{0}^{\prime} & =\sinh\eta_{1}=\sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{2}\cosh\eta-\cosh\eta_{2}\sinh\eta & & =x_{0}\cosh\eta-x_{1}\sinh\eta\\ x_{1}^{\prime} & =\cosh\eta_{1}=\cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)=-\sinh\eta_{2}\sinh\eta+\cosh\eta_{2}\cosh\eta & & =-x_{0}\sinh\eta+x_{1}\cosh\eta\\ \\ x_{0} & =\sinh\eta_{2}=\sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{1}\cosh\eta+\cosh\eta_{1}\sinh\eta & & =x_{0}^{\prime}\cosh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta\\ x_{1} & =\cosh\eta_{2}=\cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{1}\sinh\eta+\cosh\eta_{1}\cosh\eta & & =x_{0}^{\prime}\sinh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> or in matrix notation <math>{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\begin{bmatrix}x_{1}^{\prime} & x_{0}^{\prime}\\ x_{0}^{\prime} & x_{1}^{\prime} \end{bmatrix} & =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{1} & \sinh\eta_{1}\\ \sinh\eta_{1} & \cosh\eta_{1} \end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right) & \sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)\\ \sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right) & \cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right) \end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{2} & \sinh\eta_{2}\\ \sinh\eta_{2} & \cosh\eta_{2} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & -\sinh\eta\\ -\sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix} & & =\begin{bmatrix}x_{1} & x_{0}\\ x_{0} & x_{1} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & -\sinh\eta\\ -\sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix}\\ \begin{bmatrix}x_{1} & x_{0}\\ x_{0} & x_{1} \end{bmatrix} & =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{2} & \sinh\eta_{2}\\ \sinh\eta_{2} & \cosh\eta_{2} \end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right) & \sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)\\ \sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right) & \cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right) \end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{1} & \sinh\eta_{1}\\ \sinh\eta_{1} & \cosh\eta_{1} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix} & & =\begin{bmatrix}x_{1}^{\prime} & x_{0}^{\prime}\\ x_{0}^{\prime} & x_{1}^{\prime} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix} \end{align} }</math>|{{equationRef|3c}}}} Hyperbolic angle sum laws were given by [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]] and [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768–1770)]] and many others, while matrix representations were given by [[#Glaisher|Glaisher (1878)]] and [[#Gunther1|Günther (1880/81)]]. Using the idendity <math>\cosh\eta+\sinh\eta=e^{\eta}</math>, Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) assumes a simple form by using [[w:squeeze mapping]]s in analogy to Euler's formula in [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#math_2c|E:'''(2c)''']]:<ref name=rind>Rindler (1969), p. 45</ref> {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\ \hline \begin{matrix}\begin{aligned}x_{1}^{\prime}-x_{0}^{\prime} & =k\left(x_{1}-x_{0}\right)\\ x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime} & =\frac{1}{k}\left(x_{1}+x_{0}\right) \end{aligned} & \Rightarrow & \begin{aligned}x_{1}^{\prime}-x_{0}^{\prime} & =e^{\eta}\left(x_{1}-x_{0}\right)\\ x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime} & =e^{-\eta}\left(x_{1}+x_{0}\right) \end{aligned} \end{matrix}\\ \hline k=e^{\eta}=\cosh\eta+\sinh\eta=\sqrt{\frac{1+\tanh\eta}{1-\tanh\eta}}=\sqrt{\frac{1+v}{1-v}} \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|3d}}}} Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|3d}}) for arbitrary ''k'' were given by many authors (see [[../Lorentz transformation (squeeze)|E:Lorentz transformations via squeeze mappings]]), while a form similar to <math>k=\sqrt{\tfrac{1+v}{1-v}}</math> was given by [[#Lipschitz1|Lipschitz (1885/86)]], and the exponential form was used by [[#Lindemann|Lindemann (1890/91)]], [[#Elliott|Elliott (1903)]], [[#Herglotz1|Herglotz (1909)]]. ===Hyperbolic law of cosines=== By adding an unchanged third coordinate <math>x_{2}^{\prime}=x_{2}</math> in Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3b}}) and interpreting <math>x_{0},x_{1},x_{2}</math> as [[w:homogeneous coordinates]], the Lorentz transformation can be rewritten in line with equation [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#math_1b|E:'''(1b)''']] by using coordinates <math>[u_{1},\ u_{2}]=\left[\tfrac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ \tfrac{x_{2}}{x_{0}}\right]</math> defined by <math>u_{1}^{2}+u_{2}^{2}\le1</math> inside the [[w:unit circle]] as follows: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{align} & \quad\quad(A) & & \quad\quad(B) & & \quad\quad(C)\\ u_{1}^{\prime} & =\frac{-\sinh\eta+u_{1}\cosh\eta}{\cosh\eta-u_{1}\sinh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{1}-\tanh\eta}{1-u_{1}\tanh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{1}-v}{1-u_{1}v}\\ u_{2}^{\prime} & =\frac{u_{2}}{\cosh\eta-u_{1}\sinh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{2}\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1-u_{1}\tanh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{2}\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-u_{1}v}\\ \\ u_{1} & =\frac{\sinh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta}{\cosh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{1}^{\prime}+\tanh\eta}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{1}^{\prime}+v}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}v}\\ u_{2} & =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}}{\cosh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}v} \end{align} </math>|{{equationRef|3e}}}} Transformations (A) were given by [[#Escherich|Escherich (1874)]] and [[#Killing2|Killing (1898)]], and transformations (C) by [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]] and [[#Schur|Schur (1885/86, 1900/02)]] in terms of [[w:Beltrami–Klein model|Beltrami coordinates]]<ref>Rosenfeld (1988), p. 231</ref> of hyperbolic geometry. By using the scalar product of <math>\left[u_{1},u_{2}\right]</math>, the resulting Lorentz transformation can be seen as equivalent to the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:<ref name=pau>Pauli (1921), p. 561</ref><ref group=R name=var>Varićak (1912), p. 108</ref><ref name=barr>Barrett (2006), chapter 4, section 2</ref> {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix} & \begin{matrix}u^{2}=u_{1}^{2}+u_{2}^{2}\\ u'^{2}=u_{1}^{\prime2}+u_{2}^{\prime2} \end{matrix}\left|\begin{matrix}u_{1}=u\cos\alpha\\ u_{2}=u\sin\alpha\\ \\ u_{1}^{\prime}=u'\cos\alpha'\\ u_{2}^{\prime}=u'\sin\alpha' \end{matrix}\right|\begin{align}u\cos\alpha & =\frac{u'\cos\alpha'+v}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'}, & u'\cos\alpha' & =\frac{u\cos\alpha-v}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\ u\sin\alpha & =\frac{u'\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'}, & u'\sin\alpha' & =\frac{u\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\ \tan\alpha & =\frac{u'\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{u'\cos\alpha'+v}, & \tan\alpha' & =\frac{u\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{u\cos\alpha-v} \end{align} \\ \Rightarrow & u=\frac{\sqrt{v^{2}+u^{\prime2}+2vu'\cos\alpha'-\left(vu'\sin\alpha'\right){}^{2}}}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'},\quad u'=\frac{\sqrt{-v^{2}-u^{2}+2vu\cos\alpha+\left(vu\sin\alpha\right){}^{2}}}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\ \Rightarrow & \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-u^{\prime2}}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-u^{2}}}-\frac{v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\frac{u}{\sqrt{1-u^{2}}}\cos\alpha & (B)\\ \Rightarrow & \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\xi}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\zeta}}-\frac{\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}\frac{\tanh\zeta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\zeta}}\cos\alpha\\ \Rightarrow & \cosh\xi=\cosh\eta\cosh\zeta-\sinh\eta\sinh\zeta\cos\alpha & (A) \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|3f}}}} The hyperbolic law of cosines (A) was given by [[#Taurinus|Taurinus (1826) and Lobachevsky (1829/30)]] and others, while variant (B) was given by [[#Schur|Schur (1900/02)]]. By further setting <math>\tanh\xi=\tanh\zeta=1</math> or <math>u'=u=1</math> it follows: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}(A) & & \ \cos\alpha=\frac{\cos\alpha'+\tanh\eta}{1+\tanh\eta\cos\alpha'}; & \ \sin\alpha=\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1+\tanh\eta\cos\alpha'}; & \ \tan\alpha=\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{\cos\alpha'+\tanh\eta}; & \ \tan\frac{\alpha}{2}=\sqrt{\frac{1-\tanh\eta}{1+\tanh\eta}}\tan\frac{\alpha'}{2}\\ & & \ \cos\alpha'=\frac{\cos\alpha-\tanh\eta}{1-\tanh\eta\cos\alpha}; & \ \sin\alpha'=\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1-\tanh\eta\cos\alpha}; & \ \tan\alpha'=\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{\cos\alpha-\tanh\eta}; & \ \tan\frac{\alpha'}{2}=\sqrt{\frac{1+\tanh\eta}{1-\tanh\eta}}\tan\frac{\alpha}{2}\\ \\ (B) & & \ \cos\alpha=\frac{\cos\alpha'+v}{1+v\cos\alpha'}; & \ \sin\alpha=\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+v\cos\alpha'}; & \ \tan\alpha=\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{\cos\alpha'+v}; & \ \tan\frac{\alpha}{2}=\sqrt{\frac{1-v}{1+v}}\tan\frac{\alpha'}{2}\\ & & \ \cos\alpha'=\frac{\cos\alpha-v}{1-v\cos\alpha}; & \ \sin\alpha'=\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-v\cos\alpha}; & \ \tan\alpha'=\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{\cos\alpha-v}; & \ \tan\frac{\alpha'}{2}=\sqrt{\frac{1+v}{1-v}}\tan\frac{\alpha}{2} \end{matrix} </math>|{{equationRef|3g}}}} Formulas (3g-B) are the equations of an [[w:ellipse]] of [[w:Orbital eccentricity|eccentricity]] ''v'', [[w:eccentric anomaly]] α' and [[w:true anomaly]] α, first geometrically formulated by [[#Euler|Kepler (1609)]] and explicitly written down by [[#Euler|Euler (1735, 1748), Lagrange (1770)]] and many others in relation to planetary motions. They were also used by [[../Lorentz transformation (conformal)#Darboux|E:Darboux (1873)]] as a sphere transformation. In special relativity, these formulas describes the aberration of light, see [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#Velocity addition and aberration|E:velocity addition and aberration]]. ==Historical notation== ==={{anchor|Euler}} Euler (1735) – True and eccentric anomaly=== [[w:Johannes Kepler]] (1609) geometrically formulated [[w:Kepler's equation]] and the relations between the [[w:mean anomaly]], [[w:true anomaly]], and [[w:eccentric anomaly]].<ref group=M>Kepler (1609), chapter 60. The editors of Kepler's collected papers remark (p. 482), that Kepler's relations correspond to <math>{\scriptstyle \alpha=\beta+e\sin\beta}</math> and <math>{\scriptstyle \cos\nu=\frac{e+\cos\beta}{1+e\cos\beta}}</math> and <math>{\scriptstyle \cos\beta=\frac{\cos\nu-e}{1-e\cos\nu}}</math></ref><ref>Volk (1976), p. 366</ref> The relation between the true anomaly ''z'' and the eccentric anomaly ''P'' was algebraically expressed by [[w:Leonhard Euler]] (1735/40) as follows:<ref group=M>Euler (1735/40), § 19</ref> :<math>\cos z=\frac{\cos P+v}{1+v\cos P},\ \cos P=\frac{\cos z-v}{1-v\cos z},\ \int P=\frac{\int z\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-v\cos z}</math> and in 1748:<ref group=M>Euler (1748a), section VIII</ref> :<math>\cos z=\frac{n+\cos y}{1+n\cos y},\ \sin z=\frac{\sin y\sqrt{1-n^{2}}}{1+n\cos y},\ \tan z=\frac{\sin y\sqrt{1-n^{2}}}{n+\cos y}</math> while [[w:Joseph-Louis Lagrange]] (1770/71) expressed them as follows<ref group=M>Lagrange (1770/71), section I</ref> :<math>\sin u=\frac{m\sin x}{1+n\cos x},\ \cos u=\frac{n+\cos x}{1+n\cos x},\ \operatorname{tang}\frac{1}{2}u=\frac{m}{1+n}\operatorname{tang}\frac{1}{2}x,\ \left(m^{2}=1-n^{2}\right)</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black"> These relations resemble formulas ({{equationNote|3g}}), while ({{equationNote|3f}}) follows by setting <math>[\cos z,\sin z]=\left[u_{x},u_{y}\right]</math> in Euler's formulas or <math>[\cos u,\sin u]=\left[u_{x},u_{y}\right]</math> in Lagrange's formulas.</p> ==={{anchor|Riccati}} Riccati (1757) – hyperbolic addition=== [[w:Vincenzo Riccati]] introduced hyperbolic functions in 1757,<ref group=M>Riccati (1757), p. 71</ref><ref group=M>Günther (1880/81), pp. 7–13</ref> in particular he formulated the angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine: :<math>\begin{matrix}\mathrm{Ch}(\varphi+\pi)=\frac{\mathrm{Ch}\varphi\mathrm{Ch}\pi+\mathrm{Sh}\varphi\mathrm{Sh}\pi}{r}\\ \mathrm{Sh}(\varphi+\pi)=\frac{\mathrm{Ch}\varphi\mathrm{Sh}\pi+\mathrm{Ch}\pi\mathrm{Sh}\varphi}{r}\\ \left[\mathrm{Ch}^{2}-\mathrm{Sh}^{2}=rr\right] \end{matrix}</math> He furthermore showed that <math>\mathrm{Ch}(\varphi-\pi)</math> and <math>\mathrm{Sh}(\varphi-\pi)</math> follow by setting <math>\mathrm{Ch}(\pi)\Rightarrow\mathrm{Ch}(-\pi)</math> and <math>\mathrm{Sh}(\pi)\Rightarrow\mathrm{Sh}(-\pi)</math> in the above formulas. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine can be interpreted as hyperbolic rotations of points on a hyperbola, as in Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3c}}). (In modern publications, Riccati's additional factor ''r'' is set to unity.)</p> ==={{anchor|Lambert}} Lambert (1768–1770) – hyperbolic addition=== While [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]] discussed the hyperbolic sine and cosine, [[w:Johann Heinrich Lambert]] (read 1767, published 1768) introduced the expression ''tang φ'' or abbreviated ''tφ'' as the [[w:tangens hyperbolicus]] <math>{\scriptstyle \frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{e^{u}+e^{-u}}}</math> of a variable ''u'', or in modern notation ''tφ=tanh(u)'':<ref group=M>Lambert (1761/68), pp. 309–318</ref><ref>Barnett (2004), pp. 22–23</ref> :<math>\left.\begin{align}\xi\xi-1 & =\eta\eta & (a)\\ 1+\eta\eta & =\xi\xi & (b)\\ \frac{\eta}{\xi} & =tang\ \phi=t\phi & (c)\\ \xi & =\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-t\phi^{2}}} & (d)\\ \eta & =\frac{t\phi}{\sqrt{1-t\phi^{2}}} & (e)\\ t\phi'' & =\frac{t\phi+t\phi'}{1+t\phi\cdot t\phi'} & (f)\\ t\phi' & =\frac{t\phi''-t\phi}{1-t\phi\cdot t\phi''} & (g) \end{align} \right|\begin{align}2u & =\log\frac{1+t\phi}{1-t\phi}\\ \xi & =\frac{e^{u}+e^{-u}}{2}\\ \eta & =\frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{2}\\ t\phi & =\frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{e^{u}+e^{-u}}\\ e^{u} & =\xi+\eta\\ e^{-u} & =\xi-\eta \end{align}</math> In (1770) he rewrote the addition law for the hyperbolic tangens (f) or (g) as:<ref group=M>Lambert (1770), p. 335</ref> :<math>\begin{align}t(y+z) & =(ty+tz):(1+ty\cdot tz) & (f)\\ t(y-z) & =(ty-tz):(1-ty\cdot tz) & (g) \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The hyperbolic relations (a,b,c,d,e,f) are equivalent to the hyperbolic relations on the right of ({{equationNote|3b}}). Relations (f,g) can also be found in ({{equationNote|3e}}). By setting ''tφ=v/c'', formula (c) becomes the relative velocity between two frames, (d) the [[w:Lorentz factor]], (e) the [[w:proper velocity]], (f) or (g) becomes the Lorentz transformation of velocity (or relativistic [[w:velocity addition formula]]) for collinear velocities in [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4a|E:'''(4a)''']] and [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']].</p> Lambert also formulated the addition laws for the hyperbolic cosine and sine (Lambert's "cos" and "sin" actually mean "cosh" and "sinh"): :<math>\begin{align}\sin(y+z) & =\sin y\cos z+\cos y\sin z\\ \sin(y-z) & =\sin y\cos z-\cos y\sin z\\ \cos(y+z) & =\cos y\cos z+\sin y\sin z\\ \cos(y-z) & =\cos y\cos z-\sin y\sin z \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine can be interpreted as hyperbolic rotations of points on a hyperbola, as in Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3c}}).</p> ==={{Anchor|Taurinus}} Taurinus (1826) – Hyperbolic law of cosines=== After the addition theorem for the tangens hyperbolicus was given by [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768)]], [[w:hyperbolic geometry]] was used by [[w:Franz Taurinus]] (1826), and later by [[w:Nikolai Lobachevsky]] (1829/30) and others, to formulate the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:<ref group=M>Taurinus (1826), p. 66; see also p. 272 in the translation by Engel and Stäckel (1899)</ref><ref>Bonola (1912), p. 79</ref><ref>Gray (1979), p. 242</ref> :<math>A=\operatorname{arccos}\frac{\cos\left(\alpha\sqrt{-1}\right)-\cos\left(\beta\sqrt{-1}\right)\cos\left(\gamma\sqrt{-1}\right)}{\sin\left(\beta\sqrt{-1}\right)\sin\left(\gamma\sqrt{-1}\right)}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">When solved for <math>\cos\left(\alpha\sqrt{-1}\right)</math> it corresponds to the Lorentz transformation in Beltrami coordinates ({{equationNote|3f}}), and by defining the rapidities <math>{\scriptstyle \left(\left[\frac{U}{c},\ \frac{v}{c},\ \frac{u}{c}\right]=\left[\tanh\alpha,\ \tanh\beta,\ \tanh\gamma\right]\right)}</math> it corresponds to the relativistic velocity addition formula [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4e|E:'''(4e)''']].</p> ==={{anchor|Beltrami}} Beltrami (1868) – Beltrami coordinates=== [[w:Eugenio Beltrami]] (1868a) introduced coordinates of the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model]] of hyperbolic geometry, and formulated the corresponding transformations in terms of homographies:<ref group=M>Beltrami (1868a), pp. 287-288; Note I; Note II</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}ds^{2}=R^{2}\frac{\left(a^{2}+v^{2}\right)du^{2}-2uv\,du\,dv+\left(a^{2}+v^{2}\right)dv^{2}}{\left(a^{2}+u^{2}+v^{2}\right)^{2}}\\ u^{2}+v^{2}=a^{2}\\ \hline u''=\frac{aa_{0}\left(u'-r_{0}\right)}{a^{2}-r_{0}u'},\ v''=\frac{a_{0}w_{0}v'}{a^{2}-r_{0}u'},\\ \left(r_{0}=\sqrt{u_{0}^{2}+v_{0}^{2}},\ w_{0}=\sqrt{a^{2}-r_{0}^{2}}\right)\\ \hline ds^{2}=R^{2}\frac{\left(a^{2}-v^{2}\right)du^{2}+2uv\,du\,dv+\left(a^{2}-v^{2}\right)dv^{2}}{\left(a^{2}-u^{2}-v^{2}\right)^{2}}\\ (R=R\sqrt{-1},\ a=a\sqrt{-1}) \end{matrix}</math> (where the disk radius ''a'' and the [[w:radius of curvature]] ''R'' are real in spherical geometry, in hyperbolic geometry they are imaginary), and for arbitrary dimensions in (1868b)<ref group=M>Beltrami (1868b), pp. 232, 240–241, 253–254</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}ds=R\frac{\sqrt{dx^{2}+dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+\cdots+dx_{n}^{2}}}{x}\\ x^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}=a^{2}\\ \hline y_{1}=\frac{ab\left(x_{1}-a_{1}\right)}{a^{2}-a_{1}x_{1}}\ \text{or}\ x_{1}=\frac{a\left(ay_{1}+a_{1}b\right)}{ab+a_{1}y_{1}},\ x_{r}=\pm\frac{ay_{r}\sqrt{a^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}}{ab+a_{1}y_{1}}\ (r=2,3,\dots,n)\\ \hline ds=R\frac{\sqrt{dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+\cdots+dx_{n}^{2}-dx^{2}}}{x}\\ x^{2}=a^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}\\ \left(R=R\sqrt{-1},\ x=x\sqrt{-1},\ a=a\sqrt{-1}\right) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Setting ''a=a<sub>0</sub>'' Beltrami's (1868a) formulas become formulas ({{equationNote|3e}}), or in his (1868b) formulas one sets ''a=b'' for arbitrary dimensions.</p> === {{anchor|Laisant2}} Laisant (1874) – Equipollences=== In his French translation of [[w:Giusto Bellavitis]]' principal work on [[w:Equipollence (geometry)|w:equipollences]], [[w:Charles-Ange Laisant]] (1874) added a chapter related to hyperbolas. The equipollence OM and its tangent MT of a hyperbola is defined by Laisant as<ref group=M>Laisant (1874b), pp. 134–135</ref> :(1) <math>\begin{matrix} & \mathrm{OM}\bumpeq x\mathrm{OA}+y\mathrm{OB}\\ & \mathrm{MT}\bumpeq y\mathrm{OA}+x\mathrm{OB}\\ & \left[x^{2}-y^{2}=1;\ x=\cosh t,\ y=\sinh t\right]\\ \Rightarrow & \mathrm{OM}\bumpeq\cosh t\cdot\mathrm{OA}+\sinh t\cdot\mathrm{OB} \end{matrix}</math> Here, OA and OB are [[w:Conjugate diameters|conjugate semi-diameters]] of a hyperbola with OB being imaginary, both of which he related to two other conjugated semi-diameters OC and OD by the following transformation: :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{align}\mathrm{OC} & \bumpeq c\mathrm{OA}+d\mathrm{OB} & \qquad & & \mathrm{OA} & \bumpeq c\mathrm{OC}-d\mathrm{OD}\\ \mathrm{OD} & \bumpeq d\mathrm{OA}+c\mathrm{OB} & & & \mathrm{OB} & \bumpeq-d\mathrm{OC}+c\mathrm{OD} \end{align} \\ \left[c^{2}-d^{2}=1\right] \end{matrix}</math> producing the invariant relation :<math>(\mathrm{OC})^{2}-(\mathrm{OD})^{2}\bumpeq(\mathrm{OA})^{2}-(\mathrm{OB})^{2}</math>. Substituting into (1), he showed that OM retains its form :<math>\begin{matrix}\mathrm{OM}\bumpeq(cx-dy)\mathrm{OC}+(cy-dx)\mathrm{OD}\\ \left[(cx-dy)^{2}-(cy-dx)^{2}=1\right] \end{matrix}</math> He also defined velocity and acceleration by differentiation of (1). <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">These relations are equivalent to several Lorentz boosts or hyperbolic rotations producing the invariant Lorentz interval in line with ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Escherich}} Escherich (1874) – Beltrami coordinates=== [[w:Gustav von Escherich]] (1874) discussed the plane of constant negative curvature<ref>Sommerville (1911), p. 297</ref> based on the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model]] of hyperbolic geometry by [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]]. Similar to [[w:Christoph Gudermann]] (1830)<ref name=guder group=M>Gudermann (1830), §1–3, §18–19</ref> who introduced axial coordinates ''x''=tan(a) and ''y''=tan(b) in sphere geometry in order to perform coordinate transformations in the case of rotation and translation, Escherich used hyperbolic functions ''x''=tanh(a/k) and ''y''=tanh(b/k)<ref group=M>Escherich (1874), p. 508</ref> in order to give the corresponding coordinate transformations for the hyperbolic plane, which for the case of translation have the form:<ref group=M name=escher>Escherich (1874), p. 510</ref> :<math>x=\frac{\sinh\frac{a}{k}+x'\cosh\frac{a}{k}}{\cosh\frac{a}{k}+x'\sinh\frac{a}{k}}</math> and <math>y=\frac{y'}{\cosh\frac{a}{k}+x'\sinh\frac{a}{k}}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}), also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] by setting <math>\tfrac{a}{k}=\operatorname{atanh}\tfrac{v}{c}</math> and multiplying ''[x,y,x′,y′]'' by 1/''c'', and equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) by setting <math>\scriptstyle (x,\ y,\ x',\ y')=\left(\frac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ \frac{x_{2}}{x_{0}},\ \frac{x_{1}^{\prime}}{x_{0}^{\prime}},\ \frac{x_{2}^{\prime}}{x_{0}^{\prime}}\right)</math>. This is the relation between the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model|Beltrami coordinates]] in terms of Gudermann-Escherich coordinates, and the Weierstrass coordinates of the [[w:hyperboloid model]] introduced by [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Killing1|E:Killing (1878–1893)]], [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Poincare|E:Poincaré (1881)]], and [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Cox|E:Cox (1881)]]. Both coordinate systems were compared by Cox (1881).<ref group=M>Cox (1881), p. 186</ref></p> ==={{anchor|Glaisher}} Glaisher (1878) – hyperbolic addition=== It was shown by [[w:James Whitbread Lee Glaisher]] (1878) that the hyperbolic addition laws can be expressed by matrix multiplication:<ref group=M>Glaisher (1878), p. 30</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{vmatrix}\cosh x, & \sinh x\\ \sinh x, & \cosh x \end{vmatrix}=1,\ \begin{vmatrix}\cosh y, & \sinh y\\ \sinh y, & \cosh y \end{vmatrix}=1\\ \text{by multiplication:}\\ \Rightarrow\begin{vmatrix}c_{1}c_{2}+s_{1}s_{2}, & s_{1}c_{2}+c_{1}s_{2}\\ c_{1}s_{2}+s_{1}c_{2}, & s_{1}s_{2}+c_{1}c_{2} \end{vmatrix}=1\\ \text{where}\ \left[c_{1},c_{2},c_{3},c_{4}\right]=\left[\cosh x,\cosh y,\sinh x,\sinh y\right] \\ \Rightarrow\begin{vmatrix}\cosh(x+y), & \sinh(x+y)\\ \sinh(x+y), & \cosh(x+y) \end{vmatrix}=1 \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">In this matrix representation, the analogy between the hyperbolic angle sum laws and the Lorentz boost becomes obvious: In particular, the matrix <math>\scriptstyle\begin{vmatrix}\cosh y, & \sinh y\\ \sinh y, & \cosh y\end{vmatrix}</math> producing the hyperbolic addition is analogous to matrix <math>\scriptstyle\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta\end{bmatrix}</math> producing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3c}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Gunther1}} Günther (1880/81) – hyperbolic addition === Following [[#Glaisher|Glaisher (1878)]], [[w:Siegmund Günther]] (1880/81) expressed the hyperbolic addition laws by matrix multiplication:<ref group=M>Günther (1880/81), p. 405</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,x, & \mathfrak{Sin}\,x\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,x, & \mathfrak{Cos}\,x \end{vmatrix}\cdot\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,y, & \mathfrak{Sin}\,y\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,y, & \mathfrak{Cos}\,y \end{vmatrix}\\ =\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y+\mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, & \mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y+\mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y+\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, & \mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y+\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y \end{vmatrix}\\ =\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,(x+y), & \mathfrak{Sin}\,(x+y)\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,(x+y), & \mathfrak{Cos}\,(x+y) \end{vmatrix}=1 \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">In this matrix representation, the analogy between the hyperbolic angle sum laws and the Lorentz boost becomes obvious: In particular, the matrix <math>\scriptstyle\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,y, & \mathfrak{Sin}\,y\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,y, & \mathfrak{Cos}\,y \end{vmatrix}</math> producing the hyperbolic addition is analogous to matrix <math>\scriptstyle\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta\end{bmatrix}</math> producing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3c}}).</p> === {{anchor|Cox}} Cox (1881/82) – Weierstrass coordinates === [[w:Homersham Cox (mathematician)|w:Homersham Cox]] (1881/82) defined the case of translation in the hyperbolic plane with the ''y''-axis remaining unchanged:<ref group=M name=cox>Cox (1881/82), p. 194</ref> :<math>\begin{align}X & =x\cosh p-z\sinh p\\ Z & =-x\sinh p+z\cosh p \\ \\ x & =X\cosh p+Z\sinh p\\ z & =X\sinh p+Z\cosh p \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Lipschitz1}} Lipschitz (1885/86) – Quadratic forms === [[w:Rudolf Lipschitz]] (1885/86) formulated transformations leaving invariant the sum of squares <math>x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}\dots+x_{n}^{2}=y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n}^{2}</math>, which he rewrote as <math>x_{1}^{2}-y_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}-y_{2}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}-y_{n}^{2}=0</math>. This led to the problem of finding transformations leaving invariant the pairs <math>x_{a}^{2}-y_{a}^{2}</math> (''a''=1...n) for which he gave the following solution:<ref group=M>Lipschitz (1886), pp. 90–92</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x_{a}^{2}-y_{a}^{2}=\mathfrak{x}_{a}^{2}-\mathfrak{y}_{a}^{2}\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{a}-y_{a} & =\left(\mathfrak{x}_{a}-\mathfrak{y}_{a}\right)r_{a}\\ x_{a}+y_{a} & =\left(\mathfrak{x}_{a}+\mathfrak{y}_{a}\right)\frac{1}{r_{a}} \end{align} \quad(a)\\ \hline \begin{matrix}\begin{align}2\mathfrak{x}_{a} & =\left(r_{a}+\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)x_{a}+\left(r_{a}-\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)y_{a}\\ 2\mathfrak{y}_{a} & =\left(r_{a}-\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)x_{a}+\left(r_{a}+\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)y_{a} \end{align} \quad(b)\end{matrix}\\ \hline \left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}}\\ s_{a}>1 \end{matrix}\right\}\Rightarrow\begin{align}\mathfrak{x}_{a} & =\frac{s_{a}x_{a}+y_{a}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}\\ \mathfrak{y}_{a} & =\frac{x_{a}+s_{a}y_{a}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}\sqrt{s_{a}+1}} \end{align} \quad(c) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Equation (a) is identical to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}), while (c) is similar, though not identical, to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}-C). The difference stems from his definition<br><math>\qquad\left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}}\\ s_{a}>1 \end{matrix}\right\}</math><br>whereas in accordance to expression <math>\sqrt{\tfrac{1+v}{1-v}}</math> with <math>v<1</math> in ({{equationNote|3d}}) he should have stated <br><math>\qquad\left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}}\\ s_{a}<1 \end{matrix}\right\}</math>.<br>Using the latter choice, equations (c) would assume a form equivalent to ({{equationNote|3b}}):<br><math>\qquad\begin{align}\mathfrak{x}_{a} & =\frac{x_{a}+s_{a}y_{a}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}\\ \mathfrak{y}_{a} & =\frac{s_{a}x_{a}+y_{a}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}\end{align}</math></p> ==={{Anchor|Schur}} Schur (1885/86, 1900/02) – Beltrami coordinates=== [[w:Friedrich Schur]] (1885/86) discussed spaces of constant Riemann curvature, and by following [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]] he used the transformation<ref group=M>Schur (1885/86), p. 167</ref> :<math>x_{1}=R^{2}\frac{y_{1}+a_{1}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}},\ x_{2}=R\sqrt{R^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}\frac{y_{2}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}},\dots,\ x_{n}=R\sqrt{R^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}\frac{y_{n}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and therefore also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] in arbitrary dimensions by setting ''R=c'' as the speed of light and ''a<sub>1</sub>=v'' as relative velocity.</p> In (1900/02) he derived basic formulas of non-Eucliden geometry, including the case of translation for which he obtained the transformation similar to his previous one:<ref group=M>Schur (1900/02), p. 290; (1909), p. 83</ref> :<math>x'=\frac{x-a}{1-\mathfrak{k}ax},\quad y'=\frac{y\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}{1-\mathfrak{k}ax}</math> where <math>\mathfrak{k}</math> can have values >0, <0 or ∞. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and therefore also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] by setting ''a=v'' and <math>\mathfrak{k}=\tfrac{1}{c^{2}}</math>.</p> He also defined the triangle<ref group=M>Schur (1900/02), p. 291; (1909), p. 83</ref> :<math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}c^{2}}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}\cdot\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}b^{2}}}-\frac{a}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}\cdot\frac{b}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}b^{2}}}\cos\gamma</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to the hyperbolic law of cosines and the relativistic velocity addition ({{equationNote|3f}}, b) or [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4e|E:'''(4e)''']] by setting <math>[\mathfrak{k},\ c,\ a,\ b]=\left[\tfrac{1}{c^{2}},\ \sqrt{u_{x}^{\prime2}+u_{y}^{\prime2}},\ v,\ \sqrt{u_{x}^{2}+u_{y}^{2}}\right]</math>.</p> ==={{anchor|Lindemann}} Lindemann (1890–91) – Weierstrass coordinates and Cayley absolute=== [[w:Ferdinand von Lindemann]] discussed hyperbolic geometry in terms of the [[w:Cayley–Klein metric]] in his (1890/91) edition of the lectures on geometry of [[w:Alfred Clebsch]]. Citing [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Killing|E:Killing (1885)]] and [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Poincare|Poincaré (1887)]] in relation to the hyperboloid model in terms of Weierstrass coordinates for the hyperbolic plane and space, he set<ref group=M>Lindemann & Clebsch (1890/91), pp. 477–478, 524</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\Omega_{xx}=x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{3}^{2}=-4k^{2}\ \text{and}\ ds^{2}=dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}-4k^{2}dx_{3}^{2}\\ \Omega_{xx}=x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{4}^{2}=-4k^{2}\ \text{and}\ ds^{2}=dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+dx_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}dx_{4}^{2} \end{matrix}</math> and used the following transformation<ref group=M>Lindemann & Clebsch (1890/91), pp. 361–362</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}X_{1}X_{4}+X_{2}X_{3}=0\\ X_{1}X_{4}+X_{2}X_{3}=\Xi_{1}\Xi_{4}+\Xi_{2}\Xi_{3}\\ \hline \begin{align}X_{1} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{1}\right)U_{4} & \Xi_{1} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)U_{4} & X_{1} & =\frac{\lambda+\lambda_{1}}{\lambda-\lambda_{1}}\Xi_{1}\\ X_{2} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{3}\right)U_{4} & \Xi_{2} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)U_{4} & X_{2} & =\frac{\lambda+\lambda_{3}}{\lambda-\lambda_{3}}\Xi_{2}\\ X_{3} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)U_{2} & \Xi_{3} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{3}\right)U_{2} & X_{3} & =\frac{\lambda-\lambda_{3}}{\lambda+\lambda_{3}}\Xi_{3}\\ X_{4} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)U_{1} & \Xi_{4} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{1}\right)U_{1} & X_{4} & =\frac{\lambda-\lambda_{1}}{\lambda+\lambda_{1}}\Xi_{4} \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> into which he put<ref group=M name=linde>Lindemann & Clebsch (1890/91), p. 496</ref> :<math>\begin{align}X_{1} & =x_{1}+2kx_{4}, & X_{2} & =x_{2}+ix_{3}, & \lambda+\lambda_{1} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)e^{a},\\ X_{4} & =x_{1}-2kx_{4}, & X_{3} & =x_{2}-ix_{3}, & \lambda+\lambda_{3} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)e^{\alpha i}, \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}) with <math>e^{\alpha i}=1</math> and ''2k=1'' .</p> From that, he obtained the following Cayley absolute and the corresponding most general motion in hyperbolic space comprising ordinary rotations (''a''=0) or translations (α=0):<ref group=M name=linde /> :<math>\begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{4}^{2}=0\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{2} & =\xi_{2}\cos\alpha+\xi_{3}\sin\alpha, & x_{1} & =\xi_{1}\cos\frac{a}{i}+2ki\xi_{4}\sin\frac{a}{i},\\ x_{3} & =-\xi_{2}\sin\alpha+\xi_{3}\cos\alpha, & 2kx_{4} & =i\xi_{1}\sin\frac{a}{i}+2k\xi_{4}\cos\frac{a}{i}. \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with α=0 and ''2k=1''.</p> ==={{anchor|Gerard}} Gérard (1892) – Weierstrass coordinates=== [[w:Louis Gérard]] (1892) – in a thesis examined by Poincaré – discussed Weierstrass coordinates (without using that name) in the plane and gave the case of translation as follows:<ref group=M name=gerard>Gérard (1892), pp. 40–41</ref> :<math>\begin{align}X & =Z_{0}X'+X_{0}Z'\\ Y & =Y'\\ Z & =X_{0}X'+Z_{0}Z' \end{align} \ \text{with}\ \begin{align}X_{0} & =\operatorname{sh}OO'\\ Z_{0} & =\operatorname{ch}OO' \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Killing2}} Killing (1893,97) – Weierstrass coordinates=== [[w:Wilhelm Killing]] (1878–1880) gave case of translation in the form<ref group=M name=killtra>Killing (1893), p. 331</ref> :<math>y_{0}=x_{0}\operatorname{Ch}a+x_{1}\operatorname{Sh}a,\quad y_{1}=x_{0}\operatorname{Sh}a+x_{1}\operatorname{Ch}a,\quad y_{2}=x_{2}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> In 1898, Killing wrote that relation in a form similar to [[#Escherich|Escherich (1874)]], and derived the corresponding Lorentz transformation for the two cases were ''v'' is unchanged or ''u'' is unchanged:<ref group=M name=kill98>Killing (1898), p. 133</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\xi'=\frac{\xi\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}+l\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}}{\frac{\xi}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}},\ \eta'=\frac{\eta}{\frac{\xi}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}}\\ \hline \frac{u}{p}=\xi,\ \frac{v}{p}=\eta\\ \hline p'=p\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}+\frac{u}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l},\quad u'=pl\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+u\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l},\quad v'=v\\ \text{or}\\ p'=p\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\nu}{l}+\frac{v}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\nu}{l},\quad u'=u,\quad v'=pl\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\nu}{l}+v\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\nu}{l} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The upper transformation system is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and the velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] with ''l=c'' and <math>\mu=c\operatorname{atanh}\tfrac{v}{c}</math>, the system below is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Whitehead}} Whitehead (1897/98) – Universal algebra=== [[w:Alfred North Whitehead]] (1898) discussed the kinematics of hyperbolic space as part of his study of [[w:universal algebra]], and obtained the following transformation:<ref group=M name=white>Whitehead (1898), pp. 459–460</ref> :<math>\begin{align}x' & =\left(\eta\cosh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}+\eta_{1}\sinh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}\right)e+\left(\eta\sinh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}+\eta_{1}\cosh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}\right)e_{1}\\ & \qquad+\left(\eta_{2}\cos\alpha+\eta_{3}\sin\alpha\right)e_{2}+\left(\eta_{3}\cos\alpha-\eta_{2}\sin\alpha\right)e_{3} \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with α=0.</p> ==={{anchor|Elliott}} Elliott (1903) – Invariant theory === [[w:Edwin Bailey Elliott]] (1903) discussed a special cyclical subgroup of ternary linear transformations for which the (unit) determinant of transformation is resoluble into three ordinary algebraical factors, which he pointed out is in direct analogy to a subgroup formed by the following transformations:<ref group=M>Elliott (1903), p. 109</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x=X\cosh\phi+Y\sinh\phi,\quad y=X\sinh\phi+Y\cosh\phi\\ \hline X+Y=e^{-\phi}(x+y),\quad X-Y=e^{\phi}(x-y) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3d}}). The mentioned subgroup corresponds to the one-parameter subgroup generated by Lorentz boosts.</p> ==={{anchor|Woods2}} Woods (1903) – Weierstrass coordinates === [[w:Frederick S. Woods]] (1903, published 1905) gave the case of translation in hyperbolic space:<ref group=M>Woods (1903/05), p. 55</ref> :<math>x_{1}^{\prime}=x_{1}\cos kl+x_{0}\frac{\sin kl}{k},\quad x_{2}^{\prime}=x_{2},\quad x_{2}^{\prime}=x_{3},\quad x_{0}^{\prime}=-x_{1}k\sin kl+x_{0}\cos kl</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with ''k''<sup>2</sup>=-1.</p> and the loxodromic substitution for hyperbolic space:<ref group=M>Woods (1903/05), p. 72</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{align}x_{1}^{\prime} & =x_{1}\cosh\alpha-x_{0}\sinh\alpha\\ x_{2}^{\prime} & =x_{2}\cos\beta-x_{3}\sin\beta\\ x_{3}^{\prime} & =x_{2}\sin\beta+x_{3}\cos\beta\\ x_{0}^{\prime} & =-x_{1}\sinh\alpha+x_{0}\cosh\alpha \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with β=0.</p> ==={{anchor|Liebmann}} Liebmann (1904–05) – Weierstrass coordinates=== [[w:Heinrich Liebmann]] (1904/05) – citing Killing (1885), Gérard (1892), Hausdorff (1899) – gave the case of translation in the hyperbolic plane:<ref group=M name=lieb>Liebmann (1904/05), p. 174</ref> :<math>x_{1}^{\prime}=x'\operatorname{ch}a+p'\operatorname{sh}a,\quad y_{1}^{\prime}=y',\quad p_{1}^{\prime}=x'\operatorname{sh}a+p'\operatorname{ch}a</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Frank}} Frank (1909) – Special relativity=== In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[w:Philipp Frank]] (1909), who derived the Lorentz transformation using ''ψ'' as rapidity:<ref group=R>Frank (1909), pp. 423-425</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x'=x\varphi(a)\,{\rm ch}\,\psi+t\varphi(a)\,{\rm sh}\,\psi\\ t'=-x\varphi(a)\,{\rm sh}\,\psi+t\varphi(a)\,{\rm ch}\,\psi\\ \hline {\rm th}\,\psi=-a,\ {\rm sh}\,\psi=\frac{a}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ {\rm ch}\,\psi=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ \varphi(a)=1\\ \hline x'=\frac{x-at}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ y'=y,\ z'=z,\ t'=\frac{-ax+t}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> === {{anchor|Herglotz1}} Herglotz (1909/10) – Special relativity=== In special relativity, [[w:Gustav Herglotz]] (1909/10) classified the one-parameter Lorentz transformations as loxodromic, hyperbolic, parabolic and elliptic, with the hyperbolic case being:<ref group=R>Herglotz (1909/10), pp. 404-408</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}Z=Z'e^{\vartheta}\\ \begin{aligned}x & =x', & t-z & =(t'-z')e^{\vartheta}\\ y & =y', & t+z & =(t'+z')e^{-\vartheta} \end{aligned} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Varicak}} Varićak (1910) – Special relativity=== In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[w:Vladimir Varićak]] in several papers starting from 1910, who represented the equations of special relativity on the basis of [[w:hyperbolic geometry]] in terms of Weierstrass coordinates. For instance, by setting ''l=ct'' and ''v/c=tanh(u)'' with ''u'' as rapidity he wrote the Lorentz transformation in agreement with ({{equationNote|4b}}):<ref group=R name=var1>Varićak (1910), p. 93</ref> :<math>\begin{align}l' & =-x\operatorname{sh}u+l\operatorname{ch}u,\\ x' & =x\operatorname{ch}u-l\operatorname{sh}u,\\ y' & =y,\quad z'=z,\\ \operatorname{ch}u & =\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v}{c}\right)^{2}}} \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> He showed the relation of rapidity to the [[w:Gudermannian function]] and the [[w:angle of parallelism]]:<ref group=R name=var1 /> :<math>\frac{v}{c}=\operatorname{th}u=\operatorname{tg}\psi=\sin\operatorname{gd}(u)=\cos\Pi(u)</math> He also related the velocity addition to the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:<ref group=R>Varićak (1910), p. 94</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\operatorname{ch}{u}=\operatorname{ch}{u_{1}}\operatorname ch{u_{2}}+\operatorname{sh}{u_{1}}\operatorname{sh}{u_{2}}\cos\alpha\\ \operatorname{ch}{u_{i}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v_{i}}{c}\right)^{2}}},\ \operatorname{sh}{u_{i}}=\frac{v_{i}}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v_{i}}{c}\right)^{2}}}\\ v=\sqrt{v_{1}^{2}+v_{2}^{2}-\left(\frac{v_{1}v_{2}}{c}\right)^{2}}\ \left(a=\frac{\pi}{2}\right) \end{matrix}</math> ==References== ===Historical mathematical sources=== {{reflist|3|group=M}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bel68sag}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bel68fond}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cox81hom}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cox82hom}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eli03}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|esch74}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eul35}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eul48a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|ger92}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|glai78}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|gud30}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|guen80}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kep09}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil93}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil97}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lag70}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lais74b}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lam67}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lam70}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lieb04}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lind90}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lip86}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|ric57}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu85}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu00}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu09}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|tau26}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|whit98}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo01}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo03}} ===Historical relativity sources=== {{reflist|3|group=R}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|frank09a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|herg10}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|var10}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|var12}} ===Secondary sources=== {{reflist|3}} {{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/secsource|L3}} [[Category:Special Relativity]] [[Category:History of Physics]] 8yer78fuc87j0lmmrvnbqfzabykzjlf 2415798 2415797 2022-08-17T09:44:31Z D.H 52339 /* Hyperbolic law of cosines */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{../Lorentz transformation (header)}} ==Lorentz transformation via hyperbolic functions== ===Translation in the hyperbolic plane=== The case of a Lorentz transformation without spatial rotation is called a [[w:Lorentz boost]]. The simplest case can be given, for instance, by setting ''n=1'' in the [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#math_1a|E:most general Lorentz transformation '''(1a)''']]: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{0}^{\prime} & =x_{0}g_{00}+x_{1}g_{01}\\ x_{1}^{\prime} & =x_{0}g_{10}+x_{1}g_{11}\\ \\ x_{0} & =x_{0}^{\prime}g_{00}-x_{1}^{\prime}g_{10}\\ x_{1} & =-x_{0}^{\prime}g_{01}+x_{1}^{\prime}g_{11} \end{align} \left|\begin{align}g_{01}^{2}-g_{00}^{2} & =-1\\ g_{11}^{2}-g_{10}^{2} & =1\\ g_{01}g_{11}-g_{00}g_{10} & =0\\ g_{10}^{2}-g_{00}^{2} & =-1\\ g_{11}^{2}-g_{01}^{2} & =1\\ g_{10}g_{11}-g_{00}g_{01} & =0 \end{align} \rightarrow\begin{align}g_{00}^{2} & =g_{11}^{2}\\ g_{01}^{2} & =g_{10}^{2} \end{align} \right. \end{matrix}</math> or in matrix notation <math>\left.\begin{align}\mathbf{x}' & =\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} & g_{01}\\ g_{10} & g_{11} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}\\ \mathbf{x} & =\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} & -g_{10}\\ -g_{01} & g_{11} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}' \end{align} \quad\right|\quad\det\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} & g_{01}\\ g_{10} & g_{11} \end{bmatrix}=1</math>|{{equationRef|3a}}}} which resembles precisely the relations of [[w:hyperbolic function]]s in terms of [[w:hyperbolic angle]] <math>\eta</math>. Thus a Lorentz boost or [[w:hyperbolic rotation]] (being the same as a rotation around an imaginary angle <math>i\eta=\phi</math> in [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#math_2b|E:'''(2b)''']] or a [[w:Translation (geometry)|translation]] in the hyperbolic plane in terms of the hyperboloid model) is given by {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\ \hline g_{00}=g_{11}=\cosh\eta,\ g_{01}=g_{10}=-\sinh\eta\\ \hline \left.\begin{align} & \quad\quad(A) & & \quad\quad(B) & & \quad\quad(C)\\ x_{0}^{\prime} & =x_{0}\cosh\eta-x_{1}\sinh\eta & & =\frac{x_{0}-x_{1}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & & =\frac{x_{0}-x_{1}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\ x_{1}^{\prime} & =-x_{0}\sinh\eta+x_{1}\cosh\eta & & =\frac{x_{1}-x_{0}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & & =\frac{x_{1}-x_{0}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\ \\ x_{0} & =x_{0}^{\prime}\cosh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta & & =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & & =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{1}^{\prime}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\ x_{1} & =x_{0}^{\prime}\sinh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta & & =\frac{x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & & =\frac{x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}} \end{align} \right|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\sinh^{2}\eta-\cosh^{2}\eta & =-1 & (a)\\ \cosh^{2}\eta-\sinh^{2}\eta & =1 & (b)\\ \frac{\sinh\eta}{\cosh\eta} & =\tanh\eta=v & (c)\\ \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & =\cosh\eta & (d)\\ \frac{\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} & =\sinh\eta & (e)\\ \frac{\tanh q\pm\tanh\eta}{1\pm\tanh q\tanh\eta} & =\tanh\left(q\pm\eta\right) & (f) \end{align} } \end{matrix}</math> or in matrix notation <math>\left.\begin{align}\mathbf{x}' & =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & -\sinh\eta\\ -\sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}\\ \mathbf{x} & =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}' \end{align} \quad\right|\quad\det\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & -\sinh\eta\\ -\sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix}=1</math>|{{equationRef|3b}}}} Hyperbolic identities (a,b) on the right of ({{equationNote|3b}}) were given by [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]], all identities (a,b,c,d,e,f) by [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768–1770)]]. Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|3b}}-A) were given by [[#Laisant|Laisant (1874)]], [[#Cox|Cox (1882)]], [[#Lindemann|Lindemann (1890/91)]], [[#Gerard|Gérard (1892)]], [[#Killing2|Killing (1893, 1897/98)]], [[#Whitehead|Whitehead (1897/98)]], [[#Woods2|Woods (1903/05)]], [[#Elliott|Elliott (1903)]] and [[#Liebmann|Liebmann (1904/05)]] in terms of Weierstrass coordinates of the [[w:hyperboloid model]], while transformations similar to ({{equationNote|3b}}-C) have been used by [[#Lipschitz1|Lipschitz (1885/86)]]. In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[#Frank|Frank (1909)]] and [[#Varicak|Varićak (1910)]]. Rapidity can be composed of arbitrary many rapidities <math>\eta_{1},\eta_{2}\dots</math> as per the [[w:Hyperbolic functions#Sums of arguments|w:angle sum laws of hyperbolic sines and cosines]], so that one hyperbolic rotation can represent the sum of many other hyperbolic rotations, analogous to the relation between [[w:List of trigonometric identities#Angle sum and difference identities|w:angle sum laws of circular trigonometry]] and spatial rotations. Alternatively, the hyperbolic angle sum laws ''themselves'' can be interpreted as Lorentz boosts, as demonstrated by using the parameterization of the [[w:unit hyperbola]]: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}=1\\ \hline \left[\eta=\eta_{2}-\eta_{1}\right]\\ \begin{align}x_{0}^{\prime} & =\sinh\eta_{1}=\sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{2}\cosh\eta-\cosh\eta_{2}\sinh\eta & & =x_{0}\cosh\eta-x_{1}\sinh\eta\\ x_{1}^{\prime} & =\cosh\eta_{1}=\cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)=-\sinh\eta_{2}\sinh\eta+\cosh\eta_{2}\cosh\eta & & =-x_{0}\sinh\eta+x_{1}\cosh\eta\\ \\ x_{0} & =\sinh\eta_{2}=\sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{1}\cosh\eta+\cosh\eta_{1}\sinh\eta & & =x_{0}^{\prime}\cosh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta\\ x_{1} & =\cosh\eta_{2}=\cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{1}\sinh\eta+\cosh\eta_{1}\cosh\eta & & =x_{0}^{\prime}\sinh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> or in matrix notation <math>{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\begin{bmatrix}x_{1}^{\prime} & x_{0}^{\prime}\\ x_{0}^{\prime} & x_{1}^{\prime} \end{bmatrix} & =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{1} & \sinh\eta_{1}\\ \sinh\eta_{1} & \cosh\eta_{1} \end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right) & \sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)\\ \sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right) & \cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right) \end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{2} & \sinh\eta_{2}\\ \sinh\eta_{2} & \cosh\eta_{2} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & -\sinh\eta\\ -\sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix} & & =\begin{bmatrix}x_{1} & x_{0}\\ x_{0} & x_{1} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & -\sinh\eta\\ -\sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix}\\ \begin{bmatrix}x_{1} & x_{0}\\ x_{0} & x_{1} \end{bmatrix} & =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{2} & \sinh\eta_{2}\\ \sinh\eta_{2} & \cosh\eta_{2} \end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right) & \sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)\\ \sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right) & \cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right) \end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{1} & \sinh\eta_{1}\\ \sinh\eta_{1} & \cosh\eta_{1} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix} & & =\begin{bmatrix}x_{1}^{\prime} & x_{0}^{\prime}\\ x_{0}^{\prime} & x_{1}^{\prime} \end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta \end{bmatrix} \end{align} }</math>|{{equationRef|3c}}}} Hyperbolic angle sum laws were given by [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]] and [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768–1770)]] and many others, while matrix representations were given by [[#Glaisher|Glaisher (1878)]] and [[#Gunther1|Günther (1880/81)]]. Using the idendity <math>\cosh\eta+\sinh\eta=e^{\eta}</math>, Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) assumes a simple form by using [[w:squeeze mapping]]s in analogy to Euler's formula in [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#math_2c|E:'''(2c)''']]:<ref name=rind>Rindler (1969), p. 45</ref> {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\ \hline \begin{matrix}\begin{aligned}x_{1}^{\prime}-x_{0}^{\prime} & =k\left(x_{1}-x_{0}\right)\\ x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime} & =\frac{1}{k}\left(x_{1}+x_{0}\right) \end{aligned} & \Rightarrow & \begin{aligned}x_{1}^{\prime}-x_{0}^{\prime} & =e^{\eta}\left(x_{1}-x_{0}\right)\\ x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime} & =e^{-\eta}\left(x_{1}+x_{0}\right) \end{aligned} \end{matrix}\\ \hline k=e^{\eta}=\cosh\eta+\sinh\eta=\sqrt{\frac{1+\tanh\eta}{1-\tanh\eta}}=\sqrt{\frac{1+v}{1-v}} \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|3d}}}} Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|3d}}) for arbitrary ''k'' were given by many authors (see [[../Lorentz transformation (squeeze)|E:Lorentz transformations via squeeze mappings]]), while a form similar to <math>k=\sqrt{\tfrac{1+v}{1-v}}</math> was given by [[#Lipschitz1|Lipschitz (1885/86)]], and the exponential form was used by [[#Lindemann|Lindemann (1890/91)]], [[#Elliott|Elliott (1903)]], [[#Herglotz1|Herglotz (1909)]]. ===Hyperbolic law of cosines=== By adding an unchanged third coordinate <math>x_{2}^{\prime}=x_{2}</math> in Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3b}}) and interpreting <math>x_{0},x_{1},x_{2}</math> as [[w:homogeneous coordinates]], the Lorentz transformation can be rewritten in line with equation [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#math_1b|E:'''(1b)''']] by using coordinates <math>[u_{1},\ u_{2}]=\left[\tfrac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ \tfrac{x_{2}}{x_{0}}\right]</math> defined by <math>u_{1}^{2}+u_{2}^{2}\le1</math> inside the [[w:unit circle]] as follows: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{align} & \quad\quad(A) & & \quad\quad(B) & & \quad\quad(C)\\ u_{1}^{\prime} & =\frac{-\sinh\eta+u_{1}\cosh\eta}{\cosh\eta-u_{1}\sinh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{1}-\tanh\eta}{1-u_{1}\tanh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{1}-v}{1-u_{1}v}\\ u_{2}^{\prime} & =\frac{u_{2}}{\cosh\eta-u_{1}\sinh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{2}\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1-u_{1}\tanh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{2}\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-u_{1}v}\\ \\ u_{1} & =\frac{\sinh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta}{\cosh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{1}^{\prime}+\tanh\eta}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{1}^{\prime}+v}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}v}\\ u_{2} & =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}}{\cosh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta} & & =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}v} \end{align} </math>|{{equationRef|3e}}}} Transformations (A) were given by [[#Escherich|Escherich (1874)]] and [[#Killing2|Killing (1898)]], and transformations (C) by [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]] and [[#Schur|Schur (1885/86, 1900/02)]] in terms of [[w:Beltrami–Klein model|Beltrami coordinates]]<ref>Rosenfeld (1988), p. 231</ref> of hyperbolic geometry. By using the scalar product of <math>\left[u_{1},u_{2}\right]</math>, the resulting Lorentz transformation can be seen as equivalent to the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:<ref name=pau>Pauli (1921), p. 561</ref><ref group=R name=var>Varićak (1912), p. 108</ref><ref name=barr>Barrett (2006), chapter 4, section 2</ref> {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix} & \begin{matrix}u^{2}=u_{1}^{2}+u_{2}^{2}\\ u'^{2}=u_{1}^{\prime2}+u_{2}^{\prime2} \end{matrix}\left|\begin{matrix}u_{1}=u\cos\alpha\\ u_{2}=u\sin\alpha\\ \\ u_{1}^{\prime}=u'\cos\alpha'\\ u_{2}^{\prime}=u'\sin\alpha' \end{matrix}\right|\begin{align}u\cos\alpha & =\frac{u'\cos\alpha'+v}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'}, & u'\cos\alpha' & =\frac{u\cos\alpha-v}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\ u\sin\alpha & =\frac{u'\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'}, & u'\sin\alpha' & =\frac{u\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\ \tan\alpha & =\frac{u'\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{u'\cos\alpha'+v}, & \tan\alpha' & =\frac{u\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{u\cos\alpha-v} \end{align} \\ \Rightarrow & u=\frac{\sqrt{v^{2}+u^{\prime2}+2vu'\cos\alpha'-\left(vu'\sin\alpha'\right){}^{2}}}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'},\quad u'=\frac{\sqrt{-v^{2}-u^{2}+2vu\cos\alpha+\left(vu\sin\alpha\right){}^{2}}}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\ \Rightarrow & \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-u^{\prime2}}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-u^{2}}}-\frac{v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\frac{u}{\sqrt{1-u^{2}}}\cos\alpha & (B)\\ \Rightarrow & \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\xi}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\zeta}}-\frac{\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}\frac{\tanh\zeta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\zeta}}\cos\alpha\\ \Rightarrow & \cosh\xi=\cosh\eta\cosh\zeta-\sinh\eta\sinh\zeta\cos\alpha & (A) \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|3f}}}} The hyperbolic law of cosines (A) was given by [[#Taurinus|Taurinus (1826) and Lobachevsky (1829/30)]] and others, while variant (B) was given by [[#Schur|Schur (1900/02)]]. By further setting <math>\tanh\xi=\tanh\zeta=1</math> or <math>u'=u=1</math> it follows: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}(A) & \ \cos\alpha=\frac{\cos\alpha'+\tanh\eta}{1+\tanh\eta\cos\alpha'}; & \ \sin\alpha=\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1+\tanh\eta\cos\alpha'}; & \ \tan\alpha=\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{\cos\alpha'+\tanh\eta}; & \ \tan\frac{\alpha}{2}=\sqrt{\frac{1-\tanh\eta}{1+\tanh\eta}}\tan\frac{\alpha'}{2}\\ & \ \cos\alpha'=\frac{\cos\alpha-\tanh\eta}{1-\tanh\eta\cos\alpha}; & \ \sin\alpha'=\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1-\tanh\eta\cos\alpha}; & \ \tan\alpha'=\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{\cos\alpha-\tanh\eta}; & \ \tan\frac{\alpha'}{2}=\sqrt{\frac{1+\tanh\eta}{1-\tanh\eta}}\tan\frac{\alpha}{2}\\ \\ (B) & \ \cos\alpha=\frac{\cos\alpha'+v}{1+v\cos\alpha'}; & \ \sin\alpha=\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+v\cos\alpha'}; & \ \tan\alpha=\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{\cos\alpha'+v}; & \ \tan\frac{\alpha}{2}=\sqrt{\frac{1-v}{1+v}}\tan\frac{\alpha'}{2}\\ & \ \cos\alpha'=\frac{\cos\alpha-v}{1-v\cos\alpha}; & \ \sin\alpha'=\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-v\cos\alpha}; & \ \tan\alpha'=\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{\cos\alpha-v}; & \ \tan\frac{\alpha'}{2}=\sqrt{\frac{1+v}{1-v}}\tan\frac{\alpha}{2} \end{matrix} </math>|{{equationRef|3g}}}} Formulas (3g-B) are the equations of an [[w:ellipse]] of [[w:Orbital eccentricity|eccentricity]] ''v'', [[w:eccentric anomaly]] α' and [[w:true anomaly]] α, first geometrically formulated by [[#Euler|Kepler (1609)]] and explicitly written down by [[#Euler|Euler (1735, 1748), Lagrange (1770)]] and many others in relation to planetary motions. They were also used by [[../Lorentz transformation (conformal)#Darboux|E:Darboux (1873)]] as a sphere transformation. In special relativity, these formulas describes the aberration of light, see [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#Velocity addition and aberration|E:velocity addition and aberration]]. ==Historical notation== ==={{anchor|Euler}} Euler (1735) – True and eccentric anomaly=== [[w:Johannes Kepler]] (1609) geometrically formulated [[w:Kepler's equation]] and the relations between the [[w:mean anomaly]], [[w:true anomaly]], and [[w:eccentric anomaly]].<ref group=M>Kepler (1609), chapter 60. The editors of Kepler's collected papers remark (p. 482), that Kepler's relations correspond to <math>{\scriptstyle \alpha=\beta+e\sin\beta}</math> and <math>{\scriptstyle \cos\nu=\frac{e+\cos\beta}{1+e\cos\beta}}</math> and <math>{\scriptstyle \cos\beta=\frac{\cos\nu-e}{1-e\cos\nu}}</math></ref><ref>Volk (1976), p. 366</ref> The relation between the true anomaly ''z'' and the eccentric anomaly ''P'' was algebraically expressed by [[w:Leonhard Euler]] (1735/40) as follows:<ref group=M>Euler (1735/40), § 19</ref> :<math>\cos z=\frac{\cos P+v}{1+v\cos P},\ \cos P=\frac{\cos z-v}{1-v\cos z},\ \int P=\frac{\int z\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-v\cos z}</math> and in 1748:<ref group=M>Euler (1748a), section VIII</ref> :<math>\cos z=\frac{n+\cos y}{1+n\cos y},\ \sin z=\frac{\sin y\sqrt{1-n^{2}}}{1+n\cos y},\ \tan z=\frac{\sin y\sqrt{1-n^{2}}}{n+\cos y}</math> while [[w:Joseph-Louis Lagrange]] (1770/71) expressed them as follows<ref group=M>Lagrange (1770/71), section I</ref> :<math>\sin u=\frac{m\sin x}{1+n\cos x},\ \cos u=\frac{n+\cos x}{1+n\cos x},\ \operatorname{tang}\frac{1}{2}u=\frac{m}{1+n}\operatorname{tang}\frac{1}{2}x,\ \left(m^{2}=1-n^{2}\right)</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black"> These relations resemble formulas ({{equationNote|3g}}), while ({{equationNote|3f}}) follows by setting <math>[\cos z,\sin z]=\left[u_{x},u_{y}\right]</math> in Euler's formulas or <math>[\cos u,\sin u]=\left[u_{x},u_{y}\right]</math> in Lagrange's formulas.</p> ==={{anchor|Riccati}} Riccati (1757) – hyperbolic addition=== [[w:Vincenzo Riccati]] introduced hyperbolic functions in 1757,<ref group=M>Riccati (1757), p. 71</ref><ref group=M>Günther (1880/81), pp. 7–13</ref> in particular he formulated the angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine: :<math>\begin{matrix}\mathrm{Ch}(\varphi+\pi)=\frac{\mathrm{Ch}\varphi\mathrm{Ch}\pi+\mathrm{Sh}\varphi\mathrm{Sh}\pi}{r}\\ \mathrm{Sh}(\varphi+\pi)=\frac{\mathrm{Ch}\varphi\mathrm{Sh}\pi+\mathrm{Ch}\pi\mathrm{Sh}\varphi}{r}\\ \left[\mathrm{Ch}^{2}-\mathrm{Sh}^{2}=rr\right] \end{matrix}</math> He furthermore showed that <math>\mathrm{Ch}(\varphi-\pi)</math> and <math>\mathrm{Sh}(\varphi-\pi)</math> follow by setting <math>\mathrm{Ch}(\pi)\Rightarrow\mathrm{Ch}(-\pi)</math> and <math>\mathrm{Sh}(\pi)\Rightarrow\mathrm{Sh}(-\pi)</math> in the above formulas. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine can be interpreted as hyperbolic rotations of points on a hyperbola, as in Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3c}}). (In modern publications, Riccati's additional factor ''r'' is set to unity.)</p> ==={{anchor|Lambert}} Lambert (1768–1770) – hyperbolic addition=== While [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]] discussed the hyperbolic sine and cosine, [[w:Johann Heinrich Lambert]] (read 1767, published 1768) introduced the expression ''tang φ'' or abbreviated ''tφ'' as the [[w:tangens hyperbolicus]] <math>{\scriptstyle \frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{e^{u}+e^{-u}}}</math> of a variable ''u'', or in modern notation ''tφ=tanh(u)'':<ref group=M>Lambert (1761/68), pp. 309–318</ref><ref>Barnett (2004), pp. 22–23</ref> :<math>\left.\begin{align}\xi\xi-1 & =\eta\eta & (a)\\ 1+\eta\eta & =\xi\xi & (b)\\ \frac{\eta}{\xi} & =tang\ \phi=t\phi & (c)\\ \xi & =\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-t\phi^{2}}} & (d)\\ \eta & =\frac{t\phi}{\sqrt{1-t\phi^{2}}} & (e)\\ t\phi'' & =\frac{t\phi+t\phi'}{1+t\phi\cdot t\phi'} & (f)\\ t\phi' & =\frac{t\phi''-t\phi}{1-t\phi\cdot t\phi''} & (g) \end{align} \right|\begin{align}2u & =\log\frac{1+t\phi}{1-t\phi}\\ \xi & =\frac{e^{u}+e^{-u}}{2}\\ \eta & =\frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{2}\\ t\phi & =\frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{e^{u}+e^{-u}}\\ e^{u} & =\xi+\eta\\ e^{-u} & =\xi-\eta \end{align}</math> In (1770) he rewrote the addition law for the hyperbolic tangens (f) or (g) as:<ref group=M>Lambert (1770), p. 335</ref> :<math>\begin{align}t(y+z) & =(ty+tz):(1+ty\cdot tz) & (f)\\ t(y-z) & =(ty-tz):(1-ty\cdot tz) & (g) \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The hyperbolic relations (a,b,c,d,e,f) are equivalent to the hyperbolic relations on the right of ({{equationNote|3b}}). Relations (f,g) can also be found in ({{equationNote|3e}}). By setting ''tφ=v/c'', formula (c) becomes the relative velocity between two frames, (d) the [[w:Lorentz factor]], (e) the [[w:proper velocity]], (f) or (g) becomes the Lorentz transformation of velocity (or relativistic [[w:velocity addition formula]]) for collinear velocities in [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4a|E:'''(4a)''']] and [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']].</p> Lambert also formulated the addition laws for the hyperbolic cosine and sine (Lambert's "cos" and "sin" actually mean "cosh" and "sinh"): :<math>\begin{align}\sin(y+z) & =\sin y\cos z+\cos y\sin z\\ \sin(y-z) & =\sin y\cos z-\cos y\sin z\\ \cos(y+z) & =\cos y\cos z+\sin y\sin z\\ \cos(y-z) & =\cos y\cos z-\sin y\sin z \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine can be interpreted as hyperbolic rotations of points on a hyperbola, as in Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3c}}).</p> ==={{Anchor|Taurinus}} Taurinus (1826) – Hyperbolic law of cosines=== After the addition theorem for the tangens hyperbolicus was given by [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768)]], [[w:hyperbolic geometry]] was used by [[w:Franz Taurinus]] (1826), and later by [[w:Nikolai Lobachevsky]] (1829/30) and others, to formulate the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:<ref group=M>Taurinus (1826), p. 66; see also p. 272 in the translation by Engel and Stäckel (1899)</ref><ref>Bonola (1912), p. 79</ref><ref>Gray (1979), p. 242</ref> :<math>A=\operatorname{arccos}\frac{\cos\left(\alpha\sqrt{-1}\right)-\cos\left(\beta\sqrt{-1}\right)\cos\left(\gamma\sqrt{-1}\right)}{\sin\left(\beta\sqrt{-1}\right)\sin\left(\gamma\sqrt{-1}\right)}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">When solved for <math>\cos\left(\alpha\sqrt{-1}\right)</math> it corresponds to the Lorentz transformation in Beltrami coordinates ({{equationNote|3f}}), and by defining the rapidities <math>{\scriptstyle \left(\left[\frac{U}{c},\ \frac{v}{c},\ \frac{u}{c}\right]=\left[\tanh\alpha,\ \tanh\beta,\ \tanh\gamma\right]\right)}</math> it corresponds to the relativistic velocity addition formula [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4e|E:'''(4e)''']].</p> ==={{anchor|Beltrami}} Beltrami (1868) – Beltrami coordinates=== [[w:Eugenio Beltrami]] (1868a) introduced coordinates of the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model]] of hyperbolic geometry, and formulated the corresponding transformations in terms of homographies:<ref group=M>Beltrami (1868a), pp. 287-288; Note I; Note II</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}ds^{2}=R^{2}\frac{\left(a^{2}+v^{2}\right)du^{2}-2uv\,du\,dv+\left(a^{2}+v^{2}\right)dv^{2}}{\left(a^{2}+u^{2}+v^{2}\right)^{2}}\\ u^{2}+v^{2}=a^{2}\\ \hline u''=\frac{aa_{0}\left(u'-r_{0}\right)}{a^{2}-r_{0}u'},\ v''=\frac{a_{0}w_{0}v'}{a^{2}-r_{0}u'},\\ \left(r_{0}=\sqrt{u_{0}^{2}+v_{0}^{2}},\ w_{0}=\sqrt{a^{2}-r_{0}^{2}}\right)\\ \hline ds^{2}=R^{2}\frac{\left(a^{2}-v^{2}\right)du^{2}+2uv\,du\,dv+\left(a^{2}-v^{2}\right)dv^{2}}{\left(a^{2}-u^{2}-v^{2}\right)^{2}}\\ (R=R\sqrt{-1},\ a=a\sqrt{-1}) \end{matrix}</math> (where the disk radius ''a'' and the [[w:radius of curvature]] ''R'' are real in spherical geometry, in hyperbolic geometry they are imaginary), and for arbitrary dimensions in (1868b)<ref group=M>Beltrami (1868b), pp. 232, 240–241, 253–254</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}ds=R\frac{\sqrt{dx^{2}+dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+\cdots+dx_{n}^{2}}}{x}\\ x^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}=a^{2}\\ \hline y_{1}=\frac{ab\left(x_{1}-a_{1}\right)}{a^{2}-a_{1}x_{1}}\ \text{or}\ x_{1}=\frac{a\left(ay_{1}+a_{1}b\right)}{ab+a_{1}y_{1}},\ x_{r}=\pm\frac{ay_{r}\sqrt{a^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}}{ab+a_{1}y_{1}}\ (r=2,3,\dots,n)\\ \hline ds=R\frac{\sqrt{dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+\cdots+dx_{n}^{2}-dx^{2}}}{x}\\ x^{2}=a^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}\\ \left(R=R\sqrt{-1},\ x=x\sqrt{-1},\ a=a\sqrt{-1}\right) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Setting ''a=a<sub>0</sub>'' Beltrami's (1868a) formulas become formulas ({{equationNote|3e}}), or in his (1868b) formulas one sets ''a=b'' for arbitrary dimensions.</p> === {{anchor|Laisant2}} Laisant (1874) – Equipollences=== In his French translation of [[w:Giusto Bellavitis]]' principal work on [[w:Equipollence (geometry)|w:equipollences]], [[w:Charles-Ange Laisant]] (1874) added a chapter related to hyperbolas. The equipollence OM and its tangent MT of a hyperbola is defined by Laisant as<ref group=M>Laisant (1874b), pp. 134–135</ref> :(1) <math>\begin{matrix} & \mathrm{OM}\bumpeq x\mathrm{OA}+y\mathrm{OB}\\ & \mathrm{MT}\bumpeq y\mathrm{OA}+x\mathrm{OB}\\ & \left[x^{2}-y^{2}=1;\ x=\cosh t,\ y=\sinh t\right]\\ \Rightarrow & \mathrm{OM}\bumpeq\cosh t\cdot\mathrm{OA}+\sinh t\cdot\mathrm{OB} \end{matrix}</math> Here, OA and OB are [[w:Conjugate diameters|conjugate semi-diameters]] of a hyperbola with OB being imaginary, both of which he related to two other conjugated semi-diameters OC and OD by the following transformation: :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{align}\mathrm{OC} & \bumpeq c\mathrm{OA}+d\mathrm{OB} & \qquad & & \mathrm{OA} & \bumpeq c\mathrm{OC}-d\mathrm{OD}\\ \mathrm{OD} & \bumpeq d\mathrm{OA}+c\mathrm{OB} & & & \mathrm{OB} & \bumpeq-d\mathrm{OC}+c\mathrm{OD} \end{align} \\ \left[c^{2}-d^{2}=1\right] \end{matrix}</math> producing the invariant relation :<math>(\mathrm{OC})^{2}-(\mathrm{OD})^{2}\bumpeq(\mathrm{OA})^{2}-(\mathrm{OB})^{2}</math>. Substituting into (1), he showed that OM retains its form :<math>\begin{matrix}\mathrm{OM}\bumpeq(cx-dy)\mathrm{OC}+(cy-dx)\mathrm{OD}\\ \left[(cx-dy)^{2}-(cy-dx)^{2}=1\right] \end{matrix}</math> He also defined velocity and acceleration by differentiation of (1). <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">These relations are equivalent to several Lorentz boosts or hyperbolic rotations producing the invariant Lorentz interval in line with ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Escherich}} Escherich (1874) – Beltrami coordinates=== [[w:Gustav von Escherich]] (1874) discussed the plane of constant negative curvature<ref>Sommerville (1911), p. 297</ref> based on the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model]] of hyperbolic geometry by [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]]. Similar to [[w:Christoph Gudermann]] (1830)<ref name=guder group=M>Gudermann (1830), §1–3, §18–19</ref> who introduced axial coordinates ''x''=tan(a) and ''y''=tan(b) in sphere geometry in order to perform coordinate transformations in the case of rotation and translation, Escherich used hyperbolic functions ''x''=tanh(a/k) and ''y''=tanh(b/k)<ref group=M>Escherich (1874), p. 508</ref> in order to give the corresponding coordinate transformations for the hyperbolic plane, which for the case of translation have the form:<ref group=M name=escher>Escherich (1874), p. 510</ref> :<math>x=\frac{\sinh\frac{a}{k}+x'\cosh\frac{a}{k}}{\cosh\frac{a}{k}+x'\sinh\frac{a}{k}}</math> and <math>y=\frac{y'}{\cosh\frac{a}{k}+x'\sinh\frac{a}{k}}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}), also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] by setting <math>\tfrac{a}{k}=\operatorname{atanh}\tfrac{v}{c}</math> and multiplying ''[x,y,x′,y′]'' by 1/''c'', and equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) by setting <math>\scriptstyle (x,\ y,\ x',\ y')=\left(\frac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ \frac{x_{2}}{x_{0}},\ \frac{x_{1}^{\prime}}{x_{0}^{\prime}},\ \frac{x_{2}^{\prime}}{x_{0}^{\prime}}\right)</math>. This is the relation between the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model|Beltrami coordinates]] in terms of Gudermann-Escherich coordinates, and the Weierstrass coordinates of the [[w:hyperboloid model]] introduced by [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Killing1|E:Killing (1878–1893)]], [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Poincare|E:Poincaré (1881)]], and [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Cox|E:Cox (1881)]]. Both coordinate systems were compared by Cox (1881).<ref group=M>Cox (1881), p. 186</ref></p> ==={{anchor|Glaisher}} Glaisher (1878) – hyperbolic addition=== It was shown by [[w:James Whitbread Lee Glaisher]] (1878) that the hyperbolic addition laws can be expressed by matrix multiplication:<ref group=M>Glaisher (1878), p. 30</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{vmatrix}\cosh x, & \sinh x\\ \sinh x, & \cosh x \end{vmatrix}=1,\ \begin{vmatrix}\cosh y, & \sinh y\\ \sinh y, & \cosh y \end{vmatrix}=1\\ \text{by multiplication:}\\ \Rightarrow\begin{vmatrix}c_{1}c_{2}+s_{1}s_{2}, & s_{1}c_{2}+c_{1}s_{2}\\ c_{1}s_{2}+s_{1}c_{2}, & s_{1}s_{2}+c_{1}c_{2} \end{vmatrix}=1\\ \text{where}\ \left[c_{1},c_{2},c_{3},c_{4}\right]=\left[\cosh x,\cosh y,\sinh x,\sinh y\right] \\ \Rightarrow\begin{vmatrix}\cosh(x+y), & \sinh(x+y)\\ \sinh(x+y), & \cosh(x+y) \end{vmatrix}=1 \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">In this matrix representation, the analogy between the hyperbolic angle sum laws and the Lorentz boost becomes obvious: In particular, the matrix <math>\scriptstyle\begin{vmatrix}\cosh y, & \sinh y\\ \sinh y, & \cosh y\end{vmatrix}</math> producing the hyperbolic addition is analogous to matrix <math>\scriptstyle\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta\end{bmatrix}</math> producing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3c}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Gunther1}} Günther (1880/81) – hyperbolic addition === Following [[#Glaisher|Glaisher (1878)]], [[w:Siegmund Günther]] (1880/81) expressed the hyperbolic addition laws by matrix multiplication:<ref group=M>Günther (1880/81), p. 405</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,x, & \mathfrak{Sin}\,x\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,x, & \mathfrak{Cos}\,x \end{vmatrix}\cdot\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,y, & \mathfrak{Sin}\,y\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,y, & \mathfrak{Cos}\,y \end{vmatrix}\\ =\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y+\mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, & \mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y+\mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y+\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, & \mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y+\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y \end{vmatrix}\\ =\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,(x+y), & \mathfrak{Sin}\,(x+y)\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,(x+y), & \mathfrak{Cos}\,(x+y) \end{vmatrix}=1 \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">In this matrix representation, the analogy between the hyperbolic angle sum laws and the Lorentz boost becomes obvious: In particular, the matrix <math>\scriptstyle\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,y, & \mathfrak{Sin}\,y\\ \mathfrak{Sin}\,y, & \mathfrak{Cos}\,y \end{vmatrix}</math> producing the hyperbolic addition is analogous to matrix <math>\scriptstyle\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta & \sinh\eta\\ \sinh\eta & \cosh\eta\end{bmatrix}</math> producing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3c}}).</p> === {{anchor|Cox}} Cox (1881/82) – Weierstrass coordinates === [[w:Homersham Cox (mathematician)|w:Homersham Cox]] (1881/82) defined the case of translation in the hyperbolic plane with the ''y''-axis remaining unchanged:<ref group=M name=cox>Cox (1881/82), p. 194</ref> :<math>\begin{align}X & =x\cosh p-z\sinh p\\ Z & =-x\sinh p+z\cosh p \\ \\ x & =X\cosh p+Z\sinh p\\ z & =X\sinh p+Z\cosh p \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Lipschitz1}} Lipschitz (1885/86) – Quadratic forms === [[w:Rudolf Lipschitz]] (1885/86) formulated transformations leaving invariant the sum of squares <math>x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}\dots+x_{n}^{2}=y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n}^{2}</math>, which he rewrote as <math>x_{1}^{2}-y_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}-y_{2}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}-y_{n}^{2}=0</math>. This led to the problem of finding transformations leaving invariant the pairs <math>x_{a}^{2}-y_{a}^{2}</math> (''a''=1...n) for which he gave the following solution:<ref group=M>Lipschitz (1886), pp. 90–92</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x_{a}^{2}-y_{a}^{2}=\mathfrak{x}_{a}^{2}-\mathfrak{y}_{a}^{2}\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{a}-y_{a} & =\left(\mathfrak{x}_{a}-\mathfrak{y}_{a}\right)r_{a}\\ x_{a}+y_{a} & =\left(\mathfrak{x}_{a}+\mathfrak{y}_{a}\right)\frac{1}{r_{a}} \end{align} \quad(a)\\ \hline \begin{matrix}\begin{align}2\mathfrak{x}_{a} & =\left(r_{a}+\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)x_{a}+\left(r_{a}-\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)y_{a}\\ 2\mathfrak{y}_{a} & =\left(r_{a}-\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)x_{a}+\left(r_{a}+\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)y_{a} \end{align} \quad(b)\end{matrix}\\ \hline \left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}}\\ s_{a}>1 \end{matrix}\right\}\Rightarrow\begin{align}\mathfrak{x}_{a} & =\frac{s_{a}x_{a}+y_{a}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}\\ \mathfrak{y}_{a} & =\frac{x_{a}+s_{a}y_{a}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}\sqrt{s_{a}+1}} \end{align} \quad(c) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Equation (a) is identical to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}), while (c) is similar, though not identical, to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}-C). The difference stems from his definition<br><math>\qquad\left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}}\\ s_{a}>1 \end{matrix}\right\}</math><br>whereas in accordance to expression <math>\sqrt{\tfrac{1+v}{1-v}}</math> with <math>v<1</math> in ({{equationNote|3d}}) he should have stated <br><math>\qquad\left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}}\\ s_{a}<1 \end{matrix}\right\}</math>.<br>Using the latter choice, equations (c) would assume a form equivalent to ({{equationNote|3b}}):<br><math>\qquad\begin{align}\mathfrak{x}_{a} & =\frac{x_{a}+s_{a}y_{a}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}\\ \mathfrak{y}_{a} & =\frac{s_{a}x_{a}+y_{a}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}\end{align}</math></p> ==={{Anchor|Schur}} Schur (1885/86, 1900/02) – Beltrami coordinates=== [[w:Friedrich Schur]] (1885/86) discussed spaces of constant Riemann curvature, and by following [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]] he used the transformation<ref group=M>Schur (1885/86), p. 167</ref> :<math>x_{1}=R^{2}\frac{y_{1}+a_{1}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}},\ x_{2}=R\sqrt{R^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}\frac{y_{2}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}},\dots,\ x_{n}=R\sqrt{R^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}\frac{y_{n}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and therefore also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] in arbitrary dimensions by setting ''R=c'' as the speed of light and ''a<sub>1</sub>=v'' as relative velocity.</p> In (1900/02) he derived basic formulas of non-Eucliden geometry, including the case of translation for which he obtained the transformation similar to his previous one:<ref group=M>Schur (1900/02), p. 290; (1909), p. 83</ref> :<math>x'=\frac{x-a}{1-\mathfrak{k}ax},\quad y'=\frac{y\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}{1-\mathfrak{k}ax}</math> where <math>\mathfrak{k}</math> can have values >0, <0 or ∞. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and therefore also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] by setting ''a=v'' and <math>\mathfrak{k}=\tfrac{1}{c^{2}}</math>.</p> He also defined the triangle<ref group=M>Schur (1900/02), p. 291; (1909), p. 83</ref> :<math>\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}c^{2}}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}\cdot\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}b^{2}}}-\frac{a}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}\cdot\frac{b}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}b^{2}}}\cos\gamma</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to the hyperbolic law of cosines and the relativistic velocity addition ({{equationNote|3f}}, b) or [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4e|E:'''(4e)''']] by setting <math>[\mathfrak{k},\ c,\ a,\ b]=\left[\tfrac{1}{c^{2}},\ \sqrt{u_{x}^{\prime2}+u_{y}^{\prime2}},\ v,\ \sqrt{u_{x}^{2}+u_{y}^{2}}\right]</math>.</p> ==={{anchor|Lindemann}} Lindemann (1890–91) – Weierstrass coordinates and Cayley absolute=== [[w:Ferdinand von Lindemann]] discussed hyperbolic geometry in terms of the [[w:Cayley–Klein metric]] in his (1890/91) edition of the lectures on geometry of [[w:Alfred Clebsch]]. Citing [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Killing|E:Killing (1885)]] and [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Poincare|Poincaré (1887)]] in relation to the hyperboloid model in terms of Weierstrass coordinates for the hyperbolic plane and space, he set<ref group=M>Lindemann & Clebsch (1890/91), pp. 477–478, 524</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\Omega_{xx}=x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{3}^{2}=-4k^{2}\ \text{and}\ ds^{2}=dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}-4k^{2}dx_{3}^{2}\\ \Omega_{xx}=x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{4}^{2}=-4k^{2}\ \text{and}\ ds^{2}=dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+dx_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}dx_{4}^{2} \end{matrix}</math> and used the following transformation<ref group=M>Lindemann & Clebsch (1890/91), pp. 361–362</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}X_{1}X_{4}+X_{2}X_{3}=0\\ X_{1}X_{4}+X_{2}X_{3}=\Xi_{1}\Xi_{4}+\Xi_{2}\Xi_{3}\\ \hline \begin{align}X_{1} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{1}\right)U_{4} & \Xi_{1} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)U_{4} & X_{1} & =\frac{\lambda+\lambda_{1}}{\lambda-\lambda_{1}}\Xi_{1}\\ X_{2} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{3}\right)U_{4} & \Xi_{2} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)U_{4} & X_{2} & =\frac{\lambda+\lambda_{3}}{\lambda-\lambda_{3}}\Xi_{2}\\ X_{3} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)U_{2} & \Xi_{3} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{3}\right)U_{2} & X_{3} & =\frac{\lambda-\lambda_{3}}{\lambda+\lambda_{3}}\Xi_{3}\\ X_{4} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)U_{1} & \Xi_{4} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{1}\right)U_{1} & X_{4} & =\frac{\lambda-\lambda_{1}}{\lambda+\lambda_{1}}\Xi_{4} \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> into which he put<ref group=M name=linde>Lindemann & Clebsch (1890/91), p. 496</ref> :<math>\begin{align}X_{1} & =x_{1}+2kx_{4}, & X_{2} & =x_{2}+ix_{3}, & \lambda+\lambda_{1} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)e^{a},\\ X_{4} & =x_{1}-2kx_{4}, & X_{3} & =x_{2}-ix_{3}, & \lambda+\lambda_{3} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)e^{\alpha i}, \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}) with <math>e^{\alpha i}=1</math> and ''2k=1'' .</p> From that, he obtained the following Cayley absolute and the corresponding most general motion in hyperbolic space comprising ordinary rotations (''a''=0) or translations (α=0):<ref group=M name=linde /> :<math>\begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{4}^{2}=0\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{2} & =\xi_{2}\cos\alpha+\xi_{3}\sin\alpha, & x_{1} & =\xi_{1}\cos\frac{a}{i}+2ki\xi_{4}\sin\frac{a}{i},\\ x_{3} & =-\xi_{2}\sin\alpha+\xi_{3}\cos\alpha, & 2kx_{4} & =i\xi_{1}\sin\frac{a}{i}+2k\xi_{4}\cos\frac{a}{i}. \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with α=0 and ''2k=1''.</p> ==={{anchor|Gerard}} Gérard (1892) – Weierstrass coordinates=== [[w:Louis Gérard]] (1892) – in a thesis examined by Poincaré – discussed Weierstrass coordinates (without using that name) in the plane and gave the case of translation as follows:<ref group=M name=gerard>Gérard (1892), pp. 40–41</ref> :<math>\begin{align}X & =Z_{0}X'+X_{0}Z'\\ Y & =Y'\\ Z & =X_{0}X'+Z_{0}Z' \end{align} \ \text{with}\ \begin{align}X_{0} & =\operatorname{sh}OO'\\ Z_{0} & =\operatorname{ch}OO' \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Killing2}} Killing (1893,97) – Weierstrass coordinates=== [[w:Wilhelm Killing]] (1878–1880) gave case of translation in the form<ref group=M name=killtra>Killing (1893), p. 331</ref> :<math>y_{0}=x_{0}\operatorname{Ch}a+x_{1}\operatorname{Sh}a,\quad y_{1}=x_{0}\operatorname{Sh}a+x_{1}\operatorname{Ch}a,\quad y_{2}=x_{2}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> In 1898, Killing wrote that relation in a form similar to [[#Escherich|Escherich (1874)]], and derived the corresponding Lorentz transformation for the two cases were ''v'' is unchanged or ''u'' is unchanged:<ref group=M name=kill98>Killing (1898), p. 133</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\xi'=\frac{\xi\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}+l\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}}{\frac{\xi}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}},\ \eta'=\frac{\eta}{\frac{\xi}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}}\\ \hline \frac{u}{p}=\xi,\ \frac{v}{p}=\eta\\ \hline p'=p\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}+\frac{u}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l},\quad u'=pl\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+u\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l},\quad v'=v\\ \text{or}\\ p'=p\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\nu}{l}+\frac{v}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\nu}{l},\quad u'=u,\quad v'=pl\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\nu}{l}+v\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\nu}{l} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The upper transformation system is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and the velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] with ''l=c'' and <math>\mu=c\operatorname{atanh}\tfrac{v}{c}</math>, the system below is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Whitehead}} Whitehead (1897/98) – Universal algebra=== [[w:Alfred North Whitehead]] (1898) discussed the kinematics of hyperbolic space as part of his study of [[w:universal algebra]], and obtained the following transformation:<ref group=M name=white>Whitehead (1898), pp. 459–460</ref> :<math>\begin{align}x' & =\left(\eta\cosh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}+\eta_{1}\sinh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}\right)e+\left(\eta\sinh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}+\eta_{1}\cosh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}\right)e_{1}\\ & \qquad+\left(\eta_{2}\cos\alpha+\eta_{3}\sin\alpha\right)e_{2}+\left(\eta_{3}\cos\alpha-\eta_{2}\sin\alpha\right)e_{3} \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with α=0.</p> ==={{anchor|Elliott}} Elliott (1903) – Invariant theory === [[w:Edwin Bailey Elliott]] (1903) discussed a special cyclical subgroup of ternary linear transformations for which the (unit) determinant of transformation is resoluble into three ordinary algebraical factors, which he pointed out is in direct analogy to a subgroup formed by the following transformations:<ref group=M>Elliott (1903), p. 109</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x=X\cosh\phi+Y\sinh\phi,\quad y=X\sinh\phi+Y\cosh\phi\\ \hline X+Y=e^{-\phi}(x+y),\quad X-Y=e^{\phi}(x-y) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3d}}). The mentioned subgroup corresponds to the one-parameter subgroup generated by Lorentz boosts.</p> ==={{anchor|Woods2}} Woods (1903) – Weierstrass coordinates === [[w:Frederick S. Woods]] (1903, published 1905) gave the case of translation in hyperbolic space:<ref group=M>Woods (1903/05), p. 55</ref> :<math>x_{1}^{\prime}=x_{1}\cos kl+x_{0}\frac{\sin kl}{k},\quad x_{2}^{\prime}=x_{2},\quad x_{2}^{\prime}=x_{3},\quad x_{0}^{\prime}=-x_{1}k\sin kl+x_{0}\cos kl</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with ''k''<sup>2</sup>=-1.</p> and the loxodromic substitution for hyperbolic space:<ref group=M>Woods (1903/05), p. 72</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{align}x_{1}^{\prime} & =x_{1}\cosh\alpha-x_{0}\sinh\alpha\\ x_{2}^{\prime} & =x_{2}\cos\beta-x_{3}\sin\beta\\ x_{3}^{\prime} & =x_{2}\sin\beta+x_{3}\cos\beta\\ x_{0}^{\prime} & =-x_{1}\sinh\alpha+x_{0}\cosh\alpha \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with β=0.</p> ==={{anchor|Liebmann}} Liebmann (1904–05) – Weierstrass coordinates=== [[w:Heinrich Liebmann]] (1904/05) – citing Killing (1885), Gérard (1892), Hausdorff (1899) – gave the case of translation in the hyperbolic plane:<ref group=M name=lieb>Liebmann (1904/05), p. 174</ref> :<math>x_{1}^{\prime}=x'\operatorname{ch}a+p'\operatorname{sh}a,\quad y_{1}^{\prime}=y',\quad p_{1}^{\prime}=x'\operatorname{sh}a+p'\operatorname{ch}a</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Frank}} Frank (1909) – Special relativity=== In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[w:Philipp Frank]] (1909), who derived the Lorentz transformation using ''ψ'' as rapidity:<ref group=R>Frank (1909), pp. 423-425</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x'=x\varphi(a)\,{\rm ch}\,\psi+t\varphi(a)\,{\rm sh}\,\psi\\ t'=-x\varphi(a)\,{\rm sh}\,\psi+t\varphi(a)\,{\rm ch}\,\psi\\ \hline {\rm th}\,\psi=-a,\ {\rm sh}\,\psi=\frac{a}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ {\rm ch}\,\psi=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ \varphi(a)=1\\ \hline x'=\frac{x-at}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ y'=y,\ z'=z,\ t'=\frac{-ax+t}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> === {{anchor|Herglotz1}} Herglotz (1909/10) – Special relativity=== In special relativity, [[w:Gustav Herglotz]] (1909/10) classified the one-parameter Lorentz transformations as loxodromic, hyperbolic, parabolic and elliptic, with the hyperbolic case being:<ref group=R>Herglotz (1909/10), pp. 404-408</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}Z=Z'e^{\vartheta}\\ \begin{aligned}x & =x', & t-z & =(t'-z')e^{\vartheta}\\ y & =y', & t+z & =(t'+z')e^{-\vartheta} \end{aligned} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Varicak}} Varićak (1910) – Special relativity=== In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[w:Vladimir Varićak]] in several papers starting from 1910, who represented the equations of special relativity on the basis of [[w:hyperbolic geometry]] in terms of Weierstrass coordinates. For instance, by setting ''l=ct'' and ''v/c=tanh(u)'' with ''u'' as rapidity he wrote the Lorentz transformation in agreement with ({{equationNote|4b}}):<ref group=R name=var1>Varićak (1910), p. 93</ref> :<math>\begin{align}l' & =-x\operatorname{sh}u+l\operatorname{ch}u,\\ x' & =x\operatorname{ch}u-l\operatorname{sh}u,\\ y' & =y,\quad z'=z,\\ \operatorname{ch}u & =\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v}{c}\right)^{2}}} \end{align} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).</p> He showed the relation of rapidity to the [[w:Gudermannian function]] and the [[w:angle of parallelism]]:<ref group=R name=var1 /> :<math>\frac{v}{c}=\operatorname{th}u=\operatorname{tg}\psi=\sin\operatorname{gd}(u)=\cos\Pi(u)</math> He also related the velocity addition to the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:<ref group=R>Varićak (1910), p. 94</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\operatorname{ch}{u}=\operatorname{ch}{u_{1}}\operatorname ch{u_{2}}+\operatorname{sh}{u_{1}}\operatorname{sh}{u_{2}}\cos\alpha\\ \operatorname{ch}{u_{i}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v_{i}}{c}\right)^{2}}},\ \operatorname{sh}{u_{i}}=\frac{v_{i}}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v_{i}}{c}\right)^{2}}}\\ v=\sqrt{v_{1}^{2}+v_{2}^{2}-\left(\frac{v_{1}v_{2}}{c}\right)^{2}}\ \left(a=\frac{\pi}{2}\right) \end{matrix}</math> ==References== ===Historical mathematical sources=== {{reflist|3|group=M}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bel68sag}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bel68fond}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cox81hom}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cox82hom}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eli03}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|esch74}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eul35}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eul48a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|ger92}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|glai78}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|gud30}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|guen80}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kep09}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil93}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil97}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lag70}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lais74b}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lam67}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lam70}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lieb04}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lind90}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lip86}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|ric57}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu85}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu00}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu09}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|tau26}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|whit98}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo01}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo03}} ===Historical relativity sources=== {{reflist|3|group=R}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|frank09a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|herg10}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|var10}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|var12}} ===Secondary sources=== {{reflist|3}} {{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/secsource|L3}} [[Category:Special Relativity]] [[Category:History of Physics]] dkxjuac1b7w2e5la4tae5oouk457nzl 0 267600 2415808 2398955 2022-08-17T10:52:09Z D.H 52339 /* {{anchor|Klein2}} Möbius transformation, spin transformation, Cayley–Klein parameter */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{../Lorentz transformation (header)}} ==Lorentz transformation via Cayley–Klein parameters, Möbius and spin transformations== The previously mentioned Euler-Rodrigues parameter ''a,b,c,d'' (i.e. Cayley-Hermite parameter in [[../Lorentz transformation (Cayley-Hermite)#math_Q3|E:('''Q3''')]] with ''d=1'') are closely related to Cayley–Klein parameter α,β,γ,δ introduced by [[#Cayley2|Helmholtz (1866/67), Cayley (1879)]] and [[#Klein|Klein (1884)]] to connect Möbius transformations <math>\tfrac{\alpha\zeta+\beta}{\gamma\zeta+\delta}</math> and rotations:<ref group=M>Klein (1896/97), p. 12</ref> :<math>\begin{align}\alpha & =1+ib, & \beta & =-a+ic,\\ \gamma & =a+ic, & \delta & =1-ib. \end{align} </math> thus [[../Lorentz transformation (Cayley-Hermite)#math_Q3|E:('''Q3''')]] becomes: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}=x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}+x_{2}^{\prime2}\\ \hline \mathbf{x}'=\frac{1}{\kappa}\left[\begin{matrix}\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}\right) & \beta\delta-\alpha\gamma & \frac{i}{2}\left(-\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}\right)\\ \gamma\delta+\alpha\beta & \alpha\delta+\beta\gamma & i(\alpha\beta+\gamma\delta)\\ -\frac{i}{2}\left(-\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}\right) & -i(\alpha\gamma+\beta\delta) & \frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}\right) \end{matrix}\right]\cdot\mathbf{x}\\ (\kappa=\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma) \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|Q4}}}} Also the Lorentz transformation can be expressed with variants of the Cayley–Klein parameters: One relates these parameters to a spin-matrix '''D''', the [[w:spin transformation]]s of variables <math>\xi',\eta',\bar{\xi}',\bar{\eta}'</math> (the overline denotes [[w:complex conjugate]]), and the [[w:Möbius transformation]] of <math>\zeta',\bar{\zeta}'</math>. When defined in terms of isometries of hyperblic space (hyperbolic motions), the [[w:Hermitian matrix]] '''u''' associated with these Möbius transformations produces an invariant determinant <math>\det\mathbf{u}=x_{0}^{2}-x_{1}^{2}-x_{2}^{2}-x_{3}^{2}</math> identical to the Lorentz interval. Therefore, these transformations were described by [[w:John Lighton Synge]] as being a "factory for the mass production of Lorentz transformations".<ref name=synge /> It also turns out that the related [[w:spin group]] Spin(3, 1) or [[w:special linear group]] SL(2, C) acts as the [[w:Double cover (topology)|double cover]] of the Lorentz group (one Lorentz transformation corresponds to two spin transformations of different sign), while the [[w:Möbius group]] Con(0,2) or [[w:projective special linear group]] PSL(2, C) is isomorphic to both the Lorentz group and the group of isometries of hyperbolic space. In space, the Möbius/Spin/Lorentz transformations can be written as:<ref>Klein (1928), § 3A</ref><ref name=synge>Synge (1956), ch. IV, 11</ref><ref>Penrose & Rindler (1984), section 2.1</ref><ref name="Lorente 2003, section 4">Lorente (2003), section 4</ref> {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}\zeta=\frac{x_{1}+ix_{2}}{x_{0}-x_{3}}=\frac{x_{0}+x_{3}}{x_{1}-ix_{2}}\rightarrow\zeta'=\frac{\alpha\zeta+\beta}{\gamma\zeta+\delta}\left|\zeta'=\frac{\xi'}{\eta'}\rightarrow\begin{align}\xi' & =\alpha\xi+\beta\eta\\ \eta' & =\gamma\xi+\delta\eta \end{align} \right.\\ \hline \left.\begin{matrix}\mathbf{u}=\left(\begin{matrix}X_{1} & X_{2}\\ X_{3} & X_{4} \end{matrix}\right)=\left(\begin{matrix}\bar{\xi}\xi & \xi\bar{\eta}\\ \bar{\xi}\eta & \bar{\eta}\eta \end{matrix}\right)=\left(\begin{matrix}x_{0}+x_{3} & x_{1}-ix_{2}\\ x_{1}+ix_{2} & x_{0}-x_{3} \end{matrix}\right)\\ \det\mathbf{u}=x_{0}^{2}-x_{1}^{2}-x_{2}^{2}-x_{3}^{2} \end{matrix}\right|\begin{matrix}\mathbf{D}=\left(\begin{matrix}\alpha & \beta\\ \gamma & \delta \end{matrix}\right)\\ \begin{align}\det\boldsymbol{\mathbf{D}} & =1\end{align} \end{matrix}\\ \hline \mathbf{u}'=\mathbf{D}\cdot\mathbf{u}\cdot\bar{\mathbf{D}}^{\mathrm{T}}=\begin{align}X_{1}^{\prime} & =X_{1}\alpha\bar{\alpha}+X_{2}\alpha\bar{\beta}+X_{3}\bar{\alpha}\beta+X_{4}\beta\bar{\beta}\\ X_{2}^{\prime} & =X_{1}\bar{\alpha}\gamma+X_{2}\bar{\alpha}\delta+X_{3}\bar{\beta}\gamma+X_{4}\bar{\beta}\delta\\ X_{3}^{\prime} & =X_{1}\alpha\bar{\gamma}+X_{2}\alpha\bar{\delta}+X_{3}\beta\bar{\gamma}+X_{4}\beta\bar{\delta}\\ X_{4}^{\prime} & =X_{1}\gamma\bar{\gamma}+X_{2}\gamma\bar{\delta}+X_{3}\bar{\gamma}\delta+X_{4}\delta\bar{\delta} \end{align} \\ \hline \begin{align}X_{3}^{\prime}X_{2}^{\prime}-X_{1}^{\prime}X_{4}^{\prime} & =X_{3}X_{2}-X_{1}X_{4}=0\\ \det\mathbf{u}'=x_{0}^{\prime2}-x_{1}^{\prime2}-x_{2}^{\prime2}-x_{3}^{\prime2} & =\det\mathbf{u}=x_{0}^{2}-x_{1}^{2}-x_{2}^{2}-x_{3}^{2} \end{align} \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|6a}}}} thus:<ref>Penrose & Rindler (1984), p. 17</ref> {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}+x_{2}^{\prime2}+x_{3}^{\prime2}\\ \hline \mathbf{x}'=\frac{1}{2}\left[{\scriptstyle \begin{align} & \alpha\bar{\alpha}+\beta\bar{\beta}+\gamma\bar{\gamma}+\delta\bar{\delta} & & \alpha\bar{\beta}+\beta\bar{\alpha}+\gamma\bar{\delta}+\delta\bar{\gamma} & & i(\alpha\bar{\beta}-\beta\bar{\alpha}+\gamma\bar{\delta}-\delta\bar{\gamma}) & & \alpha\bar{\alpha}-\beta\bar{\beta}+\gamma\bar{\gamma}-\delta\bar{\delta}\\ & \alpha\bar{\gamma}+\gamma\bar{\alpha}+\beta\bar{\delta}+\delta\bar{\beta} & & \alpha\bar{\delta}+\delta\bar{\alpha}+\beta\bar{\gamma}+\gamma\bar{\beta} & & i(\alpha\bar{\delta}-\delta\bar{\alpha}+\gamma\bar{\beta}-\beta\bar{\gamma}) & & \alpha\bar{\gamma}+\gamma\bar{\alpha}-\beta\bar{\delta}-\delta\bar{\beta}\\ & i(\gamma\bar{\alpha}-\alpha\bar{\gamma}+\delta\bar{\beta}-\beta\bar{\delta}) & & i(\delta\bar{\alpha}-\alpha\bar{\delta}+\gamma\bar{\beta}-\beta\bar{\gamma}) & & \alpha\bar{\delta}+\delta\bar{\alpha}-\beta\bar{\gamma}-\gamma\bar{\beta} & & i(\gamma\bar{\alpha}-\alpha\bar{\gamma}+\beta\bar{\delta}-\delta\bar{\beta})\\ & \alpha\bar{\alpha}+\beta\bar{\beta}-\gamma\bar{\gamma}-\delta\bar{\delta} & & \alpha\bar{\beta}+\beta\bar{\alpha}-\gamma\bar{\delta}-\delta\bar{\gamma} & & i(\alpha\bar{\beta}-\beta\bar{\alpha}+\delta\bar{\gamma}-\gamma\bar{\delta}) & & \alpha\bar{\alpha}-\beta\bar{\beta}-\gamma\bar{\gamma}+\delta\bar{\delta} \end{align} }\right]\cdot\mathbf{x}\\ (\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma=1) \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|6b}}}} or in line with [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#math_1b|E:general Lorentz transformation ('''1b''')]] one can substitute <math>\left[u_{1},\ u_{2},\ u_{3},\ 1\right]=\left[\tfrac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ \tfrac{x_{2}}{x_{0}},\ \tfrac{x_{3}}{x_{0}},\ \tfrac{x_{0}}{x_{0}}\right]</math> so that the Möbius/Lorentz transformations become related to the unit sphere: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}u_{1}^{2}+u_{2}^{2}+u_{3}^{2}=u_{1}^{\prime2}+u_{2}^{\prime2}+u_{3}^{\prime2}=1\\ \hline \left.\begin{matrix}\zeta=\frac{u_{1}+iu_{2}}{1-u_{3}}=\frac{1+u_{3}}{u_{1}-iu_{2}}\\ \zeta'=\frac{u_{1}^{\prime}+iu_{2}^{\prime}}{1-u_{3}^{\prime}}=\frac{1+u_{3}^{\prime}}{u_{1}^{\prime}-iu_{2}^{\prime}} \end{matrix}\right|\quad\zeta'=\frac{\alpha\zeta+\beta}{\gamma\zeta+\delta} \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|6c}}}} The general transformation '''u′''' in ({{equationNote|6a}}) was given by [[#Cayley2|Cayley (1854)]], while the general relation between Möbius transformations and transformation '''u′''' leaving invariant the [[w:generalized circle]] was pointed out by [[#Poincare2|Poincaré (1883)]] in relation to [[w:Kleinian group]]s. The adaptation to the Lorentz interval by which ({{equationNote|6a}}) becomes a Lorentz transformation was given by [[#Klein2|Klein (1889-1893, 1896/97)]], [[#Bianchi2|Bianchi (1893)]], [[#Fricke|Fricke (1893, 1897)]]. Its reformulation as Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6b}}) was provided by [[#Bianchi2|Bianchi (1893)]] and [[#Fricke|Fricke (1893, 1897)]]. Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6c}}) was given by [[#Klein2|Klein (1884)]] in relation to surfaces of second degree and the invariance of the unit sphere. In relativity, ({{equationNote|6a}}) was first employed by [[#Herglotz1|Herglotz (1909/10)]]. In the plane, the transformations can be written as:<ref name=k28>Klein (1928), § 2A</ref><ref name="Lorente 2003, section 4"/> {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}\zeta=\frac{x_{1}}{x_{0}-x_{2}}=\frac{x_{0}+x_{2}}{x_{1}}\rightarrow\zeta'=\frac{\alpha\zeta+\beta}{\gamma\zeta+\delta}\left|\zeta'=\frac{\xi'}{\eta'}\rightarrow\begin{align}\xi' & =\alpha\xi+\beta\eta\\ \eta' & =\gamma\xi+\delta\eta \end{align} \right.\\ \hline \left.\begin{matrix}\mathbf{u}=\left(\begin{matrix}X_{1} & X_{2}\\ X_{2} & X_{3} \end{matrix}\right)=\left(\begin{matrix}\xi^{2} & \xi\eta\\ \xi\eta & \eta^{2} \end{matrix}\right)=\left(\begin{matrix}x_{0}+x_{2} & x_{1}\\ x_{1} & x_{0}-x_{2} \end{matrix}\right)\\ \det\mathbf{u}=x_{0}^{2}-x_{1}^{2}-x_{2}^{2} \end{matrix}\right|\begin{matrix}\mathbf{D}=\left(\begin{matrix}\alpha & \beta\\ \gamma & \delta \end{matrix}\right)\\ \begin{align}\det\boldsymbol{\mathbf{D}} & =1\end{align} \end{matrix}\\ \hline \mathbf{u}'=\mathbf{D}\cdot\mathbf{u}\cdot\mathbf{D}^{\mathrm{T}}=\begin{align}X_{1}^{\prime} & =X_{1}\alpha^{2}+X_{2}2\alpha\beta+X_{3}\beta^{2}\\ X_{2}^{\prime} & =X_{1}\alpha\gamma+X_{2}(\alpha\delta+\beta\gamma)+X_{3}\beta\delta\\ X_{3}^{\prime} & =X_{1}\gamma^{2}+X_{2}2\gamma\delta+X_{3}\delta^{2} \end{align} \\ \hline \begin{align}X_{2}^{\prime2}-X_{1}^{\prime}X_{3}^{\prime} & =X_{2}^{2}-X_{1}X_{3}=0\\ \det\mathbf{u}'=x_{0}^{\prime2}-x_{1}^{\prime2}-x_{2}^{\prime2} & =\det\mathbf{u}=x_{0}^{2}-x_{1}^{2}-x_{2}^{2} \end{align} \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|6d}}}} thus {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}+x_{2}^{\prime2}\\ \hline \mathbf{x}'=\left[\begin{matrix}\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}\right) & \alpha\beta+\gamma\delta & \frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}-\delta^{2}\right)\\ \alpha\gamma+\beta\delta & \alpha\delta+\beta\gamma & \alpha\gamma-\beta\delta\\ \frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}-\delta^{2}\right) & \alpha\beta-\gamma\delta & \frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}\right) \end{matrix}\right]\cdot\mathbf{x}\\ (\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma=1) \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|6e}}}} which includes the special case <math>\beta=\gamma=0</math> implying <math>\delta=1/\alpha</math>, reducing the transformation to a Lorentz boost in 1+1 dimensions: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}X_{1}X_{3}=X_{1}^{\prime}X_{3}^{\prime}\quad\Rightarrow\quad-x_{0}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{2}^{\prime2}\\ \hline \begin{align}X_{1} & =\alpha^{2}X_{1}^{\prime}\\ X_{2} & =X_{2}^{\prime}\\ X_{3} & =\frac{1}{\alpha^{2}}X_{3}^{\prime} \end{align} \quad\Rightarrow\quad\begin{align}x_{0} & =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}\left(\alpha^{4}+1\right)+x_{2}^{\prime}\left(\alpha^{4}-1\right)}{2\alpha^{2}}\\ x_{1} & =x_{1}^{\prime}\\ x_{2} & =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}\left(\alpha^{4}-1\right)+x_{2}^{\prime}\left(\alpha^{4}+1\right)}{2\alpha^{2}} \end{align} \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|6f}}}} Finally, by using the Lorentz interval related to a hyperboloid, the Möbius/Lorentz transformations can be written {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}+x_{2}^{\prime2}=-1\\ \hline \left.\begin{matrix}\zeta=\frac{x_{1}+ix_{2}}{x_{0}+1}=\frac{x_{0}-1}{x_{1}-ix_{2}}\\ \zeta'=\frac{x_{1}^{\prime}+ix_{2}^{\prime}}{x_{0}^{\prime}+1}=\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}-1}{x_{1}^{\prime}-ix_{2}^{\prime}} \end{matrix}\right|\quad\zeta'=\frac{\alpha\zeta+\beta}{\gamma\zeta+\delta} \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|6g}}}} The general transformation '''u′''' and its invariant <math>X_{2}^{2}-X_{1}X_{3}</math> in ({{equationNote|6d}}) was already used by [[#Lagrange|Lagrange (1773)]] and [[#Gauss|Gauss (1798/1801)]] in the theory of integer binary quadratic forms. The invariant <math>X_{2}^{2}-X_{1}X_{3}</math> was also studied by [[#Klein|Klein (1871)]] in connection to hyperbolic plane geometry (see [[../Lorentz transformation (hyperbolic)#math_3d|E:('''3d''')]]), while the connection between '''u′''' and <math>X_{2}^{2}-X_{1}X_{3}</math> with the Möbius transformation was analyzed by [[#Poincare2|Poincaré (1886)]] in relation to [[w:Fuchsian group]]s. The adaptation to the Lorentz interval by which ({{equationNote|6d}}) becomes a Lorentz transformation was given by [[#Bianchi2|Bianchi (1888)]] and [[#Fricke|Fricke (1891)]]. Lorentz Transformation ({{equationNote|6e}}) was stated by [[#Gauss3|Gauss around 1800]] (posthumously published 1863), as well as [[#Selling|Selling (1873)]], [[#Bianchi2|Bianchi (1888)]], [[#Fricke|Fricke (1891)]], [[#Woods|Woods (1895)]] in relation to integer indefinite ternary quadratic forms. Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6f}}) was given by [[#Bianchi1|Bianchi (1886, 1894)]] and [[#Eisenhart|Eisenhart (1905)]]. Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6g}}) of the hyperboloid was stated by [[#Poincare2|Poincaré (1881)]] and [[#Hausdorff|Hausdorff (1899)]]. ==Historical notation== ==={{anchor|Lagrange}} Lagrange (1773) – Binary quadratic forms=== After the invariance of the sum of squares under linear substitutions was discussed by [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#Euler|E:Euler (1771)]], the general expressions of a [[w:binary quadratic form]] and its transformation was formulated by [[w:Joseph-Louis Lagrange]] (1773/75) as follows<ref group=M>Lagrange (1773/75), section 22</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}py^{2}+2qyz+rz^{2}=Ps^{2}+2Qsx+Rx^{2}\\ \hline \begin{align}y & =Ms+Nx\\ z & =ms+nx \end{align} \left|\begin{matrix}\begin{align}P & =pM^{2}+2qMm+rm^{2}\\ Q & =pMN+q(Mn+Nm)+rmn\\ R & =pN^{2}+2qNn+rn^{2} \end{align} \\ \downarrow\\ PR-Q^{2}=\left(pr-q^{2}\right)(Mn-Nm)^{2} \end{matrix}\right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The transformation of coefficients ''(p,q,r)'' is identical to transformation '''u′''' in ({{equationNote|6d}}) and becomes the complete Lorentz transformation by setting <br><math>\begin{align}(p,q,r) & =\left(x_{0}+x_{2},\ x_{1},\ x_{0}-x_{2}\right)\\ (P,Q,R) & =\left(x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{2}^{\prime},\ x_{1}^{\prime},\ x_{0}^{\prime}-x_{2}^{\prime}\right) \end{align}</math>.</p> ==={{anchor|Gauss}} Gauss (1800)=== ==== Binary quadratic form==== The theory of binary quadratic forms was considerably expanded by [[w:Carl Friedrich Gauss]] (1798, published 1801) in his [[w:Disquisitiones Arithmeticae]]. He rewrote Lagrange's formalism as follows using integer coefficients α,β,γ,δ:<ref group=M>Gauss (1798/1801), articles 157–158;</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}F=ax^{2}+2bxy+cy^{2}=(a,b,c)\\ F'=a'x^{\prime2}+2b'x'y'+c'y^{\prime2}=(a',b',c')\\ \hline \begin{align}x & =\alpha x'+\beta y'\\ y & =\gamma x'+\delta y'\\ \\ x' & =\delta x-\beta y\\ y' & =-\gamma x+\alpha y \end{align} \left|\begin{matrix}\begin{align}a' & =a\alpha^{2}+2b\alpha\gamma+c\gamma^{2}\\ b' & =a\alpha\beta+b(\alpha\delta+\beta\gamma)+c\gamma\delta\\ c' & =a\beta^{2}+2b\beta\delta+c\delta^{2} \end{align} \\ \downarrow\\ b^{2}-a'c'=\left(b^{2}-ac\right)(\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma)^{2} \end{matrix}\right. \end{matrix}</math> As pointed out by Gauss, ''F'' and ''F′'' are called "proper equivalent" if αδ-βγ=1, so that ''F'' is contained in ''F′'' as well as ''F′'' is contained in ''F''. In addition, if another form ''F″'' is contained by the same procedure in ''F′'' it is also contained in ''F'' and so forth.<ref group=M>Gauss (1798/1801), section 159</ref> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The transformation of coefficients ''(a,b,c)'' is identical to transformation '''u′''' in ({{equationNote|6d}}) and becomes the complete Lorentz transformation by setting <br><math>\begin{align}(a,b,c) & =\left(x_{0}+x_{2},\ x_{1},\ x_{0}-x_{2}\right)\\ (a',b',c') & =\left(x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{2}^{\prime},\ x_{1}^{\prime},\ x_{0}^{\prime}-x_{2}^{\prime}\right) \end{align}</math>.</p> ===={{anchor|Gauss3}} Cayley–Klein parameter==== After [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Gauss2|E:Gauss (1798/1801)]] defined the integer ternary quadratic form :<math>f=ax^{2}+a'x^{\prime2}+a''x^{\prime\prime2}+2bx'x''+2b'xx''+2b''xx'=\left(\begin{matrix}a, & a', & a''\\ b, & b', & b'' \end{matrix}\right)</math> he derived around 1800 (posthumously published in 1863) the most general transformation of the Lorentz interval <math>\scriptstyle\left(\begin{matrix}a, & a', & a''\\ b, & b', & b'' \end{matrix}\right)=\left(\begin{matrix}1, & 1, & -1\\ 0, & 0, & 0 \end{matrix}\right)</math> into itself, using a coefficient system α,β,γ,δ:<ref group=M>Gauss (1800/1863), p. 311</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\left(\begin{matrix}1, & 1, & -1\\ 0, & 0, & 0 \end{matrix}\right)\\ \hline \begin{matrix}\alpha\delta+\beta\gamma & \alpha\beta-\gamma\delta & \alpha\beta+\gamma\delta\\ \alpha\gamma-\beta\delta & \frac{1}{2}(\alpha\alpha+\delta\delta-\beta\beta-\gamma\gamma) & \frac{1}{2}(\alpha\alpha+\gamma\gamma-\beta\beta-\delta\delta)\\ \alpha\gamma+\beta\delta & \frac{1}{2}(\alpha\alpha+\beta\beta-\gamma\gamma-\delta\delta) & \frac{1}{2}(\alpha\alpha+\beta\beta+\gamma\gamma+\delta\delta) \end{matrix}\\ (\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma=1) \end{matrix} </math> Gauss' result was cited by [[../Lorentz transformation (Cayley-Hermite)#Bachmann|E:Bachmann (1869)]], [[#Selling|Selling (1873)]], [[#Bianchi2|Bianchi (1888)]], [[w:Leonard Eugene Dickson]] (1923).<ref>Dickson (1923), p. 210</ref> The parameters α,β,γ,δ, when applied to spatial rotations, were later called Cayley–Klein parameters. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6e}}), containing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|6f}}) as a special case with <math>\beta=\gamma=0</math> and <math>\delta=1/\alpha</math>.</p> ==={{anchor|Cayley2}} Cayley (1854) – Cayley–Klein parameter=== Already in 1854, Cayley published an alternative method of transforming quadratic forms by using certain parameters α,β,γ,δ in relation to an ''improper'' homographic transformation of a surface of second order into itself:<ref group=M name=cayl1854>Cayley (1854), p. 135</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}xy-zw=0\\ x_{2}y_{2}-z_{2}w_{2}=x_{1}y_{1}-z_{1}w_{1}\\ \hline \left.\begin{align}MM'x_{2} & =\gamma'\delta x_{1}+\alpha\alpha'y_{1}-\alpha'\delta z_{1}-\alpha\gamma'w_{1}\\ MM'y_{2} & =\beta\beta'x_{1}+\gamma\delta'y_{1}-\beta\delta'z_{1}-\beta'\gamma w_{1}\\ MM'z_{2} & =\beta\gamma'x_{1}+\gamma\alpha'y_{1}-\beta\alpha'z_{1}-\gamma\gamma'w_{1}\\ MM'w_{2} & =\beta'\delta x_{1}+\alpha\delta'y_{1}-\delta\delta'z_{1}-\alpha\beta'w_{1} \end{align} \right|\begin{align}M^{2} & =\alpha\beta-\gamma\delta\\ M^{\prime2} & =\alpha'\beta'-\gamma'\delta' \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> By setting <math>\left(x_{1},y_{1}\dots\right)\Rightarrow\left(x_{1}+iy_{1},x_{1}-iy_{1}\dots\right)</math> and rewriting M and M' in terms of four different parameters <math>M^{2}=a^{2}+b^{2}+c^{2}+d^{2}</math> he demonstrated the invariance of <math>x_1^2+y_1^2+z_1^2+w_1^2</math>, and subsequently showed the relation to 4D quaternion transformations. Fricke & Klein (1897) credited Cayley by calling the above transformation the most general (real or complex) space collineation of first kind of an absolute surface of second kind into itself.<ref group=M name=fri /> Parameters α,β,γ,δ are similar to what was later called Cayley–Klein parameters in relation to spatial rotations (which was done by Cayley in 1879<ref group=M>Cayley (1879), p. 238f.</ref> and before by [[w:Hermann von Helmholtz]] (1866/67)<ref group=M>Helmholtz (1866/67), p. 513</ref>). <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Cayley's improper transformation becomes proper with some sign changes, and becomes equivalent to Lorentz transformation <math>\mathbf{u}'</math> in ({{equationNote|6a}}) by setting M=M'=1 and: <br ><math>(x_1,\ y_1,\ z_1,\ w_1)=\left(x_0+x_3,\ x_0-x_3,\ x_1+ix_2,\ x_1-ix_2 \right)</math>. <br >Subsequently solved for <math>x_{0},x_{1},x_{2},x_{3}</math> it becomes Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Klein}} Klein (1871–97)=== ===={{anchor|Klein1}} Cayley absolute and non-Euclidean geometry==== Elaborating on Cayley's (1859) definition of an "absolute" ([[w:Cayley–Klein metric]]), [[w:Felix Klein]] (1871) defined a "fundamental [[w:conic section]]" in order to discuss motions such as rotation and translation in the non-Euclidean plane,<ref group=M>Klein (1871), pp. 601–602</ref> and another fundamental form by using [[w:homogeneous coordinates]] ''x,y'' related to a circle with radius ''2c'' with measure of curvature <math>-\tfrac{1}{4c^{2}}</math>. When ''c'' is positive, the measure of curvature is negative and the fundamental conic section is real, thus the geometry becomes hyperbolic ([[w:Beltrami–Klein model]]):<ref group=M>Klein (1871), p. 618</ref> :<math>\begin{align}x_{1}x_{2}-x_{3}^{2} & =0\\ x^{2}+y^{2}-4c^{2} & =0 \end{align} \left|\begin{matrix}x_{1}x_{2}-x_{3}^{2}=0\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{1} & =\alpha_{1}y_{1}\\ x_{2} & =\alpha_{2}y_{2}\\ x_{3} & =\alpha_{3}y_{3} \end{align} \\ \left(\alpha_{1}\alpha_{2}-\alpha_{3}^{2}=0\right) \end{matrix}\right.</math> In (1873) he pointed out that hyperbolic geometry in terms of a surface of constant negative curvature can be related to a quadratic equation, which can be transformed into a sum of squares of which one square has a different sign, and can also be related to the interior of a surface of second degree corresponding to an ellipsoid or two-sheet [[w:hyperboloid]].<ref group=M>Klein (1873), pp. 127-128</ref> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Using positive ''c'' in <math>-\tfrac{1}{4c^{2}}</math> in line with hyperbolic geometry or directly by setting <math>-\tfrac{1}{4c^{2}}=-x_{0}</math>, Klein's two quadratic forms can be related to expressions <math>X_{2}^{2}-X_{1}X_{3}</math> and <math>x_{0}^{2}-x_{1}^{2}-x_{2}^{2}</math> for the Lorentz interval in ({{equationNote|6d}}).</p> ===={{anchor|Klein2}} Möbius transformation, spin transformation, Cayley–Klein parameter==== In (1872) while devising the [[w:Erlangen program]], Klein discussed the general relation between projective metrics, [[w:binary form]]s and conformal geometry transforming a sphere into itself in terms of linear transformations of the [[w:complex variable]] ''x+iy''.<ref group=M>Klein (1872), 6</ref> Following Klein, these relations were discussed by [[w:Ludwig Wedekind]] (1875) using <math>z'=\tfrac{\alpha z+\beta}{\gamma z+\delta}</math>.<ref group=M>Wedekind (1875), 1</ref> Klein (1875) then showed that all finite groups of motions follow by determining all finite groups of such linear transformations of ''x+iy'' into itself.<ref group=M>Klein (1875), §1–2</ref> In (1878),<ref group=M>Klein (1878), 8.</ref> Klein classified the substitutions of <math>\omega'=\tfrac{\alpha\omega+\beta}{\gamma\omega+\delta}</math> with αδ-βγ=1 into hyperbolic, elliptic, parabolic, and in (1882)<ref group=M>Klein (1882), p. 173.</ref> he added the loxodromic substitution as the combination of elliptic and hyperbolic ones. (In 1890, [[w:Robert Fricke]] in his edition of Klein's lectures of [[w:elliptic function]]s and [[w:Modular form]]s, referred to the analogy of this treatment to the theory of quadratic forms as given by Gauss and in particular Dirichlet.)<ref group=M name=fri /> In (1884) Klein related the linear fractional transformations (interpreted as rotations around the ''x+iy''-sphere) to Cayley–Klein parameters [α,β,γ,δ], to Euler–Rodrigues parameters ''[a,b,c,d]'', and to the [[w:unit sphere]] by means of [[w:stereographic projection]], and also discussed transformations preserving surfaces of second degree equivalent to the transformation given by [[#Cayley2|Cayley (1854)]]:<ref group=M>Klein (1884), Part I, Ch. I, §1–2; Part II, Ch. II, 10</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\left.\begin{matrix}z'=\frac{\alpha z+\beta}{\gamma z+\delta}\rightarrow z=z_{1}:z_{2}\rightarrow\begin{align}z_{1}^{\prime} & =\alpha z_{1}+\beta z_{2}\\ z_{2}^{\prime} & =\gamma z_{1}+\delta z_{2} \end{align} \\ \xi^{2}+\eta^{2}+\zeta^{2}=1\\ z=x+iy=\frac{\xi+i\eta}{1-\zeta}\\ z'=\frac{(d+ic)z-(b-ia)}{(b+ia)z+(d-ic)}\\ \left(a^{2}+b^{2}+c^{2}+d^{2}=1\right) \end{matrix}\right| & \begin{matrix}X_{1}X_{4}+X_{2}X_{3}=0\\ \lambda'=\frac{a\lambda+b}{c\lambda+d},\ \mu'=\frac{a'\mu+b'}{c'\mu+d'}\\ \lambda=\lambda_{1}:\lambda_{2},\ \mu=\mu_{1}:\mu_{2}\\ X_{1}:X_{2}:X_{3}:X_{4}=\lambda_{1}\mu_{1}:-\lambda_{2}\mu_{1}:\lambda_{1}\mu_{2}:\lambda_{2}\mu_{2} \end{matrix}\end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The formulas on the left related to the unit sphere are equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6c}}). The formulas on the right can be related to those on the left by setting <br><math>(X_{1},\ X_{2},\ X_{3},\ X_{4})=\left(1+\zeta,\ -\xi+i\eta,\ \xi+i\eta,\ 1-\zeta\right)</math> <br>and become equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6a}}) by setting <br><math>\left[\xi,\ \eta,\ \zeta,\ 1\right]=\left[\tfrac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ \tfrac{x_{2}}{x_{0}},\ \tfrac{x_{3}}{x_{0}},\ \tfrac{x_{0}}{x_{0}}\right]</math> and subsequently solved for ''x''<sub>1</sub>... it becomes Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6b}}).</p> In his lecture in the winter semester of 1889/90 (published 1892–93), he discussed the hyperbolic plane by using (as in 1871) the Lorentz interval in terms of a circle with radius ''2k'' as the basis of hyperbolic geometry, and another quadratic form to discuss the "kinematics of hyperbolic geometry" consisting of motions and congruent displacements of the hyperbolic plane into itself:<ref group=M>Klein (1893a), p. 109ff; pp. 138–140; pp. 249–250</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}x^{2}+y^{2}-4k^{2}t^{2}=0\\ x_{1}x_{3}-x_{2}^{2}=0 \end{matrix} & \left|\begin{matrix}x_{1}x_{3}-x_{2}^{2}=0\\ \frac{x_{1}}{x_{2}}=\frac{x_{2}}{x_{3}}=\lambda=\frac{\lambda_{1}}{\lambda_{2}}\\ \lambda'=\frac{\alpha\lambda+\beta}{\gamma\lambda+\delta}\rightarrow\begin{align}\lambda_{1}^{\prime} & =\alpha\lambda_{1}+\beta\lambda_{2}\\ \lambda_{2}^{\prime} & =\gamma\lambda_{1}+\delta\lambda_{2} \end{align} \\ \left(\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma=1\right)\\ \begin{align}x_{1}:x_{2}:x_{3} & =\lambda^{2}:\lambda:1=\lambda_{1}^{2}:\lambda_{1}\lambda_{2}:\lambda_{2}^{2}\\ & =\lambda^{\prime2}:\lambda':1=\lambda_{1}^{\prime2}:\lambda_{1}^{\prime}\lambda_{2}^{\prime}:\lambda_{2}^{\prime2}; \end{align} \end{matrix}\right.\end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Klein's Lorentz interval <math>x^{2}+y^{2}-4k^{2}t^{2}</math> can be connected with the other interval <math>x_{1}x_{3}-x_{2}^{2}</math> by setting <br><math>(x_{1},\ x_{2},\ x_{3})=\left(x+iy,\ 2kt,\ x-iy\right)</math>, <br>by which the transformation system on the right becomes equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6d}}) with ''2k=1'', and subsequently solved for ''x''<sub>1</sub>... it becomes equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6e}}).</p> In his lecture in the summer semester of 1890 (published 1892–93), he discussed general surfaces of second degree, including an "oval" surface corresponding to hyperbolic space and its motions:<ref group=M>Klein (1893b); general surface: pp. 61–66, 116–119, hyperbolic space: pp. 82, 86, 143–144</ref> :<math>\left.\begin{matrix}\text{General surfaces of second degree}:\\ \begin{align}z_{1}^{2}+z_{2}^{2}+z_{3}^{2}+z_{4}^{2} & \text{(no real parts, elliptic)}\\ z_{1}^{2}+z_{2}^{2}+z_{3}^{2}-z_{4}^{2} & \text{(oval,hyperbolic)}\\ z_{1}^{2}+z_{2}^{2}-z_{3}^{2}-z_{4}^{2} & \text{(ring)}\\ z_{1}^{2}-z_{2}^{2}-z_{3}^{2}-z_{4}^{2} & \text{(oval,hyperbolic)}\\ -z_{1}^{2}-z_{2}^{2}-z_{3}^{2}-z_{4}^{2} & \text{(no real parts,elliptic)} \end{align} \\ \text{all of which can be brought into the form:}\\ y_{1}y_{3}+y_{2}y_{4}=0\\ \text{Transformation:}\\ \begin{align}\varrho y_{1} & =\lambda_{1}\mu_{1}, & \varrho y_{1}^{\prime} & =\lambda_{1}^{\prime}\mu_{1}^{\prime}\\ \varrho y_{2} & =\lambda_{2}\mu_{1}, & \varrho y_{2}^{\prime} & =\lambda_{2}^{\prime}\mu_{1}^{\prime}\\ \varrho y_{3} & =\lambda_{2}\mu_{2}, & \varrho y_{3}^{\prime} & =-\lambda_{2}^{\prime}\mu_{2}^{\prime}\\ \varrho y_{4} & =\lambda_{1}\mu_{2}, & \varrho y_{4}^{\prime} & =\lambda_{1}^{\prime}\mu_{2}^{\prime} \end{align} \end{matrix}\right|\begin{matrix}\text{Oval (=hyperbolic motions in space):}\\ x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-x_{4}^{2}=0\\ =\left(x_{1}+ix_{3}\right)\left(x_{1}-ix_{3}\right)+\left(x_{2}+x_{4}\right)\left(x_{2}-x_{4}\right)=0\\ =y_{1}y_{3}+y_{2}y_{4}=0\\ \\ x^{2}+y^{2}+z^{2}-1=0\\ \hline \lambda=\frac{x+iy}{1-z},\ \lambda'=\frac{\alpha\lambda+\beta}{\gamma\lambda+\delta},\ \mu'=\frac{\bar{\alpha}\mu+\bar{\beta}}{\bar{\gamma}\mu+\bar{\delta}}\\ \begin{align}\lambda_{1}^{\prime} & =\alpha\lambda_{1}+\beta\lambda_{2}\\ \lambda_{2}^{\prime} & =\gamma\lambda_{1}+\delta\lambda_{2} \end{align} ,\ \begin{align}\mu_{1}^{\prime} & =\bar{\alpha}\mu_{1}+\bar{\beta}\mu_{2}\\ \mu_{2}^{\prime} & =\bar{\gamma}\mu_{1}+\bar{\delta}\mu_{2} \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The transformation of the unit sphere <math>x^{2}+y^{2}+z^{2}-1=0</math> on the right is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6c}}). Plugging the values for λ,μ,λ′,μ′,... from the right into the transformations on the left, and relating them to Klein's homogeneous coordinates <math>x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-x_{4}^{2}=0</math> by <math>(x,\ y,\ z,\ 1)=\left(\tfrac{x_{1}}{x_{4}},\ \tfrac{x_{2}}{x_{4}},\ \tfrac{x_{3}}{x_{4}},\ \tfrac{x_{4}}{x_{4}}\right)</math> leads to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6a}}). Subsequently solved for ''x''<sub>1</sub>... it becomes Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6b}}).</p> In (1896/97), Klein again defined hyperbolic motions and explicitly used ''t'' as (possibly complex) time coordinate, even though he added those cautionary remarks: ''"not for the sake of studying the behavior of a fictitious, imaginary time, but because it is only by taking this step that it becomes possible to bring about the intimate association of kinetics and the theory of functions of a complex variable. [..] the non-Euclidean geometry has no meta-physical significance here or in the subsequent discussion"''. He produced the following transformation:<ref group=M>Klein (1896/97), pp. 13–14</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x^{2}+y^{2}+z^{2}-t^{2}=0\\ =(x+iy)(x-iy)+(z+t)(z-t)=0\\ x+iy:x-iy:z+t:t-z=\zeta_{1}\zeta_{2}^{\prime}:\zeta_{2}\zeta_{1}^{\prime}:\zeta_{1}\zeta_{1}^{\prime}:\zeta_{2}\zeta_{2}^{\prime}\\ \frac{\zeta_{1}}{\zeta_{2}}=\zeta\rightarrow\zeta=\frac{x+iy}{t-z}=\frac{t+z}{x-iy};\\ X^{2}+Y^{2}+Z^{2}-T^{2}=0=\ \text{etc.}\\ \zeta=\frac{\alpha Z+\beta}{\gamma Z+\delta}\rightarrow\begin{align}\zeta_{1} & =\alpha Z_{1}+\beta Z_{2}\\ \zeta_{2} & =\gamma Z_{1}+\delta Z_{2} \end{align} ,\ \begin{align}\zeta_{1}^{\prime} & =\bar{\alpha}Z_{1}^{\prime}+\bar{\beta}Z_{2}^{\prime}\\ \zeta_{2}^{\prime} & =\bar{\gamma}Z_{1}^{\prime}+\bar{\delta}Z_{2}^{\prime}\text{ } \end{align} \\ (\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma=1)\\ \hline \begin{array}{c|c|c|c|c} & X+iY & X-iY & T+Z & T-Z\\ \hline x+iy & \alpha\bar{\delta} & \beta\bar{\gamma} & \alpha\bar{\gamma} & \beta\bar{\delta}\\ \hline x-iy & \gamma\bar{\beta} & \delta\bar{\alpha} & \gamma\bar{\alpha} & \delta\bar{\beta}\\ \hline t+z & \alpha\bar{\beta} & \beta\bar{\alpha} & \alpha\bar{\alpha} & \beta\bar{\beta}\\ \hline t-z & \gamma\bar{\delta} & \delta\bar{\gamma} & \gamma\bar{\gamma} & \delta\bar{\delta} \end{array} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6a}}).</p> Klein's work was summarized and extended by [[#Bianchi2|Bianchi (1888-1893)]] and [[#Fricke|Fricke (1893-1897)]], obtaining equivalent Lorentz transformations. ==={{anchor|Selling}} Selling (1873–74) – Quadratic forms=== Continuing the work of [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Gauss2|E:Gauss (1801)]] on definite ternary quadratic forms and [[../Lorentz transformation (Cayley-Hermite)#Hermite|E:Hermite (1853)]] on indefinite ternary quadratic forms, [[w:Eduard Selling]] (1873) used the auxiliary coefficients ξ,η,ζ by which a definite form <math>\mathfrak{f}</math> and an indefinite form ''f'' can be rewritten in terms of three squares:<ref group=M>Selling (1873), p. 174 and p. 179</ref><ref>Bachmann (1923), chapter 16</ref> :<math>{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\mathfrak{f} & =\mathfrak{a}x^{2}+\mathfrak{b}y^{2}+\mathfrak{c}z^{2}+2\mathfrak{g}yz+2\mathfrak{h}zx+2\mathfrak{k}xy\\ & =\left(\xi x+\eta y+\zeta z\right)^{2}+\left(\xi_{1}x+\eta_{1}y+\zeta_{1}z\right)^{2}+\left(\xi_{2}x+\eta_{2}y+\zeta_{2}z\right)^{2}\\ \\ f & =ax^{2}+by^{2}+cz^{2}+2gyz+2hzx+2kxy\\ & =\left(\xi x+\eta y+\zeta z\right)^{2}-\left(\xi_{1}x+\eta_{1}y+\zeta_{1}z\right)^{2}-\left(\xi_{2}x+\eta_{2}y+\zeta_{2}z\right)^{2} \end{align} \left|\begin{align}\xi^{2}+\xi_{1}^{2}+\xi_{2}^{2} & =\mathfrak{a}\\ \eta^{2}+\eta_{1}^{2}+\eta_{2}^{2} & =\mathfrak{b}\\ \zeta^{2}+\zeta_{1}^{2}+\zeta_{2}^{2} & =\mathfrak{c}\\ \eta\zeta+\eta_{1}\zeta_{1}+\eta_{2}\zeta_{2} & =\mathfrak{g}\\ \zeta\xi+\zeta_{1}\xi_{1}+\zeta_{2}\xi_{2} & =\mathfrak{h}\\ \xi\eta+\xi_{1}\eta_{1}+\xi_{2}\eta_{2} & =\mathfrak{k} \end{align} \right|\begin{align}\xi^{2}-\xi_{1}^{2}-\xi_{2}^{2} & =a\\ \eta^{2}-\eta_{1}^{2}-\eta_{2}^{2} & =b\\ \zeta^{2}-\zeta_{1}^{2}-\zeta_{2}^{2} & =c\\ \eta\zeta-\eta_{1}\zeta_{1}-\eta_{2}\zeta_{2} & =g\\ \zeta\xi-\zeta_{1}\xi_{1}-\zeta_{2}\xi_{2} & =h\\ \xi\eta-\xi_{1}\eta_{1}-\xi_{2}\eta_{2} & =k \end{align} }</math> In addition, Selling showed that auxiliary coefficients ξ,η,ζ can be geometrically interpreted as point coordinates which are in motion upon one sheet of a two-sheet hyperboloid, which is related to Selling's formalism for the reduction of indefinite forms by using definite forms.<ref group=M>Selling (1873), pp. 182–183</ref> Selling also reproduced the Lorentz transformation given by [[#Gauss3|Gauss (1800/63)]], to whom he gave full credit, and called it the only example of a particular indefinite ternary form known to him that has ever been discussed:<ref group=M>Selling (1873/74), p. 227 (see also p. 225 for citation).</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\left(\begin{matrix}1, & -1, & -1\\ 0, & 0, & 0 \end{matrix}\right)\\ \hline W=\begin{vmatrix}\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}\right) & \frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}-\delta^{2}\right) & \alpha\gamma+\beta\delta\\ \frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}-\delta^{2}\right) & \frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}\right) & \alpha\gamma-\beta\delta\\ \alpha\beta+\gamma\delta & \alpha\beta-\gamma\delta & \alpha\delta+\beta\gamma \end{vmatrix}\\ \left(\begin{vmatrix}\alpha & \beta\\ \gamma & \delta \end{vmatrix}=1\right) \end{matrix} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6e}}), containing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|6f}}) or [[../Lorentz transformation (squeeze)#math_9b|E:('''9b''')]] as a special case with <math>\beta=\gamma=0</math> and <math>\delta=1/\alpha</math>.</p> ==={{anchor|Poincare2}} Poincaré (1881-86) – Möbius transformation=== [[w:Henri Poincaré]] (1881a) demonstrated the connection of his formulas of the hyperboloid model [see [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Poincare|E:Poincaré (1881)]]] to Möbius transformations:<ref group=M name=p1>Poincaré (1881a), pp. 133–134</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\xi^{2}+\eta^{2}-\zeta^{2}=-1\\ \left[X=\frac{\xi}{\zeta+1},\ Y=\frac{\eta}{\zeta+1}\right]\rightarrow t=X+iY\\ \hline \xi^{\prime2}+\eta^{\prime2}-\zeta^{\prime2}=-1\\ \left[X'=\frac{\xi'}{\zeta'+1},\ Y'=\frac{\eta'}{\zeta'+1}\right]\rightarrow t'=X'+iY'\\ \hline t'=\frac{ht+k}{h't+k'} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6g}}).</p> Poincaré (1881b) also used the Möbius transformation <math>\tfrac{az+b}{cz+d}</math> in relation to [[w:Fuchsian function]]s and the discontinuous [[w:Fuchsian group]], being a special case of the hyperbolic group leaving invariant the "fundamental circle" ([[w:Poincaré disk model]] and [[w:Poincaré half-plane model]] of hyperbolic geometry).<ref group=M>Poincaré (1881b), p. 333</ref> He then extended [[#Klein2|Klein's (1878-1882)]] study on the relation between Möbius transformations and hyperbolic, elliptic, parabolic, and loxodromic substitutions, and while formulating [[w:Kleinian group]]s (1883) he used the following transformation leaving invariant the [[w:generalized circle]]:<ref group=M>Poincaré (1883), pp. 49–50; 53–54</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\left(z,\ \frac{\alpha z+\beta}{\gamma z+\delta}\right),\ \left(z_{0},\ \frac{\alpha_{0}z_{0}+\beta_{0}}{\gamma_{0}z_{0}+\delta_{0}}\right)\\ \hline z=\xi+i\eta,\ z_{0}=\xi-i\eta,\ \rho^{2}=\xi^{2}+\eta^{2}+\zeta^{2}\\ A\rho^{\prime2}+Bz^{\prime}+B_{0}z_{0}^{\prime}+C=0\\ \hline \begin{align}\rho^{\prime2} & =\frac{\rho^{2}\alpha\alpha_{0}+z\alpha\beta_{0}+z_{0}\beta\alpha_{0}+\beta\beta_{0}}{\rho^{2}\gamma\gamma_{0}+z\gamma\delta_{0}+z_{0}\delta\gamma_{0}+\delta\delta_{0}}\\ z^{\prime} & =\frac{\rho^{2}\alpha\gamma_{0}+z\alpha\delta_{0}+z_{0}\beta\gamma_{0}+\beta\delta_{0}}{\rho^{2}\gamma\gamma_{0}+z\gamma\delta_{0}+z_{0}\delta\gamma_{0}+\delta\delta_{0}}\\ z_{0}^{\prime} & =\frac{\rho^{2}\gamma\alpha_{0}+z\gamma\beta_{0}+z_{0}\delta\alpha_{0}+\delta\beta_{0}}{\rho^{2}\gamma\gamma_{0}+z\gamma\delta_{0}+z_{0}\delta\gamma_{0}+\delta\delta_{0}} \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Setting <math>[\rho^{2},\ z,\ z_{0}]=\left[\tfrac{X_{1}}{X_{4}},\ \tfrac{X_{2}}{X_{4}},\ \tfrac{X_{3}}{X_{4}}\right]</math> this becomes transformation '''u′''' in ({{equationNote|6a}}) and becomes the complete Lorentz transformation by setting <math>{\scriptstyle \left[\begin{matrix}X_{1} & X_{2}\\ X_{3} & X_{4} \end{matrix}\right]=\left[\begin{matrix}x_{0}+x_{3} & x_{1}-ix_{2}\\ x_{1}+ix_{2} & x_{0}-x_{3} \end{matrix}\right]}</math>.</p> In 1886, Poincaré investigated the relation between indefinite ternary quadratic forms and Fuchsian functions and groups:<ref group=M>Poincaré (1886), p. 735ff.</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\left(z,\ \frac{\alpha z+\beta}{\gamma z+\delta}\right)\\ \hline Y^{\prime2}-X'Z'=Y^{2}-XZ\\ \hline \begin{align}X' & =\alpha^{2}X+2\alpha\gamma Y+\gamma^{2}Z\\ Y' & =\alpha\beta X+(\alpha\delta+\beta\gamma)Y+\gamma\delta Z\\ Z' & =\beta^{2}X+2\beta\gamma Y+\delta^{2}Z \end{align} \\ \left[{\scriptstyle \begin{align}X= & ax+by+cz, & Y & =a'x+b'y+c'z, & Z & =a''x+b''y+c''z,\\ X'= & ax'+by'+cz', & Y' & =a'x'+b'y'+c'z', & Z' & =a''x'+b''y'+c''z', \end{align} }\right] \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black"> This is equivalent to transformation '''u′''' in ({{equationNote|6d}}) and becomes the complete Lorentz transformation by suitibly choosing the coefficients ''a,b,c,...'' so that ''[X,Y,Z]=[x+z, y, -x+z]''.</p> ==={{anchor|Bianchi2}} Bianchi (1888-93) – Möbius and spin transformations=== Related to [[#Klein1|Klein's (1871)]] and [[#Poincare2|Poincaré's (1881-1887)]] work on non-Euclidean geometry and indefinite quadratic forms, [[w:Luigi Bianchi]] (1888) analyzed the differential Lorentz interval in term of conic sections and hyperboloids, alluded to the linear fractional transformation of <math>\omega</math> and its conjugate <math>\omega_{1}</math> with parameters α,β,γ,δ in order to preserve the Lorentz interval, and gave credit to [[#Gauss3|Gauss (1800/63)]] who obtained the same coefficient system:<ref group=M>Bianchi (1888), pp. 547; 562–563 (especially footnote on p. 563); 571–572</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}ds^{2}=dx^{2}+dy^{2}-dz^{2};\ x^{2}+y^{2}-z^{2}=0;\\ \hline X_{3}^{2}+Y_{3}^{2}-Z_{3}^{2}=-1\\ X_{3}=i\frac{1-\omega\omega_{1}}{\omega-\omega_{1}},\ Y_{3}=i\frac{\omega-\omega_{1}}{\omega-\omega_{1}},\ Z_{3}=i\frac{1+\omega\omega_{1}}{\omega-\omega_{1}},\\ \omega=\frac{\alpha\omega'+\beta}{\gamma\omega'+\delta}\quad(\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma=1)\\ \hline \left(\begin{matrix}\frac{\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}}{2}, & \gamma\delta-\alpha\beta, & \frac{-\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}}{2}\\ \beta\delta-\alpha\gamma, & \alpha\delta+\beta\gamma, & \beta\delta+\alpha\gamma\\ \frac{-\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}}{2}, & \alpha\beta+\gamma\delta, & \frac{\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}}{2} \end{matrix}\right)\\ \hline \begin{align}x' & =\frac{\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}}{2}x+(\gamma\delta-\alpha\beta)y+\frac{-\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}}{2}z+c_{1}\\ y' & =(\beta\delta-\alpha\gamma)x+(\alpha\delta+\beta\gamma)y+(\beta\delta+\alpha\gamma)z+c_{2}\\ z' & =\frac{-\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}}{2}x+(\alpha\beta+\gamma\delta)y+\frac{\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}}{2}z+c_{3} \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The is equivalent to Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|6d}}) and ({{equationNote|6e}}), containing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|6f}}) or [[../Lorentz transformation (squeeze)#math_9b|E:('''9b''')]] as a special case with <math>\beta=\gamma=0</math> and <math>\delta=1/\alpha</math>.</p> In 1893, Bianchi gave the coefficients in the case of four dimensions:<ref group=M name=bi>Bianchi (1893), § 3</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{align}z & =\frac{\alpha z'+\beta}{\gamma z'+\delta}\\ & (\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma=1) \end{align} \rightarrow\begin{align}z & =\frac{\xi}{\eta}\\ z' & =\frac{\xi'}{\eta'} \end{align} \rightarrow\begin{align}\xi & =\alpha\xi'+\beta\eta'\\ \eta & =\gamma\xi'+\delta\eta'\\ \\ \xi_{0} & =\alpha_{0}\xi'_{0}+\beta_{0}\eta'_{0}\\ \eta_{0} & =\gamma_{0}\xi'_{0}+\delta_{0}\eta'_{0} \end{align} \\ \hline {\scriptstyle F=\left(u_{1}+u{}_{4}\right)\xi\xi_{0}+\left(u_{2}+iu{}_{3}\right)\xi\eta_{0}+\left(u_{2}-iu{}_{3}\right)\xi_{0}\eta+\left(u_{4}-u{}_{1}\right)\eta\eta_{0}}\\ {\scriptstyle F'=\left(u'_{1}+u'{}_{4}\right)\xi'\xi'_{0}+\left(u'_{2}+iu'{}_{3}\right)\xi'\eta'_{0}+\left(u'_{2}-iu'{}_{3}\right)\xi'_{0}\eta'+\left(u'_{4}-u'{}_{1}\right)\eta'\eta'_{0}}\\ {\scriptstyle \left(u_{2}+iu{}_{3}\right)\left(u_{2}-iu{}_{3}\right)+\left(u_{1}-u{}_{4}\right)\left(u_{1}+u{}_{4}\right)=\left(u'_{2}+iu'{}_{3}\right)\left(u'_{2}-iu'{}_{3}\right)+\left(u'_{1}-u'{}_{4}\right)\left(u'_{1}+u'{}_{4}\right)}\\ \hline {\scriptstyle \begin{align}u'_{1}+u'_{4} & =\alpha\alpha_{0}\left(u_{1}+u{}_{4}\right)+\alpha\gamma_{0}\left(u_{2}+iu{}_{3}\right)+\alpha_{0}\gamma\left(u_{2}-iu{}_{3}\right)+\gamma\gamma_{0}\left(u_{4}-u{}_{1}\right)\\ u'_{2}+iu'_{3} & =\alpha\beta_{0}\left(u_{1}+u{}_{4}\right)+\alpha\delta_{0}\left(u_{2}+iu{}_{3}\right)+\beta_{0}\gamma\left(u_{2}-iu{}_{3}\right)+\gamma\delta_{0}\left(u_{4}-u{}_{1}\right)\\ u'_{2}-iu'_{3} & =\alpha_{0}\beta\left(u_{1}+u{}_{4}\right)+\alpha_{0}\delta\left(u_{2}-iu{}_{3}\right)+\beta\gamma_{0}\left(u_{2}+iu{}_{3}\right)+\gamma_{0}\delta\left(u_{4}-u{}_{1}\right)\\ u'_{4}-u'_{1} & =\beta\beta_{0}\left(u_{1}+u{}_{4}\right)+\beta\delta_{0}\left(u_{2}+iu{}_{3}\right)+\beta_{0}\delta\left(u_{2}-iu{}_{3}\right)+\delta\delta_{0}\left(u_{4}-u{}_{1}\right) \end{align} } \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6a}}).</p> Solving for <math>u'_{1}\dots</math> Bianchi obtained:<ref group=M name=bi /> :<math>\begin{matrix}u_{1}^{2}+u_{2}^{2}+u_{3}^{2}-u_{4}^{2}=u_{1}^{\prime2}+u_{2}^{\prime2}+u_{3}^{\prime2}-u_{4}^{\prime2}\\ \hline {\scriptstyle \begin{align}u'_{1} & =\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha\alpha_{0}-\beta\beta_{0}-\gamma\gamma_{0}+\delta\delta_{0}\right)u_{1}+\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha\gamma_{0}+\alpha_{0}\gamma-\beta\delta_{0}-\beta_{0}\delta\right)u_{2}+\\ & +\frac{i}{2}\left(\alpha\gamma_{0}-\alpha_{0}\gamma+\beta_{0}\delta-\beta\delta_{0}\right)u_{3}+\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha\alpha_{0}-\beta\beta_{0}+\gamma\gamma_{0}-\delta\delta_{0}\right)u_{4}\\ u'_{2} & =\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha\beta_{0}+\alpha_{0}\beta-\gamma\delta_{0}-\gamma_{0}\delta\right)u_{1}+\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha\delta_{0}+\alpha_{0}\delta+\beta\gamma_{0}+\beta_{0}\gamma\right)u_{2}+\\ & +\frac{i}{2}\left(\alpha\delta_{0}-\alpha_{0}\delta+\beta\gamma_{0}-\beta_{0}\gamma\right)u_{3}+\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha\beta_{0}+\alpha_{0}\beta+\gamma\delta_{0}+\gamma_{0}\delta\right)u_{4}\\ u'_{3} & =\frac{i}{2}\left(\alpha_{0}\beta-\alpha\beta_{0}+\gamma\delta_{0}-\gamma_{0}\delta\right)u_{1}+\frac{i}{2}\left(\alpha_{0}\delta-\alpha\delta_{0}+\beta\gamma_{0}-\beta_{0}\gamma\right)u_{2}+\\ & +\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha\delta_{0}+\alpha_{0}\delta-\beta\gamma_{0}-\beta_{0}\gamma\right)u_{3}+\frac{i}{2}\left(\alpha_{0}\beta-\alpha\beta_{0}+\gamma_{0}\delta-\gamma\delta_{0}\right)u_{4}\\ u'_{4} & =\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha\alpha_{0}+\beta\beta_{0}-\gamma\gamma_{0}-\delta\delta_{0}\right)u_{1}+\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha\gamma_{0}+\alpha_{0}\gamma+\beta\delta_{0}+\beta_{0}\delta\right)u_{2}+\\ & +\frac{i}{2}\left(\alpha\gamma_{0}-\alpha_{0}\gamma+\beta\delta_{0}-\beta_{0}\delta\right)u_{3}+\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha\alpha_{0}+\beta\beta_{0}+\gamma\gamma_{0}+\delta\delta_{0}\right)u_{4} \end{align} } \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Fricke}} Fricke (1891–97) – Möbius and spin transformations=== [[w:Robert Fricke]] (1891) – following the work of his teacher [[#Klein2|Klein (1878–1882)]] as well as [[#Poincare2|Poincaré (1881–1887)]] on automorphic functions and group theory – obtained the following transformation for an integer ternary quadratic form<ref group=M>Fricke (1891), §§ 1, 6</ref><ref>Dickson (1923), pp. 221, 232</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\omega'=\frac{\delta\omega+\beta}{\gamma\omega+\alpha}\ (\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma=1),\ \omega=\frac{\eta}{\xi},\\ \hline \begin{align}\xi' & =\xi\alpha^{2}+2\eta\alpha\gamma+\zeta\gamma^{2}\\ \eta' & =\xi\alpha\beta+\eta(\alpha\delta+\beta\gamma)+\zeta\gamma\delta\\ \zeta' & =\xi\beta^{2}+2\eta\beta\delta+\zeta\delta^{2} \end{align} \\ \hline \xi'\zeta'-\eta'^{2}=(\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma)^{2}\left(\xi\zeta-\eta^{2}\right)\\ \xi=x\sqrt{q}-y,\ \eta=z,\ \zeta=x\sqrt{q}+y\\ \hline qx^{\prime2}-y^{\prime2}-z^{\prime2}=qx^{2}-y^{2}-z^{2}\\ \hline \left(\begin{matrix}\frac{1}{2}\left(+\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}\right) & \frac{1}{2\sqrt{q}}\left(-\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}\right) & \frac{1}{\sqrt{q}}(\alpha\gamma+\beta\delta)\\ \frac{1}{2}\sqrt{q}\left(-\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}\right) & \frac{1}{2}\left(+\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}\right) & (-\alpha\gamma+\beta\delta)\\ \sqrt{q}(\alpha\beta+\gamma\delta) & (-\alpha\beta+\gamma\delta) & (\alpha\delta+\beta\gamma) \end{matrix}\right) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">By setting ''q=1'', the first part is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6d}}) and the second part is equivalent to ({{equationNote|6e}}), containing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|6f}}) or [[../Lorentz transformation (squeeze)#math_9b|E:('''9b''')]] as a special case with <math>\beta=\gamma=0</math> and <math>\delta=1/\alpha</math>.</p> And the general case of four dimensions in 1893:<ref group=M>Fricke (1893), pp. 706, 710–711</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}y'_{2}y'_{3}-y'_{1}y'_{4}=y_{2}y_{3}-y_{1}y_{4}\\ \hline \begin{align}y_{1}^{\prime} & =\alpha\bar{\alpha}y_{1}+\alpha\bar{\beta}y_{2}+\beta\bar{\alpha}y_{3}+\beta\bar{\beta}y_{4}\\ y_{2}^{\prime} & =\alpha\bar{\gamma}y_{1}+\alpha\bar{\delta}y_{2}+\beta\bar{\gamma}y_{3}+\beta\bar{\delta}y_{4}\\ y_{3}^{\prime} & =\gamma\bar{\alpha}y_{1}+\gamma\bar{\beta}y_{2}+\delta\bar{\alpha}y_{3}+\delta\bar{\beta}y_{4}\\ y_{4}^{\prime} & =\gamma\bar{\gamma}y_{1}+\gamma\bar{\delta}y_{2}+\delta\bar{\gamma}y_{3}+\delta\bar{\delta}y_{4} \end{align} \\ \hline \begin{align}y_{1} & =z_{4}\sqrt{s}+z_{3}\sqrt{r}, & y_{2} & =z_{1}\sqrt{p}+iz_{2}\sqrt{q}\\ y_{3} & =z_{1}\sqrt{p}-iz_{2}\sqrt{q}, & y_{4} & =z_{4}\sqrt{s}-z_{3}\sqrt{r} \end{align} \\ \hline pz_{1}^{\prime2}+qz{}_{2}^{\prime2}+rz{}_{3}^{\prime2}-sz{}_{4}^{\prime2}=pz_{1}^{2}+qz_{2}^{2}+rz_{3}^{2}-sz_{4}^{2}\\ \hline z'_{i}=\alpha_{i1}z_{1}+\alpha_{i2}z_{2}+\alpha_{i3}z_{3}+\alpha_{i4}z_{4}\\ {\scriptstyle \begin{align}2\alpha_{11}\ \text{or}\ 2\alpha_{22} & =\alpha\bar{\delta}+\delta\bar{\alpha}\pm\beta\bar{\gamma}\pm\gamma\bar{\beta}, & 2\alpha_{33}\ \text{or}\ 2\alpha_{44} & =\alpha\bar{\alpha}+\delta\bar{\delta}\pm\beta\bar{\beta}\pm\gamma\bar{\gamma}\\ \frac{2\alpha_{12}\sqrt{p}}{i\sqrt{p}}\ \text{or}\ \frac{2\alpha_{21}i\sqrt{p}}{\sqrt{p}} & =\alpha\bar{\delta}-\bar{\delta}\alpha\mp\beta\bar{\gamma}\pm\gamma\bar{\beta}, & \frac{2\alpha_{34}\sqrt{r}}{\sqrt{s}}\ \text{or}\ \frac{2\alpha_{43}\sqrt{s}}{\sqrt{r}} & =\alpha\bar{\alpha}-\delta\bar{\delta}\pm\beta\bar{\beta}\pm\gamma\bar{\gamma}\\ \frac{2\alpha_{13}\sqrt{p}}{\sqrt{r}}\ \text{or}\ \frac{2\alpha_{24}i\sqrt{p}}{\sqrt{s}} & =\alpha\bar{\gamma}-\delta\bar{\beta}\pm\gamma\bar{\alpha}\pm\beta\bar{\delta}, & \frac{2\alpha_{14}\sqrt{p}}{\sqrt{s}}\ \text{or}\ \frac{2\alpha_{23}i\sqrt{q}}{\sqrt{r}} & =\alpha\bar{\gamma}+\delta\bar{\beta}\pm\gamma\bar{\alpha}\pm\beta\bar{\delta}\\ \frac{2\alpha_{31}\sqrt{r}}{\sqrt{p}}\ \text{or}\ \frac{2\alpha_{43}\sqrt{s}}{i\sqrt{q}} & =\alpha\bar{\beta}-\delta\bar{\gamma}\pm\beta\bar{\alpha}\mp\gamma\bar{\delta}, & \frac{2\alpha_{41}\sqrt{s}}{\sqrt{p}}\ \text{or}\ \frac{2\alpha_{32}\sqrt{r}}{i\sqrt{q}} & =\alpha\bar{\beta}+\delta\bar{\gamma}\pm\beta\bar{\alpha}\pm\gamma\bar{\delta} \end{align} } \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">By setting ''p=q=r=s=1'', the first part is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6a}}) and the second part to ({{equationNote|6b}}).</p> Supported by Felix Klein, Fricke summarized his and Klein's work in a treatise concerning [[w:automorphic function]]s (1897). Using a sphere as the absolute, in which the interior of the sphere is denoted as hyperbolic space, they defined hyperbolic motions, and stressed that any hyperbolic motion corresponds to "circle relations" (now called Möbius transformations):<ref group=M name=fri>Fricke & Klein (1897), §12–13</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}z_{1}^{2}+z_{2}^{2}+z_{3}^{2}-z_{4}^{2}=0\\ =(z_{4}+z_{3})(z_{4}-z_{3})-(z_{1}+iz_{2})(z_{1}-iz_{2})=0\\ =y_{1}y_{4}-y_{2}y_{3}=0\\ \left(y_{1}=z_{4}+z_{3},\ y_{2}=z_{1}+iz_{2},\ y_{3}=z_{1}-iz_{2},\ y_{4}=z_{4}-z_{3}\right)\\ \zeta=\frac{z_{1}+iz_{2}}{z_{4}-z_{3}},\ \bar{\zeta}=\frac{z_{1}-iz_{2}}{z_{4}-z_{3}}\\ \zeta'=\frac{\alpha\zeta+\beta}{\gamma\zeta+\delta},\ \bar{\zeta}'=\frac{\overline{\alpha\zeta}+\bar{\beta}}{\overline{\gamma\zeta}+\bar{\delta}}\quad(\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma\ne0)\\ z_{1}:z_{2}:z_{3}z_{4}=(\zeta+\bar{\zeta}):-i(\zeta-\bar{\zeta}):(\zeta\bar{\zeta}-1):(\zeta\bar{\zeta}+1)\\ y_{1}:y_{2}:y_{3}y_{4}=\zeta\bar{\zeta}:\zeta:\bar{\zeta}:1=\zeta_{1}\bar{\zeta}_{1}:\zeta_{1}\bar{\zeta}_{2}:\zeta_{2}\bar{\zeta}_{1}:\zeta_{2}\bar{\zeta}_{2}\\ \left(\zeta=\zeta_{1}:\zeta_{2},\ \bar{\zeta}=\bar{\zeta}_{1}:\bar{\zeta}_{2}\right)\\ \hline \begin{align}y_{1}^{\prime} & =\alpha\bar{\alpha}y_{1}+\alpha\bar{\beta}y_{2}+\beta\bar{\alpha}y_{3}+\beta\bar{\beta}y_{4}\\ y_{2}^{\prime} & =\alpha\bar{\gamma}y_{1}+\alpha\bar{\delta}y_{2}+\beta\bar{\gamma}y_{3}+\beta\bar{\delta}y_{4}\\ y_{3}^{\prime} & =\gamma\bar{\alpha}y_{1}+\gamma\bar{\beta}y_{2}+\delta\bar{\alpha}y_{3}+\delta\bar{\beta}y_{4}\\ y_{4}^{\prime} & =\gamma\bar{\gamma}y_{1}+\gamma\bar{\delta}y_{2}+\delta\bar{\gamma}y_{3}+\delta\bar{\delta}y_{4} \end{align} \end{matrix} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6a}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Woods}} Woods (1895) – Spin transformation=== In a thesis supervised by Felix Klein, [[w:Frederick S. Woods]] (1895) further developed [[#Bianchi2|Bianchi's (1888)]] treatment of surfaces satisfying the Lorentz interval (pseudominimal surface), and used the transformation of [[#Gauss3|Gauss (1800/63)]] and [[#Bianchi2|Bianchi (1888)]] while discussing automorphisms of that surface:<ref group=M>Woods (1895), pp. 2–3; 10–11; 34–35</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x^{2}+y^{2}-z^{2}=0;\quad x^{2}+y^{2}-z^{2}=-1\\ \hline \left(x,y,z\right)\Rightarrow\omega\\ \begin{align}\omega_{1}^{\prime} & =\alpha\omega_{1}+\beta\omega_{2}\\ \omega_{2}^{\prime} & =\gamma\omega_{1}+\delta\omega_{2} \end{align} \quad(\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma=1)\\ \hline \begin{align}x' & =(-1)^{k}\left[\frac{\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}}{2}x+(\gamma\delta-\alpha\beta)y+\frac{-\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}}{2}z\right]+c_{1}\\ y' & =(-1)^{k}\left[(\beta\delta-\alpha\gamma)x+(\alpha\delta+\beta\gamma)y+(\beta\delta+\alpha\gamma)z\right]+c_{2}\\ z' & =(-1)^{k}\left[\frac{-\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}}{2}x+(\alpha\beta+\gamma\delta)y+\frac{\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}}{2}z\right]+c_{3} \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The expressions within the brackets are equivalent to Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|6e}}), containing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|6f}}) as a special case with <math>\beta=\gamma=0</math> and <math>\delta=1/\alpha</math>.</p> === {{anchor|Herglotz1}} Herglotz (1909/10) – Möbius transformation === Following [[#Klein2|Klein (1889–1897)]] as well as [[#Fricke|Fricke & Klein (1897)]] concerning the Cayley absolute, hyperbolic motion and its transformation, [[w:Gustav Herglotz]] (1909/10) classified the one-parameter Lorentz transformations as loxodromic, hyperbolic, parabolic and elliptic. He provided the general case (on the left) and the hyperbolic substitution (on the right) as follows:<ref group=R>Herglotz (1909/10), pp. 404-408</ref> :<math>\left.\begin{matrix}z_{1}^{2}+z_{2}^{2}+z_{3}^{2}-z_{4}^{2}=0\\ z_{1}=x,\ z_{2}=y,\ z_{3}=z,\ z_{4}=t\\ Z=\frac{z_{1}+iz_{2}}{z_{4}-z_{3}}=\frac{x+iy}{t-z},\ Z'=\frac{x'+iy'}{t'-z'}\\ Z=\frac{\alpha Z'+\beta}{\gamma Z'+\delta} \end{matrix}\right|\begin{matrix}Z=Z'e^{\vartheta}\\ \begin{align}x & =x', & t-z & =(t'-z')e^{\vartheta}\\ y & =y', & t+z & =(t'+z')e^{-\vartheta} \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6a}}).</p> ==References== ===Historical mathematical sources=== {{reflist|3|group=M}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bia88diff}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bia93quat}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cay54hom}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cay79hom}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|fri91}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|fri93}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|fri97}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|gau98}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|gau00}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|helm66}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei71}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei72a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei72b}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei73}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei75}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei79}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei82}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei84}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei90a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei90b}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei93a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei93b}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei96}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lag73}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|poin81a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|poin81b}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|poin83}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|poin86}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|sel73}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|wed75}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo95}} ===Historical relativity sources=== {{reflist|3|group=R}} {{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|herg10}} ===Secondary sources=== {{reflist|3}} {{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/secsource|L7}} [[Category:Special Relativity]] [[Category:History of Physics]] c92zeembsvu8du79pviw4vamuz5d960 2415810 2415808 2022-08-17T10:55:05Z D.H 52339 /* {{anchor|Klein2}} Möbius transformation, spin transformation, Cayley–Klein parameter */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{../Lorentz transformation (header)}} ==Lorentz transformation via Cayley–Klein parameters, Möbius and spin transformations== The previously mentioned Euler-Rodrigues parameter ''a,b,c,d'' (i.e. Cayley-Hermite parameter in [[../Lorentz transformation (Cayley-Hermite)#math_Q3|E:('''Q3''')]] with ''d=1'') are closely related to Cayley–Klein parameter α,β,γ,δ introduced by [[#Cayley2|Helmholtz (1866/67), Cayley (1879)]] and [[#Klein|Klein (1884)]] to connect Möbius transformations <math>\tfrac{\alpha\zeta+\beta}{\gamma\zeta+\delta}</math> and rotations:<ref group=M>Klein (1896/97), p. 12</ref> :<math>\begin{align}\alpha & =1+ib, & \beta & =-a+ic,\\ \gamma & =a+ic, & \delta & =1-ib. \end{align} </math> thus [[../Lorentz transformation (Cayley-Hermite)#math_Q3|E:('''Q3''')]] becomes: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}=x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}+x_{2}^{\prime2}\\ \hline \mathbf{x}'=\frac{1}{\kappa}\left[\begin{matrix}\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}\right) & \beta\delta-\alpha\gamma & \frac{i}{2}\left(-\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}\right)\\ \gamma\delta+\alpha\beta & \alpha\delta+\beta\gamma & i(\alpha\beta+\gamma\delta)\\ -\frac{i}{2}\left(-\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}\right) & -i(\alpha\gamma+\beta\delta) & \frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}\right) \end{matrix}\right]\cdot\mathbf{x}\\ (\kappa=\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma) \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|Q4}}}} Also the Lorentz transformation can be expressed with variants of the Cayley–Klein parameters: One relates these parameters to a spin-matrix '''D''', the [[w:spin transformation]]s of variables <math>\xi',\eta',\bar{\xi}',\bar{\eta}'</math> (the overline denotes [[w:complex conjugate]]), and the [[w:Möbius transformation]] of <math>\zeta',\bar{\zeta}'</math>. When defined in terms of isometries of hyperblic space (hyperbolic motions), the [[w:Hermitian matrix]] '''u''' associated with these Möbius transformations produces an invariant determinant <math>\det\mathbf{u}=x_{0}^{2}-x_{1}^{2}-x_{2}^{2}-x_{3}^{2}</math> identical to the Lorentz interval. Therefore, these transformations were described by [[w:John Lighton Synge]] as being a "factory for the mass production of Lorentz transformations".<ref name=synge /> It also turns out that the related [[w:spin group]] Spin(3, 1) or [[w:special linear group]] SL(2, C) acts as the [[w:Double cover (topology)|double cover]] of the Lorentz group (one Lorentz transformation corresponds to two spin transformations of different sign), while the [[w:Möbius group]] Con(0,2) or [[w:projective special linear group]] PSL(2, C) is isomorphic to both the Lorentz group and the group of isometries of hyperbolic space. In space, the Möbius/Spin/Lorentz transformations can be written as:<ref>Klein (1928), § 3A</ref><ref name=synge>Synge (1956), ch. IV, 11</ref><ref>Penrose & Rindler (1984), section 2.1</ref><ref name="Lorente 2003, section 4">Lorente (2003), section 4</ref> {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}\zeta=\frac{x_{1}+ix_{2}}{x_{0}-x_{3}}=\frac{x_{0}+x_{3}}{x_{1}-ix_{2}}\rightarrow\zeta'=\frac{\alpha\zeta+\beta}{\gamma\zeta+\delta}\left|\zeta'=\frac{\xi'}{\eta'}\rightarrow\begin{align}\xi' & =\alpha\xi+\beta\eta\\ \eta' & =\gamma\xi+\delta\eta \end{align} \right.\\ \hline \left.\begin{matrix}\mathbf{u}=\left(\begin{matrix}X_{1} & X_{2}\\ X_{3} & X_{4} \end{matrix}\right)=\left(\begin{matrix}\bar{\xi}\xi & \xi\bar{\eta}\\ \bar{\xi}\eta & \bar{\eta}\eta \end{matrix}\right)=\left(\begin{matrix}x_{0}+x_{3} & x_{1}-ix_{2}\\ x_{1}+ix_{2} & x_{0}-x_{3} \end{matrix}\right)\\ \det\mathbf{u}=x_{0}^{2}-x_{1}^{2}-x_{2}^{2}-x_{3}^{2} \end{matrix}\right|\begin{matrix}\mathbf{D}=\left(\begin{matrix}\alpha & \beta\\ \gamma & \delta \end{matrix}\right)\\ \begin{align}\det\boldsymbol{\mathbf{D}} & =1\end{align} \end{matrix}\\ \hline \mathbf{u}'=\mathbf{D}\cdot\mathbf{u}\cdot\bar{\mathbf{D}}^{\mathrm{T}}=\begin{align}X_{1}^{\prime} & =X_{1}\alpha\bar{\alpha}+X_{2}\alpha\bar{\beta}+X_{3}\bar{\alpha}\beta+X_{4}\beta\bar{\beta}\\ X_{2}^{\prime} & =X_{1}\bar{\alpha}\gamma+X_{2}\bar{\alpha}\delta+X_{3}\bar{\beta}\gamma+X_{4}\bar{\beta}\delta\\ X_{3}^{\prime} & =X_{1}\alpha\bar{\gamma}+X_{2}\alpha\bar{\delta}+X_{3}\beta\bar{\gamma}+X_{4}\beta\bar{\delta}\\ X_{4}^{\prime} & =X_{1}\gamma\bar{\gamma}+X_{2}\gamma\bar{\delta}+X_{3}\bar{\gamma}\delta+X_{4}\delta\bar{\delta} \end{align} \\ \hline \begin{align}X_{3}^{\prime}X_{2}^{\prime}-X_{1}^{\prime}X_{4}^{\prime} & =X_{3}X_{2}-X_{1}X_{4}=0\\ \det\mathbf{u}'=x_{0}^{\prime2}-x_{1}^{\prime2}-x_{2}^{\prime2}-x_{3}^{\prime2} & =\det\mathbf{u}=x_{0}^{2}-x_{1}^{2}-x_{2}^{2}-x_{3}^{2} \end{align} \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|6a}}}} thus:<ref>Penrose & Rindler (1984), p. 17</ref> {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}+x_{2}^{\prime2}+x_{3}^{\prime2}\\ \hline \mathbf{x}'=\frac{1}{2}\left[{\scriptstyle \begin{align} & \alpha\bar{\alpha}+\beta\bar{\beta}+\gamma\bar{\gamma}+\delta\bar{\delta} & & \alpha\bar{\beta}+\beta\bar{\alpha}+\gamma\bar{\delta}+\delta\bar{\gamma} & & i(\alpha\bar{\beta}-\beta\bar{\alpha}+\gamma\bar{\delta}-\delta\bar{\gamma}) & & \alpha\bar{\alpha}-\beta\bar{\beta}+\gamma\bar{\gamma}-\delta\bar{\delta}\\ & \alpha\bar{\gamma}+\gamma\bar{\alpha}+\beta\bar{\delta}+\delta\bar{\beta} & & \alpha\bar{\delta}+\delta\bar{\alpha}+\beta\bar{\gamma}+\gamma\bar{\beta} & & i(\alpha\bar{\delta}-\delta\bar{\alpha}+\gamma\bar{\beta}-\beta\bar{\gamma}) & & \alpha\bar{\gamma}+\gamma\bar{\alpha}-\beta\bar{\delta}-\delta\bar{\beta}\\ & i(\gamma\bar{\alpha}-\alpha\bar{\gamma}+\delta\bar{\beta}-\beta\bar{\delta}) & & i(\delta\bar{\alpha}-\alpha\bar{\delta}+\gamma\bar{\beta}-\beta\bar{\gamma}) & & \alpha\bar{\delta}+\delta\bar{\alpha}-\beta\bar{\gamma}-\gamma\bar{\beta} & & i(\gamma\bar{\alpha}-\alpha\bar{\gamma}+\beta\bar{\delta}-\delta\bar{\beta})\\ & \alpha\bar{\alpha}+\beta\bar{\beta}-\gamma\bar{\gamma}-\delta\bar{\delta} & & \alpha\bar{\beta}+\beta\bar{\alpha}-\gamma\bar{\delta}-\delta\bar{\gamma} & & i(\alpha\bar{\beta}-\beta\bar{\alpha}+\delta\bar{\gamma}-\gamma\bar{\delta}) & & \alpha\bar{\alpha}-\beta\bar{\beta}-\gamma\bar{\gamma}+\delta\bar{\delta} \end{align} }\right]\cdot\mathbf{x}\\ (\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma=1) \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|6b}}}} or in line with [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#math_1b|E:general Lorentz transformation ('''1b''')]] one can substitute <math>\left[u_{1},\ u_{2},\ u_{3},\ 1\right]=\left[\tfrac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ \tfrac{x_{2}}{x_{0}},\ \tfrac{x_{3}}{x_{0}},\ \tfrac{x_{0}}{x_{0}}\right]</math> so that the Möbius/Lorentz transformations become related to the unit sphere: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}u_{1}^{2}+u_{2}^{2}+u_{3}^{2}=u_{1}^{\prime2}+u_{2}^{\prime2}+u_{3}^{\prime2}=1\\ \hline \left.\begin{matrix}\zeta=\frac{u_{1}+iu_{2}}{1-u_{3}}=\frac{1+u_{3}}{u_{1}-iu_{2}}\\ \zeta'=\frac{u_{1}^{\prime}+iu_{2}^{\prime}}{1-u_{3}^{\prime}}=\frac{1+u_{3}^{\prime}}{u_{1}^{\prime}-iu_{2}^{\prime}} \end{matrix}\right|\quad\zeta'=\frac{\alpha\zeta+\beta}{\gamma\zeta+\delta} \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|6c}}}} The general transformation '''u′''' in ({{equationNote|6a}}) was given by [[#Cayley2|Cayley (1854)]], while the general relation between Möbius transformations and transformation '''u′''' leaving invariant the [[w:generalized circle]] was pointed out by [[#Poincare2|Poincaré (1883)]] in relation to [[w:Kleinian group]]s. The adaptation to the Lorentz interval by which ({{equationNote|6a}}) becomes a Lorentz transformation was given by [[#Klein2|Klein (1889-1893, 1896/97)]], [[#Bianchi2|Bianchi (1893)]], [[#Fricke|Fricke (1893, 1897)]]. Its reformulation as Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6b}}) was provided by [[#Bianchi2|Bianchi (1893)]] and [[#Fricke|Fricke (1893, 1897)]]. Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6c}}) was given by [[#Klein2|Klein (1884)]] in relation to surfaces of second degree and the invariance of the unit sphere. In relativity, ({{equationNote|6a}}) was first employed by [[#Herglotz1|Herglotz (1909/10)]]. In the plane, the transformations can be written as:<ref name=k28>Klein (1928), § 2A</ref><ref name="Lorente 2003, section 4"/> {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}\zeta=\frac{x_{1}}{x_{0}-x_{2}}=\frac{x_{0}+x_{2}}{x_{1}}\rightarrow\zeta'=\frac{\alpha\zeta+\beta}{\gamma\zeta+\delta}\left|\zeta'=\frac{\xi'}{\eta'}\rightarrow\begin{align}\xi' & =\alpha\xi+\beta\eta\\ \eta' & =\gamma\xi+\delta\eta \end{align} \right.\\ \hline \left.\begin{matrix}\mathbf{u}=\left(\begin{matrix}X_{1} & X_{2}\\ X_{2} & X_{3} \end{matrix}\right)=\left(\begin{matrix}\xi^{2} & \xi\eta\\ \xi\eta & \eta^{2} \end{matrix}\right)=\left(\begin{matrix}x_{0}+x_{2} & x_{1}\\ x_{1} & x_{0}-x_{2} \end{matrix}\right)\\ \det\mathbf{u}=x_{0}^{2}-x_{1}^{2}-x_{2}^{2} \end{matrix}\right|\begin{matrix}\mathbf{D}=\left(\begin{matrix}\alpha & \beta\\ \gamma & \delta \end{matrix}\right)\\ \begin{align}\det\boldsymbol{\mathbf{D}} & =1\end{align} \end{matrix}\\ \hline \mathbf{u}'=\mathbf{D}\cdot\mathbf{u}\cdot\mathbf{D}^{\mathrm{T}}=\begin{align}X_{1}^{\prime} & =X_{1}\alpha^{2}+X_{2}2\alpha\beta+X_{3}\beta^{2}\\ X_{2}^{\prime} & =X_{1}\alpha\gamma+X_{2}(\alpha\delta+\beta\gamma)+X_{3}\beta\delta\\ X_{3}^{\prime} & =X_{1}\gamma^{2}+X_{2}2\gamma\delta+X_{3}\delta^{2} \end{align} \\ \hline \begin{align}X_{2}^{\prime2}-X_{1}^{\prime}X_{3}^{\prime} & =X_{2}^{2}-X_{1}X_{3}=0\\ \det\mathbf{u}'=x_{0}^{\prime2}-x_{1}^{\prime2}-x_{2}^{\prime2} & =\det\mathbf{u}=x_{0}^{2}-x_{1}^{2}-x_{2}^{2} \end{align} \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|6d}}}} thus {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}+x_{2}^{\prime2}\\ \hline \mathbf{x}'=\left[\begin{matrix}\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}\right) & \alpha\beta+\gamma\delta & \frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}-\delta^{2}\right)\\ \alpha\gamma+\beta\delta & \alpha\delta+\beta\gamma & \alpha\gamma-\beta\delta\\ \frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}-\delta^{2}\right) & \alpha\beta-\gamma\delta & \frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}\right) \end{matrix}\right]\cdot\mathbf{x}\\ (\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma=1) \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|6e}}}} which includes the special case <math>\beta=\gamma=0</math> implying <math>\delta=1/\alpha</math>, reducing the transformation to a Lorentz boost in 1+1 dimensions: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}X_{1}X_{3}=X_{1}^{\prime}X_{3}^{\prime}\quad\Rightarrow\quad-x_{0}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{2}^{\prime2}\\ \hline \begin{align}X_{1} & =\alpha^{2}X_{1}^{\prime}\\ X_{2} & =X_{2}^{\prime}\\ X_{3} & =\frac{1}{\alpha^{2}}X_{3}^{\prime} \end{align} \quad\Rightarrow\quad\begin{align}x_{0} & =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}\left(\alpha^{4}+1\right)+x_{2}^{\prime}\left(\alpha^{4}-1\right)}{2\alpha^{2}}\\ x_{1} & =x_{1}^{\prime}\\ x_{2} & =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}\left(\alpha^{4}-1\right)+x_{2}^{\prime}\left(\alpha^{4}+1\right)}{2\alpha^{2}} \end{align} \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|6f}}}} Finally, by using the Lorentz interval related to a hyperboloid, the Möbius/Lorentz transformations can be written {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}+x_{2}^{\prime2}=-1\\ \hline \left.\begin{matrix}\zeta=\frac{x_{1}+ix_{2}}{x_{0}+1}=\frac{x_{0}-1}{x_{1}-ix_{2}}\\ \zeta'=\frac{x_{1}^{\prime}+ix_{2}^{\prime}}{x_{0}^{\prime}+1}=\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}-1}{x_{1}^{\prime}-ix_{2}^{\prime}} \end{matrix}\right|\quad\zeta'=\frac{\alpha\zeta+\beta}{\gamma\zeta+\delta} \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|6g}}}} The general transformation '''u′''' and its invariant <math>X_{2}^{2}-X_{1}X_{3}</math> in ({{equationNote|6d}}) was already used by [[#Lagrange|Lagrange (1773)]] and [[#Gauss|Gauss (1798/1801)]] in the theory of integer binary quadratic forms. The invariant <math>X_{2}^{2}-X_{1}X_{3}</math> was also studied by [[#Klein|Klein (1871)]] in connection to hyperbolic plane geometry (see [[../Lorentz transformation (hyperbolic)#math_3d|E:('''3d''')]]), while the connection between '''u′''' and <math>X_{2}^{2}-X_{1}X_{3}</math> with the Möbius transformation was analyzed by [[#Poincare2|Poincaré (1886)]] in relation to [[w:Fuchsian group]]s. The adaptation to the Lorentz interval by which ({{equationNote|6d}}) becomes a Lorentz transformation was given by [[#Bianchi2|Bianchi (1888)]] and [[#Fricke|Fricke (1891)]]. Lorentz Transformation ({{equationNote|6e}}) was stated by [[#Gauss3|Gauss around 1800]] (posthumously published 1863), as well as [[#Selling|Selling (1873)]], [[#Bianchi2|Bianchi (1888)]], [[#Fricke|Fricke (1891)]], [[#Woods|Woods (1895)]] in relation to integer indefinite ternary quadratic forms. Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6f}}) was given by [[#Bianchi1|Bianchi (1886, 1894)]] and [[#Eisenhart|Eisenhart (1905)]]. Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6g}}) of the hyperboloid was stated by [[#Poincare2|Poincaré (1881)]] and [[#Hausdorff|Hausdorff (1899)]]. ==Historical notation== ==={{anchor|Lagrange}} Lagrange (1773) – Binary quadratic forms=== After the invariance of the sum of squares under linear substitutions was discussed by [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#Euler|E:Euler (1771)]], the general expressions of a [[w:binary quadratic form]] and its transformation was formulated by [[w:Joseph-Louis Lagrange]] (1773/75) as follows<ref group=M>Lagrange (1773/75), section 22</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}py^{2}+2qyz+rz^{2}=Ps^{2}+2Qsx+Rx^{2}\\ \hline \begin{align}y & =Ms+Nx\\ z & =ms+nx \end{align} \left|\begin{matrix}\begin{align}P & =pM^{2}+2qMm+rm^{2}\\ Q & =pMN+q(Mn+Nm)+rmn\\ R & =pN^{2}+2qNn+rn^{2} \end{align} \\ \downarrow\\ PR-Q^{2}=\left(pr-q^{2}\right)(Mn-Nm)^{2} \end{matrix}\right. \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The transformation of coefficients ''(p,q,r)'' is identical to transformation '''u′''' in ({{equationNote|6d}}) and becomes the complete Lorentz transformation by setting <br><math>\begin{align}(p,q,r) & =\left(x_{0}+x_{2},\ x_{1},\ x_{0}-x_{2}\right)\\ (P,Q,R) & =\left(x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{2}^{\prime},\ x_{1}^{\prime},\ x_{0}^{\prime}-x_{2}^{\prime}\right) \end{align}</math>.</p> ==={{anchor|Gauss}} Gauss (1800)=== ==== Binary quadratic form==== The theory of binary quadratic forms was considerably expanded by [[w:Carl Friedrich Gauss]] (1798, published 1801) in his [[w:Disquisitiones Arithmeticae]]. He rewrote Lagrange's formalism as follows using integer coefficients α,β,γ,δ:<ref group=M>Gauss (1798/1801), articles 157–158;</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}F=ax^{2}+2bxy+cy^{2}=(a,b,c)\\ F'=a'x^{\prime2}+2b'x'y'+c'y^{\prime2}=(a',b',c')\\ \hline \begin{align}x & =\alpha x'+\beta y'\\ y & =\gamma x'+\delta y'\\ \\ x' & =\delta x-\beta y\\ y' & =-\gamma x+\alpha y \end{align} \left|\begin{matrix}\begin{align}a' & =a\alpha^{2}+2b\alpha\gamma+c\gamma^{2}\\ b' & =a\alpha\beta+b(\alpha\delta+\beta\gamma)+c\gamma\delta\\ c' & =a\beta^{2}+2b\beta\delta+c\delta^{2} \end{align} \\ \downarrow\\ b^{2}-a'c'=\left(b^{2}-ac\right)(\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma)^{2} \end{matrix}\right. \end{matrix}</math> As pointed out by Gauss, ''F'' and ''F′'' are called "proper equivalent" if αδ-βγ=1, so that ''F'' is contained in ''F′'' as well as ''F′'' is contained in ''F''. In addition, if another form ''F″'' is contained by the same procedure in ''F′'' it is also contained in ''F'' and so forth.<ref group=M>Gauss (1798/1801), section 159</ref> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The transformation of coefficients ''(a,b,c)'' is identical to transformation '''u′''' in ({{equationNote|6d}}) and becomes the complete Lorentz transformation by setting <br><math>\begin{align}(a,b,c) & =\left(x_{0}+x_{2},\ x_{1},\ x_{0}-x_{2}\right)\\ (a',b',c') & =\left(x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{2}^{\prime},\ x_{1}^{\prime},\ x_{0}^{\prime}-x_{2}^{\prime}\right) \end{align}</math>.</p> ===={{anchor|Gauss3}} Cayley–Klein parameter==== After [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Gauss2|E:Gauss (1798/1801)]] defined the integer ternary quadratic form :<math>f=ax^{2}+a'x^{\prime2}+a''x^{\prime\prime2}+2bx'x''+2b'xx''+2b''xx'=\left(\begin{matrix}a, & a', & a''\\ b, & b', & b'' \end{matrix}\right)</math> he derived around 1800 (posthumously published in 1863) the most general transformation of the Lorentz interval <math>\scriptstyle\left(\begin{matrix}a, & a', & a''\\ b, & b', & b'' \end{matrix}\right)=\left(\begin{matrix}1, & 1, & -1\\ 0, & 0, & 0 \end{matrix}\right)</math> into itself, using a coefficient system α,β,γ,δ:<ref group=M>Gauss (1800/1863), p. 311</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\left(\begin{matrix}1, & 1, & -1\\ 0, & 0, & 0 \end{matrix}\right)\\ \hline \begin{matrix}\alpha\delta+\beta\gamma & \alpha\beta-\gamma\delta & \alpha\beta+\gamma\delta\\ \alpha\gamma-\beta\delta & \frac{1}{2}(\alpha\alpha+\delta\delta-\beta\beta-\gamma\gamma) & \frac{1}{2}(\alpha\alpha+\gamma\gamma-\beta\beta-\delta\delta)\\ \alpha\gamma+\beta\delta & \frac{1}{2}(\alpha\alpha+\beta\beta-\gamma\gamma-\delta\delta) & \frac{1}{2}(\alpha\alpha+\beta\beta+\gamma\gamma+\delta\delta) \end{matrix}\\ (\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma=1) \end{matrix} </math> Gauss' result was cited by [[../Lorentz transformation (Cayley-Hermite)#Bachmann|E:Bachmann (1869)]], [[#Selling|Selling (1873)]], [[#Bianchi2|Bianchi (1888)]], [[w:Leonard Eugene Dickson]] (1923).<ref>Dickson (1923), p. 210</ref> The parameters α,β,γ,δ, when applied to spatial rotations, were later called Cayley–Klein parameters. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6e}}), containing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|6f}}) as a special case with <math>\beta=\gamma=0</math> and <math>\delta=1/\alpha</math>.</p> ==={{anchor|Cayley2}} Cayley (1854) – Cayley–Klein parameter=== Already in 1854, Cayley published an alternative method of transforming quadratic forms by using certain parameters α,β,γ,δ in relation to an ''improper'' homographic transformation of a surface of second order into itself:<ref group=M name=cayl1854>Cayley (1854), p. 135</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}xy-zw=0\\ x_{2}y_{2}-z_{2}w_{2}=x_{1}y_{1}-z_{1}w_{1}\\ \hline \left.\begin{align}MM'x_{2} & =\gamma'\delta x_{1}+\alpha\alpha'y_{1}-\alpha'\delta z_{1}-\alpha\gamma'w_{1}\\ MM'y_{2} & =\beta\beta'x_{1}+\gamma\delta'y_{1}-\beta\delta'z_{1}-\beta'\gamma w_{1}\\ MM'z_{2} & =\beta\gamma'x_{1}+\gamma\alpha'y_{1}-\beta\alpha'z_{1}-\gamma\gamma'w_{1}\\ MM'w_{2} & =\beta'\delta x_{1}+\alpha\delta'y_{1}-\delta\delta'z_{1}-\alpha\beta'w_{1} \end{align} \right|\begin{align}M^{2} & =\alpha\beta-\gamma\delta\\ M^{\prime2} & =\alpha'\beta'-\gamma'\delta' \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> By setting <math>\left(x_{1},y_{1}\dots\right)\Rightarrow\left(x_{1}+iy_{1},x_{1}-iy_{1}\dots\right)</math> and rewriting M and M' in terms of four different parameters <math>M^{2}=a^{2}+b^{2}+c^{2}+d^{2}</math> he demonstrated the invariance of <math>x_1^2+y_1^2+z_1^2+w_1^2</math>, and subsequently showed the relation to 4D quaternion transformations. Fricke & Klein (1897) credited Cayley by calling the above transformation the most general (real or complex) space collineation of first kind of an absolute surface of second kind into itself.<ref group=M name=fri /> Parameters α,β,γ,δ are similar to what was later called Cayley–Klein parameters in relation to spatial rotations (which was done by Cayley in 1879<ref group=M>Cayley (1879), p. 238f.</ref> and before by [[w:Hermann von Helmholtz]] (1866/67)<ref group=M>Helmholtz (1866/67), p. 513</ref>). <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Cayley's improper transformation becomes proper with some sign changes, and becomes equivalent to Lorentz transformation <math>\mathbf{u}'</math> in ({{equationNote|6a}}) by setting M=M'=1 and: <br ><math>(x_1,\ y_1,\ z_1,\ w_1)=\left(x_0+x_3,\ x_0-x_3,\ x_1+ix_2,\ x_1-ix_2 \right)</math>. <br >Subsequently solved for <math>x_{0},x_{1},x_{2},x_{3}</math> it becomes Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Klein}} Klein (1871–97)=== ===={{anchor|Klein1}} Cayley absolute and non-Euclidean geometry==== Elaborating on Cayley's (1859) definition of an "absolute" ([[w:Cayley–Klein metric]]), [[w:Felix Klein]] (1871) defined a "fundamental [[w:conic section]]" in order to discuss motions such as rotation and translation in the non-Euclidean plane,<ref group=M>Klein (1871), pp. 601–602</ref> and another fundamental form by using [[w:homogeneous coordinates]] ''x,y'' related to a circle with radius ''2c'' with measure of curvature <math>-\tfrac{1}{4c^{2}}</math>. When ''c'' is positive, the measure of curvature is negative and the fundamental conic section is real, thus the geometry becomes hyperbolic ([[w:Beltrami–Klein model]]):<ref group=M>Klein (1871), p. 618</ref> :<math>\begin{align}x_{1}x_{2}-x_{3}^{2} & =0\\ x^{2}+y^{2}-4c^{2} & =0 \end{align} \left|\begin{matrix}x_{1}x_{2}-x_{3}^{2}=0\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{1} & =\alpha_{1}y_{1}\\ x_{2} & =\alpha_{2}y_{2}\\ x_{3} & =\alpha_{3}y_{3} \end{align} \\ \left(\alpha_{1}\alpha_{2}-\alpha_{3}^{2}=0\right) \end{matrix}\right.</math> In (1873) he pointed out that hyperbolic geometry in terms of a surface of constant negative curvature can be related to a quadratic equation, which can be transformed into a sum of squares of which one square has a different sign, and can also be related to the interior of a surface of second degree corresponding to an ellipsoid or two-sheet [[w:hyperboloid]].<ref group=M>Klein (1873), pp. 127-128</ref> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Using positive ''c'' in <math>-\tfrac{1}{4c^{2}}</math> in line with hyperbolic geometry or directly by setting <math>-\tfrac{1}{4c^{2}}=-x_{0}</math>, Klein's two quadratic forms can be related to expressions <math>X_{2}^{2}-X_{1}X_{3}</math> and <math>x_{0}^{2}-x_{1}^{2}-x_{2}^{2}</math> for the Lorentz interval in ({{equationNote|6d}}).</p> ===={{anchor|Klein2}} Möbius transformation, spin transformation, Cayley–Klein parameter==== In (1872) while devising the [[w:Erlangen program]], Klein discussed the general relation between projective metrics, [[w:binary form]]s and conformal geometry transforming a sphere into itself in terms of linear transformations of the [[w:complex variable]] ''x+iy''.<ref group=M>Klein (1872), 6</ref> Following Klein, these relations were discussed by [[w:Ludwig Wedekind]] (1875) using <math>z'=\tfrac{\alpha z+\beta}{\gamma z+\delta}</math>.<ref group=M>Wedekind (1875), 1</ref> Klein (1875) then showed that all finite groups of motions follow by determining all finite groups of such linear transformations of ''x+iy'' into itself.<ref group=M>Klein (1875), §1–2</ref> In (1878),<ref group=M>Klein (1878), 8.</ref> Klein classified the substitutions of <math>\omega'=\tfrac{\alpha\omega+\beta}{\gamma\omega+\delta}</math> with αδ-βγ=1 into hyperbolic, elliptic, parabolic, and in (1882)<ref group=M>Klein (1882), p. 173.</ref> he added the loxodromic substitution as the combination of elliptic and hyperbolic ones. (In 1890, [[w:Robert Fricke]] in his edition of Klein's lectures of [[w:elliptic function]]s and [[w:Modular form]]s, referred to the analogy of this treatment to the theory of quadratic forms as given by Gauss and in particular Dirichlet.)<ref group=M name=fri /> In (1884) Klein related the linear fractional transformations (interpreted as rotations around the ''x+iy''-sphere) to Cayley–Klein parameters [α,β,γ,δ], to Euler–Rodrigues parameters ''[a,b,c,d]'', and to the [[w:unit sphere]] by means of [[w:stereographic projection]], and also discussed transformations preserving surfaces of second degree equivalent to the transformation given by [[#Cayley2|Cayley (1854)]]:<ref group=M>Klein (1884), Part I, Ch. I, §1–2; Part II, Ch. II, 10</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\left.\begin{matrix}z'=\frac{\alpha z+\beta}{\gamma z+\delta}\rightarrow z=z_{1}:z_{2}\rightarrow\begin{align}z_{1}^{\prime} & =\alpha z_{1}+\beta z_{2}\\ z_{2}^{\prime} & =\gamma z_{1}+\delta z_{2} \end{align} \\ \xi^{2}+\eta^{2}+\zeta^{2}=1\\ z=x+iy=\frac{\xi+i\eta}{1-\zeta}\\ z'=\frac{(d+ic)z-(b-ia)}{(b+ia)z+(d-ic)}\\ \left(a^{2}+b^{2}+c^{2}+d^{2}=1\right) \end{matrix}\right| & \begin{matrix}X_{1}X_{4}+X_{2}X_{3}=0\\ \lambda'=\frac{a\lambda+b}{c\lambda+d},\ \mu'=\frac{a'\mu+b'}{c'\mu+d'}\\ \lambda=\lambda_{1}:\lambda_{2},\ \mu=\mu_{1}:\mu_{2}\\ X_{1}:X_{2}:X_{3}:X_{4}=\lambda_{1}\mu_{1}:-\lambda_{2}\mu_{1}:\lambda_{1}\mu_{2}:\lambda_{2}\mu_{2} \end{matrix}\end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The formulas on the left related to the unit sphere are equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6c}}). The formulas on the right can be related to those on the left by setting <br><math>(X_{1},\ X_{2},\ X_{3},\ X_{4})=\left(1+\zeta,\ -\xi+i\eta,\ \xi+i\eta,\ 1-\zeta\right)</math> <br>and become equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6a}}) by setting <br><math>\left[\xi,\ \eta,\ \zeta,\ 1\right]=\left[\tfrac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ \tfrac{x_{2}}{x_{0}},\ \tfrac{x_{3}}{x_{0}},\ \tfrac{x_{0}}{x_{0}}\right]</math> and subsequently solved for ''x''<sub>1</sub>... it becomes Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6b}}).</p> In his lecture in the winter semester of 1889/90 (published 1892–93), he discussed the hyperbolic plane by using (as in 1871) the Lorentz interval in terms of a circle with radius ''2k'' as the basis of hyperbolic geometry, and another quadratic form to discuss the "kinematics of hyperbolic geometry" consisting of motions and congruent displacements of the hyperbolic plane into itself:<ref group=M>Klein (1893a), p. 109ff; pp. 138–140; pp. 249–250</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}x^{2}+y^{2}-4k^{2}t^{2}=0\\ x_{1}x_{3}-x_{2}^{2}=0 \end{matrix} & \left|\begin{matrix}x_{1}x_{3}-x_{2}^{2}=0\\ \frac{x_{1}}{x_{2}}=\frac{x_{2}}{x_{3}}=\lambda=\frac{\lambda_{1}}{\lambda_{2}}\\ \lambda'=\frac{\alpha\lambda+\beta}{\gamma\lambda+\delta}\rightarrow\begin{align}\lambda_{1}^{\prime} & =\alpha\lambda_{1}+\beta\lambda_{2}\\ \lambda_{2}^{\prime} & =\gamma\lambda_{1}+\delta\lambda_{2} \end{align} \\ \left(\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma=1\right)\\ \begin{align}x_{1}:x_{2}:x_{3} & =\lambda^{2}:\lambda:1=\lambda_{1}^{2}:\lambda_{1}\lambda_{2}:\lambda_{2}^{2}\\ & =\lambda^{\prime2}:\lambda':1=\lambda_{1}^{\prime2}:\lambda_{1}^{\prime}\lambda_{2}^{\prime}:\lambda_{2}^{\prime2}; \end{align} \end{matrix}\right.\end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Klein's Lorentz interval <math>x^{2}+y^{2}-4k^{2}t^{2}</math> can be connected with the other interval <math>x_{1}x_{3}-x_{2}^{2}</math> by setting <br><math>(x_{1},\ x_{2},\ x_{3})=\left(x+iy,\ 2kt,\ x-iy\right)</math>, <br>by which the transformation system on the right becomes equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6d}}) with ''2k=1'', and subsequently solved for ''x''<sub>1</sub>... it becomes equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6e}}).</p> In his lecture in the summer semester of 1890 (published 1892–93), he discussed general surfaces of second degree, including an "oval" surface corresponding to hyperbolic space and its motions:<ref group=M>Klein (1893b); general surface: pp. 61–66, 116–119, hyperbolic space: pp. 82, 86, 143–144</ref> :<math>\left.\begin{matrix}\text{General surfaces of second degree}:\\ \begin{align}z_{1}^{2}+z_{2}^{2}+z_{3}^{2}+z_{4}^{2} & \text{(no real parts, elliptic)}\\ z_{1}^{2}+z_{2}^{2}+z_{3}^{2}-z_{4}^{2} & \text{(oval,hyperbolic)}\\ z_{1}^{2}+z_{2}^{2}-z_{3}^{2}-z_{4}^{2} & \text{(ring)}\\ z_{1}^{2}-z_{2}^{2}-z_{3}^{2}-z_{4}^{2} & \text{(oval,hyperbolic)}\\ -z_{1}^{2}-z_{2}^{2}-z_{3}^{2}-z_{4}^{2} & \text{(no real parts,elliptic)} \end{align} \\ \text{all of which can be brought into the form:}\\ y_{1}y_{3}+y_{2}y_{4}=0\\ \text{Transformation:}\\ \begin{align}\varrho y_{1} & =\lambda_{1}\mu_{1}, & \varrho y_{1}^{\prime} & =\lambda_{1}^{\prime}\mu_{1}^{\prime}\\ \varrho y_{2} & =\lambda_{2}\mu_{1}, & \varrho y_{2}^{\prime} & =\lambda_{2}^{\prime}\mu_{1}^{\prime}\\ \varrho y_{3} & =\lambda_{2}\mu_{2}, & \varrho y_{3}^{\prime} & =-\lambda_{2}^{\prime}\mu_{2}^{\prime}\\ \varrho y_{4} & =\lambda_{1}\mu_{2}, & \varrho y_{4}^{\prime} & =\lambda_{1}^{\prime}\mu_{2}^{\prime} \end{align} \end{matrix}\right|\begin{matrix}\text{Oval (=hyperbolic motions in space):}\\ x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-x_{4}^{2}=0\\ =\left(x_{1}+ix_{3}\right)\left(x_{1}-ix_{3}\right)+\left(x_{2}+x_{4}\right)\left(x_{2}-x_{4}\right)=0\\ =y_{1}y_{3}+y_{2}y_{4}=0\\ \\ x^{2}+y^{2}+z^{2}-1=0\\ \hline \lambda=\frac{x+iy}{1-z},\ \lambda'=\frac{\alpha\lambda+\beta}{\gamma\lambda+\delta},\ \mu'=\frac{\bar{\alpha}\mu+\bar{\beta}}{\bar{\gamma}\mu+\bar{\delta}}\\ \begin{align}\lambda_{1}^{\prime} & =\alpha\lambda_{1}+\beta\lambda_{2}\\ \lambda_{2}^{\prime} & =\gamma\lambda_{1}+\delta\lambda_{2} \end{align} ,\ \begin{align}\mu_{1}^{\prime} & =\bar{\alpha}\mu_{1}+\bar{\beta}\mu_{2}\\ \mu_{2}^{\prime} & =\bar{\gamma}\mu_{1}+\bar{\delta}\mu_{2} \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The transformation of the unit sphere <math>x^{2}+y^{2}+z^{2}-1=0</math> on the right is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6c}}). Plugging the values for λ,μ,λ′,μ′,... from the right into the transformations on the left, and relating them to Klein's homogeneous coordinates <math>x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-x_{4}^{2}=0</math> by <math>(x,\ y,\ z,\ 1)=\left(\tfrac{x_{1}}{x_{4}},\ \tfrac{x_{2}}{x_{4}},\ \tfrac{x_{3}}{x_{4}},\ \tfrac{x_{4}}{x_{4}}\right)</math> leads to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6a}}). Subsequently solved for ''x''<sub>1</sub>... it becomes Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6b}}).</p> In (1896/97), Klein again defined hyperbolic motions and explicitly used ''t'' as (possibly complex) time coordinate, even though he added those cautionary remarks: ''"not for the sake of studying the behavior of a fictitious, imaginary time, but because it is only by taking this step that it becomes possible to bring about the intimate association of kinetics and the theory of functions of a complex variable. [..] the non-Euclidean geometry has no meta-physical significance here or in the subsequent discussion"''. He produced the following transformation:<ref group=M>Klein (1896/97), pp. 13–14</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x^{2}+y^{2}+z^{2}-t^{2}=0\\ =(x+iy)(x-iy)+(z+t)(z-t)=0\\ x+iy:x-iy:z+t:t-z=\zeta_{1}\zeta_{2}^{\prime}:\zeta_{2}\zeta_{1}^{\prime}:\zeta_{1}\zeta_{1}^{\prime}:\zeta_{2}\zeta_{2}^{\prime}\\ \frac{\zeta_{1}}{\zeta_{2}}=\zeta\rightarrow\zeta=\frac{x+iy}{t-z}=\frac{t+z}{x-iy};\\ X^{2}+Y^{2}+Z^{2}-T^{2}=0=\ \text{etc.}\\ \zeta=\frac{\alpha Z+\beta}{\gamma Z+\delta}\rightarrow\begin{align}\zeta_{1} & =\alpha Z_{1}+\beta Z_{2}\\ \zeta_{2} & =\gamma Z_{1}+\delta Z_{2} \end{align} ,\ \begin{align}\zeta_{1}^{\prime} & =\bar{\alpha}Z_{1}^{\prime}+\bar{\beta}Z_{2}^{\prime}\\ \zeta_{2}^{\prime} & =\bar{\gamma}Z_{1}^{\prime}+\bar{\delta}Z_{2}^{\prime}\text{ } \end{align} \\ (\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma=1)\\ \hline \begin{array}{c|c|c|c|c} & X+iY & X-iY & T+Z & T-Z\\ \hline x+iy & \alpha\bar{\delta} & \beta\bar{\gamma} & \alpha\bar{\gamma} & \beta\bar{\delta}\\ \hline x-iy & \gamma\bar{\beta} & \delta\bar{\alpha} & \gamma\bar{\alpha} & \delta\bar{\beta}\\ \hline t+z & \alpha\bar{\beta} & \beta\bar{\alpha} & \alpha\bar{\alpha} & \beta\bar{\beta}\\ \hline t-z & \gamma\bar{\delta} & \delta\bar{\gamma} & \gamma\bar{\gamma} & \delta\bar{\delta} \end{array} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6a}}). Klein's work was summarized and extended by [[#Bianchi2|Bianchi (1888-1893)]] and [[#Fricke|Fricke (1893-1897)]], obtaining equivalent Lorentz transformations.</p> ==={{anchor|Selling}} Selling (1873–74) – Quadratic forms=== Continuing the work of [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Gauss2|E:Gauss (1801)]] on definite ternary quadratic forms and [[../Lorentz transformation (Cayley-Hermite)#Hermite|E:Hermite (1853)]] on indefinite ternary quadratic forms, [[w:Eduard Selling]] (1873) used the auxiliary coefficients ξ,η,ζ by which a definite form <math>\mathfrak{f}</math> and an indefinite form ''f'' can be rewritten in terms of three squares:<ref group=M>Selling (1873), p. 174 and p. 179</ref><ref>Bachmann (1923), chapter 16</ref> :<math>{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\mathfrak{f} & =\mathfrak{a}x^{2}+\mathfrak{b}y^{2}+\mathfrak{c}z^{2}+2\mathfrak{g}yz+2\mathfrak{h}zx+2\mathfrak{k}xy\\ & =\left(\xi x+\eta y+\zeta z\right)^{2}+\left(\xi_{1}x+\eta_{1}y+\zeta_{1}z\right)^{2}+\left(\xi_{2}x+\eta_{2}y+\zeta_{2}z\right)^{2}\\ \\ f & =ax^{2}+by^{2}+cz^{2}+2gyz+2hzx+2kxy\\ & =\left(\xi x+\eta y+\zeta z\right)^{2}-\left(\xi_{1}x+\eta_{1}y+\zeta_{1}z\right)^{2}-\left(\xi_{2}x+\eta_{2}y+\zeta_{2}z\right)^{2} \end{align} \left|\begin{align}\xi^{2}+\xi_{1}^{2}+\xi_{2}^{2} & =\mathfrak{a}\\ \eta^{2}+\eta_{1}^{2}+\eta_{2}^{2} & =\mathfrak{b}\\ \zeta^{2}+\zeta_{1}^{2}+\zeta_{2}^{2} & =\mathfrak{c}\\ \eta\zeta+\eta_{1}\zeta_{1}+\eta_{2}\zeta_{2} & =\mathfrak{g}\\ \zeta\xi+\zeta_{1}\xi_{1}+\zeta_{2}\xi_{2} & =\mathfrak{h}\\ \xi\eta+\xi_{1}\eta_{1}+\xi_{2}\eta_{2} & =\mathfrak{k} \end{align} \right|\begin{align}\xi^{2}-\xi_{1}^{2}-\xi_{2}^{2} & =a\\ \eta^{2}-\eta_{1}^{2}-\eta_{2}^{2} & =b\\ \zeta^{2}-\zeta_{1}^{2}-\zeta_{2}^{2} & =c\\ \eta\zeta-\eta_{1}\zeta_{1}-\eta_{2}\zeta_{2} & =g\\ \zeta\xi-\zeta_{1}\xi_{1}-\zeta_{2}\xi_{2} & =h\\ \xi\eta-\xi_{1}\eta_{1}-\xi_{2}\eta_{2} & =k \end{align} }</math> In addition, Selling showed that auxiliary coefficients ξ,η,ζ can be geometrically interpreted as point coordinates which are in motion upon one sheet of a two-sheet hyperboloid, which is related to Selling's formalism for the reduction of indefinite forms by using definite forms.<ref group=M>Selling (1873), pp. 182–183</ref> Selling also reproduced the Lorentz transformation given by [[#Gauss3|Gauss (1800/63)]], to whom he gave full credit, and called it the only example of a particular indefinite ternary form known to him that has ever been discussed:<ref group=M>Selling (1873/74), p. 227 (see also p. 225 for citation).</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\left(\begin{matrix}1, & -1, & -1\\ 0, & 0, & 0 \end{matrix}\right)\\ \hline W=\begin{vmatrix}\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}\right) & \frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}-\delta^{2}\right) & \alpha\gamma+\beta\delta\\ \frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}-\delta^{2}\right) & \frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}\right) & \alpha\gamma-\beta\delta\\ \alpha\beta+\gamma\delta & \alpha\beta-\gamma\delta & \alpha\delta+\beta\gamma \end{vmatrix}\\ \left(\begin{vmatrix}\alpha & \beta\\ \gamma & \delta \end{vmatrix}=1\right) \end{matrix} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6e}}), containing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|6f}}) or [[../Lorentz transformation (squeeze)#math_9b|E:('''9b''')]] as a special case with <math>\beta=\gamma=0</math> and <math>\delta=1/\alpha</math>.</p> ==={{anchor|Poincare2}} Poincaré (1881-86) – Möbius transformation=== [[w:Henri Poincaré]] (1881a) demonstrated the connection of his formulas of the hyperboloid model [see [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Poincare|E:Poincaré (1881)]]] to Möbius transformations:<ref group=M name=p1>Poincaré (1881a), pp. 133–134</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\xi^{2}+\eta^{2}-\zeta^{2}=-1\\ \left[X=\frac{\xi}{\zeta+1},\ Y=\frac{\eta}{\zeta+1}\right]\rightarrow t=X+iY\\ \hline \xi^{\prime2}+\eta^{\prime2}-\zeta^{\prime2}=-1\\ \left[X'=\frac{\xi'}{\zeta'+1},\ Y'=\frac{\eta'}{\zeta'+1}\right]\rightarrow t'=X'+iY'\\ \hline t'=\frac{ht+k}{h't+k'} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6g}}).</p> Poincaré (1881b) also used the Möbius transformation <math>\tfrac{az+b}{cz+d}</math> in relation to [[w:Fuchsian function]]s and the discontinuous [[w:Fuchsian group]], being a special case of the hyperbolic group leaving invariant the "fundamental circle" ([[w:Poincaré disk model]] and [[w:Poincaré half-plane model]] of hyperbolic geometry).<ref group=M>Poincaré (1881b), p. 333</ref> He then extended [[#Klein2|Klein's (1878-1882)]] study on the relation between Möbius transformations and hyperbolic, elliptic, parabolic, and loxodromic substitutions, and while formulating [[w:Kleinian group]]s (1883) he used the following transformation leaving invariant the [[w:generalized circle]]:<ref group=M>Poincaré (1883), pp. 49–50; 53–54</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\left(z,\ \frac{\alpha z+\beta}{\gamma z+\delta}\right),\ \left(z_{0},\ \frac{\alpha_{0}z_{0}+\beta_{0}}{\gamma_{0}z_{0}+\delta_{0}}\right)\\ \hline z=\xi+i\eta,\ z_{0}=\xi-i\eta,\ \rho^{2}=\xi^{2}+\eta^{2}+\zeta^{2}\\ A\rho^{\prime2}+Bz^{\prime}+B_{0}z_{0}^{\prime}+C=0\\ \hline \begin{align}\rho^{\prime2} & =\frac{\rho^{2}\alpha\alpha_{0}+z\alpha\beta_{0}+z_{0}\beta\alpha_{0}+\beta\beta_{0}}{\rho^{2}\gamma\gamma_{0}+z\gamma\delta_{0}+z_{0}\delta\gamma_{0}+\delta\delta_{0}}\\ z^{\prime} & =\frac{\rho^{2}\alpha\gamma_{0}+z\alpha\delta_{0}+z_{0}\beta\gamma_{0}+\beta\delta_{0}}{\rho^{2}\gamma\gamma_{0}+z\gamma\delta_{0}+z_{0}\delta\gamma_{0}+\delta\delta_{0}}\\ z_{0}^{\prime} & =\frac{\rho^{2}\gamma\alpha_{0}+z\gamma\beta_{0}+z_{0}\delta\alpha_{0}+\delta\beta_{0}}{\rho^{2}\gamma\gamma_{0}+z\gamma\delta_{0}+z_{0}\delta\gamma_{0}+\delta\delta_{0}} \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Setting <math>[\rho^{2},\ z,\ z_{0}]=\left[\tfrac{X_{1}}{X_{4}},\ \tfrac{X_{2}}{X_{4}},\ \tfrac{X_{3}}{X_{4}}\right]</math> this becomes transformation '''u′''' in ({{equationNote|6a}}) and becomes the complete Lorentz transformation by setting <math>{\scriptstyle \left[\begin{matrix}X_{1} & X_{2}\\ X_{3} & X_{4} \end{matrix}\right]=\left[\begin{matrix}x_{0}+x_{3} & x_{1}-ix_{2}\\ x_{1}+ix_{2} & x_{0}-x_{3} \end{matrix}\right]}</math>.</p> In 1886, Poincaré investigated the relation between indefinite ternary quadratic forms and Fuchsian functions and groups:<ref group=M>Poincaré (1886), p. 735ff.</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\left(z,\ \frac{\alpha z+\beta}{\gamma z+\delta}\right)\\ \hline Y^{\prime2}-X'Z'=Y^{2}-XZ\\ \hline \begin{align}X' & =\alpha^{2}X+2\alpha\gamma Y+\gamma^{2}Z\\ Y' & =\alpha\beta X+(\alpha\delta+\beta\gamma)Y+\gamma\delta Z\\ Z' & =\beta^{2}X+2\beta\gamma Y+\delta^{2}Z \end{align} \\ \left[{\scriptstyle \begin{align}X= & ax+by+cz, & Y & =a'x+b'y+c'z, & Z & =a''x+b''y+c''z,\\ X'= & ax'+by'+cz', & Y' & =a'x'+b'y'+c'z', & Z' & =a''x'+b''y'+c''z', \end{align} }\right] \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black"> This is equivalent to transformation '''u′''' in ({{equationNote|6d}}) and becomes the complete Lorentz transformation by suitibly choosing the coefficients ''a,b,c,...'' so that ''[X,Y,Z]=[x+z, y, -x+z]''.</p> ==={{anchor|Bianchi2}} Bianchi (1888-93) – Möbius and spin transformations=== Related to [[#Klein1|Klein's (1871)]] and [[#Poincare2|Poincaré's (1881-1887)]] work on non-Euclidean geometry and indefinite quadratic forms, [[w:Luigi Bianchi]] (1888) analyzed the differential Lorentz interval in term of conic sections and hyperboloids, alluded to the linear fractional transformation of <math>\omega</math> and its conjugate <math>\omega_{1}</math> with parameters α,β,γ,δ in order to preserve the Lorentz interval, and gave credit to [[#Gauss3|Gauss (1800/63)]] who obtained the same coefficient system:<ref group=M>Bianchi (1888), pp. 547; 562–563 (especially footnote on p. 563); 571–572</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}ds^{2}=dx^{2}+dy^{2}-dz^{2};\ x^{2}+y^{2}-z^{2}=0;\\ \hline X_{3}^{2}+Y_{3}^{2}-Z_{3}^{2}=-1\\ X_{3}=i\frac{1-\omega\omega_{1}}{\omega-\omega_{1}},\ Y_{3}=i\frac{\omega-\omega_{1}}{\omega-\omega_{1}},\ Z_{3}=i\frac{1+\omega\omega_{1}}{\omega-\omega_{1}},\\ \omega=\frac{\alpha\omega'+\beta}{\gamma\omega'+\delta}\quad(\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma=1)\\ \hline \left(\begin{matrix}\frac{\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}}{2}, & \gamma\delta-\alpha\beta, & \frac{-\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}}{2}\\ \beta\delta-\alpha\gamma, & \alpha\delta+\beta\gamma, & \beta\delta+\alpha\gamma\\ \frac{-\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}}{2}, & \alpha\beta+\gamma\delta, & \frac{\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}}{2} \end{matrix}\right)\\ \hline \begin{align}x' & =\frac{\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}}{2}x+(\gamma\delta-\alpha\beta)y+\frac{-\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}}{2}z+c_{1}\\ y' & =(\beta\delta-\alpha\gamma)x+(\alpha\delta+\beta\gamma)y+(\beta\delta+\alpha\gamma)z+c_{2}\\ z' & =\frac{-\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}}{2}x+(\alpha\beta+\gamma\delta)y+\frac{\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}}{2}z+c_{3} \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The is equivalent to Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|6d}}) and ({{equationNote|6e}}), containing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|6f}}) or [[../Lorentz transformation (squeeze)#math_9b|E:('''9b''')]] as a special case with <math>\beta=\gamma=0</math> and <math>\delta=1/\alpha</math>.</p> In 1893, Bianchi gave the coefficients in the case of four dimensions:<ref group=M name=bi>Bianchi (1893), § 3</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{align}z & =\frac{\alpha z'+\beta}{\gamma z'+\delta}\\ & (\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma=1) \end{align} \rightarrow\begin{align}z & =\frac{\xi}{\eta}\\ z' & =\frac{\xi'}{\eta'} \end{align} \rightarrow\begin{align}\xi & =\alpha\xi'+\beta\eta'\\ \eta & =\gamma\xi'+\delta\eta'\\ \\ \xi_{0} & =\alpha_{0}\xi'_{0}+\beta_{0}\eta'_{0}\\ \eta_{0} & =\gamma_{0}\xi'_{0}+\delta_{0}\eta'_{0} \end{align} \\ \hline {\scriptstyle F=\left(u_{1}+u{}_{4}\right)\xi\xi_{0}+\left(u_{2}+iu{}_{3}\right)\xi\eta_{0}+\left(u_{2}-iu{}_{3}\right)\xi_{0}\eta+\left(u_{4}-u{}_{1}\right)\eta\eta_{0}}\\ {\scriptstyle F'=\left(u'_{1}+u'{}_{4}\right)\xi'\xi'_{0}+\left(u'_{2}+iu'{}_{3}\right)\xi'\eta'_{0}+\left(u'_{2}-iu'{}_{3}\right)\xi'_{0}\eta'+\left(u'_{4}-u'{}_{1}\right)\eta'\eta'_{0}}\\ {\scriptstyle \left(u_{2}+iu{}_{3}\right)\left(u_{2}-iu{}_{3}\right)+\left(u_{1}-u{}_{4}\right)\left(u_{1}+u{}_{4}\right)=\left(u'_{2}+iu'{}_{3}\right)\left(u'_{2}-iu'{}_{3}\right)+\left(u'_{1}-u'{}_{4}\right)\left(u'_{1}+u'{}_{4}\right)}\\ \hline {\scriptstyle \begin{align}u'_{1}+u'_{4} & =\alpha\alpha_{0}\left(u_{1}+u{}_{4}\right)+\alpha\gamma_{0}\left(u_{2}+iu{}_{3}\right)+\alpha_{0}\gamma\left(u_{2}-iu{}_{3}\right)+\gamma\gamma_{0}\left(u_{4}-u{}_{1}\right)\\ u'_{2}+iu'_{3} & =\alpha\beta_{0}\left(u_{1}+u{}_{4}\right)+\alpha\delta_{0}\left(u_{2}+iu{}_{3}\right)+\beta_{0}\gamma\left(u_{2}-iu{}_{3}\right)+\gamma\delta_{0}\left(u_{4}-u{}_{1}\right)\\ u'_{2}-iu'_{3} & =\alpha_{0}\beta\left(u_{1}+u{}_{4}\right)+\alpha_{0}\delta\left(u_{2}-iu{}_{3}\right)+\beta\gamma_{0}\left(u_{2}+iu{}_{3}\right)+\gamma_{0}\delta\left(u_{4}-u{}_{1}\right)\\ u'_{4}-u'_{1} & =\beta\beta_{0}\left(u_{1}+u{}_{4}\right)+\beta\delta_{0}\left(u_{2}+iu{}_{3}\right)+\beta_{0}\delta\left(u_{2}-iu{}_{3}\right)+\delta\delta_{0}\left(u_{4}-u{}_{1}\right) \end{align} } \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6a}}).</p> Solving for <math>u'_{1}\dots</math> Bianchi obtained:<ref group=M name=bi /> :<math>\begin{matrix}u_{1}^{2}+u_{2}^{2}+u_{3}^{2}-u_{4}^{2}=u_{1}^{\prime2}+u_{2}^{\prime2}+u_{3}^{\prime2}-u_{4}^{\prime2}\\ \hline {\scriptstyle \begin{align}u'_{1} & =\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha\alpha_{0}-\beta\beta_{0}-\gamma\gamma_{0}+\delta\delta_{0}\right)u_{1}+\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha\gamma_{0}+\alpha_{0}\gamma-\beta\delta_{0}-\beta_{0}\delta\right)u_{2}+\\ & +\frac{i}{2}\left(\alpha\gamma_{0}-\alpha_{0}\gamma+\beta_{0}\delta-\beta\delta_{0}\right)u_{3}+\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha\alpha_{0}-\beta\beta_{0}+\gamma\gamma_{0}-\delta\delta_{0}\right)u_{4}\\ u'_{2} & =\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha\beta_{0}+\alpha_{0}\beta-\gamma\delta_{0}-\gamma_{0}\delta\right)u_{1}+\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha\delta_{0}+\alpha_{0}\delta+\beta\gamma_{0}+\beta_{0}\gamma\right)u_{2}+\\ & +\frac{i}{2}\left(\alpha\delta_{0}-\alpha_{0}\delta+\beta\gamma_{0}-\beta_{0}\gamma\right)u_{3}+\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha\beta_{0}+\alpha_{0}\beta+\gamma\delta_{0}+\gamma_{0}\delta\right)u_{4}\\ u'_{3} & =\frac{i}{2}\left(\alpha_{0}\beta-\alpha\beta_{0}+\gamma\delta_{0}-\gamma_{0}\delta\right)u_{1}+\frac{i}{2}\left(\alpha_{0}\delta-\alpha\delta_{0}+\beta\gamma_{0}-\beta_{0}\gamma\right)u_{2}+\\ & +\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha\delta_{0}+\alpha_{0}\delta-\beta\gamma_{0}-\beta_{0}\gamma\right)u_{3}+\frac{i}{2}\left(\alpha_{0}\beta-\alpha\beta_{0}+\gamma_{0}\delta-\gamma\delta_{0}\right)u_{4}\\ u'_{4} & =\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha\alpha_{0}+\beta\beta_{0}-\gamma\gamma_{0}-\delta\delta_{0}\right)u_{1}+\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha\gamma_{0}+\alpha_{0}\gamma+\beta\delta_{0}+\beta_{0}\delta\right)u_{2}+\\ & +\frac{i}{2}\left(\alpha\gamma_{0}-\alpha_{0}\gamma+\beta\delta_{0}-\beta_{0}\delta\right)u_{3}+\frac{1}{2}\left(\alpha\alpha_{0}+\beta\beta_{0}+\gamma\gamma_{0}+\delta\delta_{0}\right)u_{4} \end{align} } \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Fricke}} Fricke (1891–97) – Möbius and spin transformations=== [[w:Robert Fricke]] (1891) – following the work of his teacher [[#Klein2|Klein (1878–1882)]] as well as [[#Poincare2|Poincaré (1881–1887)]] on automorphic functions and group theory – obtained the following transformation for an integer ternary quadratic form<ref group=M>Fricke (1891), §§ 1, 6</ref><ref>Dickson (1923), pp. 221, 232</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\omega'=\frac{\delta\omega+\beta}{\gamma\omega+\alpha}\ (\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma=1),\ \omega=\frac{\eta}{\xi},\\ \hline \begin{align}\xi' & =\xi\alpha^{2}+2\eta\alpha\gamma+\zeta\gamma^{2}\\ \eta' & =\xi\alpha\beta+\eta(\alpha\delta+\beta\gamma)+\zeta\gamma\delta\\ \zeta' & =\xi\beta^{2}+2\eta\beta\delta+\zeta\delta^{2} \end{align} \\ \hline \xi'\zeta'-\eta'^{2}=(\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma)^{2}\left(\xi\zeta-\eta^{2}\right)\\ \xi=x\sqrt{q}-y,\ \eta=z,\ \zeta=x\sqrt{q}+y\\ \hline qx^{\prime2}-y^{\prime2}-z^{\prime2}=qx^{2}-y^{2}-z^{2}\\ \hline \left(\begin{matrix}\frac{1}{2}\left(+\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}\right) & \frac{1}{2\sqrt{q}}\left(-\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}\right) & \frac{1}{\sqrt{q}}(\alpha\gamma+\beta\delta)\\ \frac{1}{2}\sqrt{q}\left(-\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}\right) & \frac{1}{2}\left(+\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}\right) & (-\alpha\gamma+\beta\delta)\\ \sqrt{q}(\alpha\beta+\gamma\delta) & (-\alpha\beta+\gamma\delta) & (\alpha\delta+\beta\gamma) \end{matrix}\right) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">By setting ''q=1'', the first part is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6d}}) and the second part is equivalent to ({{equationNote|6e}}), containing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|6f}}) or [[../Lorentz transformation (squeeze)#math_9b|E:('''9b''')]] as a special case with <math>\beta=\gamma=0</math> and <math>\delta=1/\alpha</math>.</p> And the general case of four dimensions in 1893:<ref group=M>Fricke (1893), pp. 706, 710–711</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}y'_{2}y'_{3}-y'_{1}y'_{4}=y_{2}y_{3}-y_{1}y_{4}\\ \hline \begin{align}y_{1}^{\prime} & =\alpha\bar{\alpha}y_{1}+\alpha\bar{\beta}y_{2}+\beta\bar{\alpha}y_{3}+\beta\bar{\beta}y_{4}\\ y_{2}^{\prime} & =\alpha\bar{\gamma}y_{1}+\alpha\bar{\delta}y_{2}+\beta\bar{\gamma}y_{3}+\beta\bar{\delta}y_{4}\\ y_{3}^{\prime} & =\gamma\bar{\alpha}y_{1}+\gamma\bar{\beta}y_{2}+\delta\bar{\alpha}y_{3}+\delta\bar{\beta}y_{4}\\ y_{4}^{\prime} & =\gamma\bar{\gamma}y_{1}+\gamma\bar{\delta}y_{2}+\delta\bar{\gamma}y_{3}+\delta\bar{\delta}y_{4} \end{align} \\ \hline \begin{align}y_{1} & =z_{4}\sqrt{s}+z_{3}\sqrt{r}, & y_{2} & =z_{1}\sqrt{p}+iz_{2}\sqrt{q}\\ y_{3} & =z_{1}\sqrt{p}-iz_{2}\sqrt{q}, & y_{4} & =z_{4}\sqrt{s}-z_{3}\sqrt{r} \end{align} \\ \hline pz_{1}^{\prime2}+qz{}_{2}^{\prime2}+rz{}_{3}^{\prime2}-sz{}_{4}^{\prime2}=pz_{1}^{2}+qz_{2}^{2}+rz_{3}^{2}-sz_{4}^{2}\\ \hline z'_{i}=\alpha_{i1}z_{1}+\alpha_{i2}z_{2}+\alpha_{i3}z_{3}+\alpha_{i4}z_{4}\\ {\scriptstyle \begin{align}2\alpha_{11}\ \text{or}\ 2\alpha_{22} & =\alpha\bar{\delta}+\delta\bar{\alpha}\pm\beta\bar{\gamma}\pm\gamma\bar{\beta}, & 2\alpha_{33}\ \text{or}\ 2\alpha_{44} & =\alpha\bar{\alpha}+\delta\bar{\delta}\pm\beta\bar{\beta}\pm\gamma\bar{\gamma}\\ \frac{2\alpha_{12}\sqrt{p}}{i\sqrt{p}}\ \text{or}\ \frac{2\alpha_{21}i\sqrt{p}}{\sqrt{p}} & =\alpha\bar{\delta}-\bar{\delta}\alpha\mp\beta\bar{\gamma}\pm\gamma\bar{\beta}, & \frac{2\alpha_{34}\sqrt{r}}{\sqrt{s}}\ \text{or}\ \frac{2\alpha_{43}\sqrt{s}}{\sqrt{r}} & =\alpha\bar{\alpha}-\delta\bar{\delta}\pm\beta\bar{\beta}\pm\gamma\bar{\gamma}\\ \frac{2\alpha_{13}\sqrt{p}}{\sqrt{r}}\ \text{or}\ \frac{2\alpha_{24}i\sqrt{p}}{\sqrt{s}} & =\alpha\bar{\gamma}-\delta\bar{\beta}\pm\gamma\bar{\alpha}\pm\beta\bar{\delta}, & \frac{2\alpha_{14}\sqrt{p}}{\sqrt{s}}\ \text{or}\ \frac{2\alpha_{23}i\sqrt{q}}{\sqrt{r}} & =\alpha\bar{\gamma}+\delta\bar{\beta}\pm\gamma\bar{\alpha}\pm\beta\bar{\delta}\\ \frac{2\alpha_{31}\sqrt{r}}{\sqrt{p}}\ \text{or}\ \frac{2\alpha_{43}\sqrt{s}}{i\sqrt{q}} & =\alpha\bar{\beta}-\delta\bar{\gamma}\pm\beta\bar{\alpha}\mp\gamma\bar{\delta}, & \frac{2\alpha_{41}\sqrt{s}}{\sqrt{p}}\ \text{or}\ \frac{2\alpha_{32}\sqrt{r}}{i\sqrt{q}} & =\alpha\bar{\beta}+\delta\bar{\gamma}\pm\beta\bar{\alpha}\pm\gamma\bar{\delta} \end{align} } \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">By setting ''p=q=r=s=1'', the first part is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6a}}) and the second part to ({{equationNote|6b}}).</p> Supported by Felix Klein, Fricke summarized his and Klein's work in a treatise concerning [[w:automorphic function]]s (1897). Using a sphere as the absolute, in which the interior of the sphere is denoted as hyperbolic space, they defined hyperbolic motions, and stressed that any hyperbolic motion corresponds to "circle relations" (now called Möbius transformations):<ref group=M name=fri>Fricke & Klein (1897), §12–13</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}z_{1}^{2}+z_{2}^{2}+z_{3}^{2}-z_{4}^{2}=0\\ =(z_{4}+z_{3})(z_{4}-z_{3})-(z_{1}+iz_{2})(z_{1}-iz_{2})=0\\ =y_{1}y_{4}-y_{2}y_{3}=0\\ \left(y_{1}=z_{4}+z_{3},\ y_{2}=z_{1}+iz_{2},\ y_{3}=z_{1}-iz_{2},\ y_{4}=z_{4}-z_{3}\right)\\ \zeta=\frac{z_{1}+iz_{2}}{z_{4}-z_{3}},\ \bar{\zeta}=\frac{z_{1}-iz_{2}}{z_{4}-z_{3}}\\ \zeta'=\frac{\alpha\zeta+\beta}{\gamma\zeta+\delta},\ \bar{\zeta}'=\frac{\overline{\alpha\zeta}+\bar{\beta}}{\overline{\gamma\zeta}+\bar{\delta}}\quad(\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma\ne0)\\ z_{1}:z_{2}:z_{3}z_{4}=(\zeta+\bar{\zeta}):-i(\zeta-\bar{\zeta}):(\zeta\bar{\zeta}-1):(\zeta\bar{\zeta}+1)\\ y_{1}:y_{2}:y_{3}y_{4}=\zeta\bar{\zeta}:\zeta:\bar{\zeta}:1=\zeta_{1}\bar{\zeta}_{1}:\zeta_{1}\bar{\zeta}_{2}:\zeta_{2}\bar{\zeta}_{1}:\zeta_{2}\bar{\zeta}_{2}\\ \left(\zeta=\zeta_{1}:\zeta_{2},\ \bar{\zeta}=\bar{\zeta}_{1}:\bar{\zeta}_{2}\right)\\ \hline \begin{align}y_{1}^{\prime} & =\alpha\bar{\alpha}y_{1}+\alpha\bar{\beta}y_{2}+\beta\bar{\alpha}y_{3}+\beta\bar{\beta}y_{4}\\ y_{2}^{\prime} & =\alpha\bar{\gamma}y_{1}+\alpha\bar{\delta}y_{2}+\beta\bar{\gamma}y_{3}+\beta\bar{\delta}y_{4}\\ y_{3}^{\prime} & =\gamma\bar{\alpha}y_{1}+\gamma\bar{\beta}y_{2}+\delta\bar{\alpha}y_{3}+\delta\bar{\beta}y_{4}\\ y_{4}^{\prime} & =\gamma\bar{\gamma}y_{1}+\gamma\bar{\delta}y_{2}+\delta\bar{\gamma}y_{3}+\delta\bar{\delta}y_{4} \end{align} \end{matrix} </math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6a}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Woods}} Woods (1895) – Spin transformation=== In a thesis supervised by Felix Klein, [[w:Frederick S. Woods]] (1895) further developed [[#Bianchi2|Bianchi's (1888)]] treatment of surfaces satisfying the Lorentz interval (pseudominimal surface), and used the transformation of [[#Gauss3|Gauss (1800/63)]] and [[#Bianchi2|Bianchi (1888)]] while discussing automorphisms of that surface:<ref group=M>Woods (1895), pp. 2–3; 10–11; 34–35</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x^{2}+y^{2}-z^{2}=0;\quad x^{2}+y^{2}-z^{2}=-1\\ \hline \left(x,y,z\right)\Rightarrow\omega\\ \begin{align}\omega_{1}^{\prime} & =\alpha\omega_{1}+\beta\omega_{2}\\ \omega_{2}^{\prime} & =\gamma\omega_{1}+\delta\omega_{2} \end{align} \quad(\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma=1)\\ \hline \begin{align}x' & =(-1)^{k}\left[\frac{\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}}{2}x+(\gamma\delta-\alpha\beta)y+\frac{-\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}}{2}z\right]+c_{1}\\ y' & =(-1)^{k}\left[(\beta\delta-\alpha\gamma)x+(\alpha\delta+\beta\gamma)y+(\beta\delta+\alpha\gamma)z\right]+c_{2}\\ z' & =(-1)^{k}\left[\frac{-\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}}{2}x+(\alpha\beta+\gamma\delta)y+\frac{\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2}+\delta^{2}}{2}z\right]+c_{3} \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The expressions within the brackets are equivalent to Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|6e}}), containing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|6f}}) as a special case with <math>\beta=\gamma=0</math> and <math>\delta=1/\alpha</math>.</p> === {{anchor|Herglotz1}} Herglotz (1909/10) – Möbius transformation === Following [[#Klein2|Klein (1889–1897)]] as well as [[#Fricke|Fricke & Klein (1897)]] concerning the Cayley absolute, hyperbolic motion and its transformation, [[w:Gustav Herglotz]] (1909/10) classified the one-parameter Lorentz transformations as loxodromic, hyperbolic, parabolic and elliptic. He provided the general case (on the left) and the hyperbolic substitution (on the right) as follows:<ref group=R>Herglotz (1909/10), pp. 404-408</ref> :<math>\left.\begin{matrix}z_{1}^{2}+z_{2}^{2}+z_{3}^{2}-z_{4}^{2}=0\\ z_{1}=x,\ z_{2}=y,\ z_{3}=z,\ z_{4}=t\\ Z=\frac{z_{1}+iz_{2}}{z_{4}-z_{3}}=\frac{x+iy}{t-z},\ Z'=\frac{x'+iy'}{t'-z'}\\ Z=\frac{\alpha Z'+\beta}{\gamma Z'+\delta} \end{matrix}\right|\begin{matrix}Z=Z'e^{\vartheta}\\ \begin{align}x & =x', & t-z & =(t'-z')e^{\vartheta}\\ y & =y', & t+z & =(t'+z')e^{-\vartheta} \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|6a}}).</p> ==References== ===Historical mathematical sources=== {{reflist|3|group=M}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bia88diff}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bia93quat}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cay54hom}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cay79hom}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|fri91}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|fri93}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|fri97}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|gau98}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|gau00}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|helm66}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei71}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei72a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei72b}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei73}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei75}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei79}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei82}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei84}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei90a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei90b}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei93a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei93b}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei96}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lag73}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|poin81a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|poin81b}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|poin83}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|poin86}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|sel73}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|wed75}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo95}} ===Historical relativity sources=== {{reflist|3|group=R}} {{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|herg10}} ===Secondary sources=== {{reflist|3}} {{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/secsource|L7}} [[Category:Special Relativity]] [[Category:History of Physics]] i22xkyks71rcn0mqx7e2ybklfmtn04l 0 267604 2415759 2408845 2022-08-17T06:40:02Z D.H 52339 /* {{anchor|Apo}} Apollonius (BC), Speidell (1688), Whiston (1710) – Hyperbola mapping */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{../Lorentz transformation (header)}} ==Lorentz transformation via squeeze mappings== As already indicated in [[../Lorentz transformation (hyperbolic)#math_3d|E:'''(3d)''']] in exponential form or [[../Lorentz transformation (Möbius)#math_6f|E:'''(6f)''']] in terms of Cayley–Klein parameter, Lorentz boosts in terms of hyperbolic rotations can be expressed as [[w:squeeze mapping]]s. Using [[w:hyperbola#Hyperbola with equation y = A/x|w:asymptotic coordinates of a hyperbola]] (''u,v''), in relativity also known as [[w:light-cone coordinates]], they have the general form (some authors alternatively add a factor of 2 or <math>\sqrt{2}</math>):<ref name=terng>Terng & Uhlenbeck (2000), p. 21</ref> {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix} & \begin{array}{c} u=x_{0}-x_{1},\ v=x_{0}+x_{1}\\ u'=x_{0}^{\prime}-x_{1}^{\prime},\ v'=x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{1}^{\prime} \end{array}\\ \hline (1) & (u',v')=\left(ku,\ \frac{1}{k}v\right)\\ (2) & (u',v')=\left(\frac{1}{k}v,\ ku\right)\\ \hline & u'v'=uv \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|9a}}}} with arbitrary ''k''. This geometrically corresponds to the transformation of the area of one parallelogram to other ones of same area, whose sides touch a hyperbola and both asymptotes. While equation system (1) corresponds to proper Lorentz boosts, equation system (2) produces improper ones. For instance, solving (1) for <math>x'_0, x'_1</math> gives: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{0}^{\prime} & =\frac{1}{2}\left(k+\frac{1}{k}\right)x_{0}-\frac{1}{2}\left(k-\frac{1}{k}\right)x_{1} & & =\frac{x_{0}\left(k^{2}+1\right)-x_{1}\left(k^{2}-1\right)}{2k}\\ x_{1}^{\prime} & =-\frac{1}{2}\left(k-\frac{1}{k}\right)x_{0}+\frac{1}{2}\left(k+\frac{1}{k}\right)x_{1} & & =\frac{-x_{0}\left(k^{2}-1\right)+x_{1}\left(k^{2}+1\right)}{2k}\\ \\ x_{0} & =\frac{1}{2}\left(k+\frac{1}{k}\right)x_{0}^{\prime}+\frac{1}{2}\left(k-\frac{1}{k}\right)x_{1}^{\prime} & & =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}\left(k^{2}+1\right)+x_{1}^{\prime}\left(k^{2}-1\right)}{2k}\\ x_{1} & =\frac{1}{2}\left(k-\frac{1}{k}\right)x_{0}^{\prime}+\frac{1}{2}\left(k+\frac{1}{k}\right)x_{1}^{\prime} & & =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}\left(k^{2}-1\right)+x_{1}^{\prime}\left(k^{2}+1\right)}{2k} \end{align} \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|9b}}}} The geometrical foundation of squeeze mapping ({{equationNote|9a}}) was known for a long time since [[#Apo|Apollonius (BC)]] and was used to generate hyperbolas by [[#Apo|Speidell (1688) and Whiston (1710)]]. The exact analytical form ({{equationNote|9a}}-2) was given by [[#Reynaud|Reynaud (1819)]] while ({{equationNote|9a}}-1) was given by [[#Laisant1|Laisant (1874)]] and [[#Gunther1|Günther (1880/81)]] in relation to elliptic trigonometry, or by [[#Lie2|Lie (1879-81)]], [[#Bianchi1|Bianchi (1886, 1894)]], [[#Darboux1|Darboux (1891/94)]], [[#Eisenhart|Eisenhart (1905)]] as [[w:squeeze mapping#Lie transform|Lie transform]]<ref name=terng /> of [[w:pseudospherical surface]]s in terms of the [[w:Sine-Gordon equation]], or by [[#Lipschitz1|Lipschitz (1885/86)]] in transformation theory. From that, different forms of Lorentz transformation were derived: ({{equationNote|9b}}) by [[#Lipschitz1|Lipschitz (1885/86)]], [[#Bianchi1|Bianchi (1886, 1894)]], [[#Eisenhart|Eisenhart (1905)]], trigonometric Lorentz boost [[../Lorentz transformation (trigonometric)#math_8a|E:'''(8a)''']] by [[#Bianchi1|Bianchi (1886, 1894)]] and [[#Darboux1|Darboux (1891/94)]], and trigonometric Lorentz boost [[../Lorentz transformation (trigonometric)#math_8b|E:'''(8b)''']] by [[#Eisenhart|Eisenhart (1905)]]. Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|9b}}) was rediscovered in the framework of special relativity by [[w:Hermann Bondi]] (1964)<ref>Bondi (1964), p. 118</ref> in terms of [[w:Bondi k-calculus]], by which ''k'' can be physically interpreted as Doppler factor. Since ({{equationNote|9b}}) is equivalent to [[../Lorentz transformation (Möbius)#math_6f|E:'''(6f)''']] in terms of Cayley–Klein parameter by setting <math>k=\alpha^2</math>, it can be interpreted as the 1+1 dimensional special case of Lorentz Transformation [[../Lorentz transformation (Möbius)#math_6e|E:'''(6e)''']] stated by [[../Lorentz transformation (Möbius)#Gauss3|Gauss around 1800]] (posthumously published 1863), [[../Lorentz transformation (Möbius)#Selling|E:Selling (1873)]], [[../Lorentz transformation (Möbius)#Bianchi2|E:Bianchi (1888)]], [[../Lorentz transformation (Möbius)#Fricke|E:Fricke (1891)]] and [[../Lorentz transformation (Möbius)#Woods|E:Woods (1895)]]. Rewriting ({{equationNote|9a}}) in terms of [[w:homogeneous coordinates]] signifies squeeze mappings of the unit hyperbola in terms of a [[w:Quadric#Projective quadric|w:projective conic]]: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}\left[u,v\right]=\left[\frac{y_{1}}{y_{3}},\frac{y_{2}}{y_{3}}\right]\quad\left(uv=1\quad\Rightarrow\quad y_{1}y_{2}-y_{3}^{2}=0\right)\\ \left[k,\frac{1}{k}\right]=\left[\frac{\alpha_{1}}{\alpha_{3}},\frac{\alpha_{2}}{\alpha_{3}}\right]\quad\left(k\frac{1}{k}=1\quad\Rightarrow\quad\alpha_{1}\alpha_{2}-\alpha_{3}^{2}=0\right)\\ \hline y'_{1}=\alpha_{1}y_{1}\\ y'_{2}=\alpha_{2}y_{2}\\ y'_{3}=\alpha_{3}y_{3}\\ \hline y_{1}y_{2}-y_{3}^{2}=y'_{1}y'_{2}-y_{3}^{\prime2}=0\\ \hline uv=\frac{y_{1}y_{2}}{y_{3}^{2}}=u'v'=\frac{y'_{1}y'_{2}}{y_{3}^{\prime2}} \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|9c}}}} Such transformations were given by [[#Klein|Klein (1871)]] to express motions in non-Euclidean space. Furthermore, variables ''u, v'' in ({{equationNote|9a}}) can be rearranged to produce another form of squeeze mapping, resulting in Lorentz transformation [[../Lorentz transformation (Cayley-Hermite)#math_5b|E:'''(5b)''']] in terms of Cayley-Hermite parameter: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}u=x_{0}-x_{1}\\ v=x_{0}+x_{1}\\ u'=x_{0}^{\prime}-x_{1}^{\prime}\\ v'=x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{1}^{\prime} \end{matrix}\Rightarrow\begin{matrix}u_{1}=x_{0}+x_{0}^{\prime}\\ v_{1}=x_{0}-x_{0}^{\prime}\\ u_{2}=x_{1}-x_{1}^{\prime}\\ v_{2}=x_{1}+x_{1}^{\prime} \end{matrix}\\ \hline (u_{2},v_{2})=\left(au_{1},\ \frac{1}{a}v_{1}\right)\Rightarrow u_{2}v_{2}=u_{1}v_{1}\\ (u',v')=\left(\frac{1+a}{1-a}u,\ \frac{1-a}{1+a}v\right)\Rightarrow u'v'=uv \end{matrix}\Rightarrow\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{0}^{\prime} & =x_{0}\frac{1+a^{2}}{1-a^{2}}-x_{1}\frac{2a}{1-a^{2}} & & =\frac{x_{0}\left(1+a^{2}\right)-x_{1}2a}{1-a^{2}}\\ x_{1}^{\prime} & =-x_{0}\frac{2a}{1-a^{2}}+x_{1}\frac{1+a^{2}}{1-a^{2}} & & =\frac{-x_{0}2a+x_{1}\left(1+a^{2}\right)}{1-a^{2}}\\ \\ x_{0} & =x_{0}^{\prime}\frac{1+a^{2}}{1-a^{2}}+x_{1}^{\prime}\frac{2a}{1-a^{2}} & & =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}\left(1+a^{2}\right)+x_{1}^{\prime}2a}{1-a^{2}}\\ x_{1} & =x_{0}^{\prime}\frac{2a}{1-a^{2}}+x_{1}^{\prime}\frac{1+a^{2}}{1-a^{2}} & & =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}2a+x_{1}^{\prime}\left(1+a^{2}\right)}{1-a^{2}} \end{align} \end{matrix}</math>|{{equationRef|9d}}}} These Lorentz transformations were given (up to a sign change) by [[#Laguerre|Laguerre (1882)]], [[#Darboux2|Darboux (1887)]], [[#Smith|Smith (1900)]] in relation to Laguerre geometry. On the basis of factors ''k'' or ''a'', all previous Lorentz boosts [[../Lorentz transformation (hyperbolic)#math_3b|E:'''(3b)''']], [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4a|E:'''(4a)''']], [[../Lorentz transformation (trigonometric)#math_8a|E:'''(8a)''']], [[../Lorentz transformation (trigonometric)#math_8b|E:'''(8b)''']], can be expressed as squeeze mappings as well: {{NumBlk|:|<math>\begin{array}{r|c|c|c|c|c|c} & (9a) & (9d) & (3b) & (4a) & (8a) & (8b)\\ \hline \frac{u'}{u}=\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}-x_{1}^{\prime}}{x_{0}-x_{1}}= & k & \frac{1+a}{1-a} & e^{\eta} & \sqrt{\tfrac{1+\beta}{1-\beta}} & \frac{1+\sin\theta}{\cos\theta} & \frac{1+\cos\vartheta}{\sin\vartheta}=\cot\frac{\vartheta}{2}\\ \hline \frac{u_{2}}{u_{1}}=\frac{x_{1}-x_{1}^{\prime}}{x_{0}+x_{0}^{\prime}}= & \frac{k-1}{k+1} & a & \tanh\frac{\eta}{2} & \frac{\gamma-1}{\beta\gamma} & \frac{1-\cos\theta}{\sin\theta}=\tan\frac{\theta}{2} & \frac{1-\sin\vartheta}{\cos\vartheta}\\ \hline & \frac{k^{2}-1}{k^{2}+1} & \frac{2a}{1+a^{2}} & \tanh\eta & \beta & \sin\theta & \cos\vartheta\\ \hline & \frac{k^{2}+1}{2k} & \frac{1+a^{2}}{1-a^{2}} & \cosh\eta & \gamma & \sec\theta & \csc\vartheta\\ \hline & \frac{k^{2}-1}{2k} & \frac{2a}{1-a^{2}} & \sinh\eta & \beta\gamma & \tan\theta & \cot\vartheta \end{array}</math>|{{equationRef|9e}}}} Squeeze mappings in terms of <math>\theta</math> were used by [[#Darboux1|Darboux (1891/94)]] and [[#Bianchi1|Bianchi (1894)]], in terms of <math>\eta</math> by [[#Lindemann|Lindemann (1891)]] and [[#Elliott|Elliott (1903)]], in terms of <math>\vartheta</math> by [[#Eisenhart|Eisenhart (1905)]], in terms of <math>\beta</math> by Bondi (1964). ==Historical notation== ==={{anchor|Apo}} Apollonius (BC), Speidell (1688), Whiston (1710) – Hyperbola mapping === [[w:Apollonius of Perga]] (c. 240–190 BC, and maybe other Greek geometers such as [[w:Menaechmus]] even earlier) defined a proposition, which was translated and adapted to the modern reader by [[w:Thomas Heath (classicist)|w:Thomas Heath]] as follows:<ref group=M>Apollonius/Heath (1896), Proposition 34 (Apollonius, Book II, Prop. 12).</ref> :If ''Q, q'' be any two points on a hyperbola, and parallel straight lines ''QH, qh'' be drawn to meet one asymptote at any angle, and ''QK, qk'' (also parallel to one another) meet the other asymptote at any angle, then ::''HQ·QK = hq·qk''. In the next proposition, Apollonius applied this result to the case where the lines or sides of parallelograms are drawn parallel to the asymptotes:<ref group=M>Apollonius/Heath (1896), Proposition 35 (Apollonius, Book II, Prop. 13).</ref> :Let ''E'' be a point on one asymptote, and let ''EF'' be drawn parallel to the other. Then ''EF'' produced shall meet the curve in one point only. For, if possible, let it not meet the curve. Take ''Q'', any point on the curve, and draw ''QH, QK'' each parallel to one asymptote and meeting the other; let a point ''F'' be taken on ''EF'' such that ''HQ·QK=CE·EF.'' Join ''CF'' and produce it to meet the curve in ''q''; and draw ''qh, qk'' respectively parallel to ''QH, QK''. Then ::''hq·qk = HQ·QK'' [previous proposition] :and ''HQ·QK=CE·EF'', by hypothesis, ''hq·qk=GE·EF'': which is impossible, because ''hq > EF'', and ''qk > CE''. Therefore ''EF'' will meet the hyperbola in one point, as ''R''. Again, ''EF'' will not meet the hyperbola in any other point. For, if possible, let ''EF'' meet it in ''R`'' as well as ''R'', and let ''RM, R`M`'' be drawn parallel to ''QK''. Then ::''ER·RM = ER`·R`M`'' [previous proposition] :which is impossible, because ''ER` > ER''. Therefore ''EF'' does not meet the hyperbola in a second point ''R`''. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The identity ''HQ·QK = hq·qk'' demonstrates the invariance of the area of all parallelograms that are constructed in line with the first proposition, thereby representing all points of a hyperbola defined by ''HQ·QK = const''. In case ''HQ, QK, hq, qk'' are all drawn parallel to the respective asymptotes (as in the second proposition), ''HQ·QK = hq·qk'' becomes equivalent to ''u'v' = uv'' in ({{equationNote|9a}}), signifying squeezed parallelograms located between the asymptotes and the hyperbola, thus Apollonius' propositions provide the foundation of squeeze mapping. That is, the invariant area ''HQ·QK = const.'' together with ''const''=1 gives ''HQ''=1/''QK'', which implies that ''QK'' is inverse proportional to ''HQ''. Thus when ''HQ'' is increased into ''k·HQ'' using some factor ''k'', it follows that ''QK'' must be proportionally diminished into ''QK/k'' in order to preserve invariance of area.</p> As his works became accessible in several Latin translations, Apollonius' propositions became well known and were applied in textbooks in the 17th and 18th century by geometers such as [[w:Grégoire de Saint-Vincent]], [[w:John Wallis]], [[w:Philippe de La Hire]]. Furthermore, the inverse case of squeezing a given square or parallelogram as a means to ''generate'' hyperbolas was discussed by [[w:Euclid Speidell]] (1688):<ref group=M>Speidell (1688), pp. 4-5</ref> :[..] from a Square and an infinite company of Oblongs on a Superficies, each Equal to that Square, how a Curve is begotten which shall have the same properties and affections of an Hyperbola inscribed within a Right Angled Cone :[..] There is a Square ''ABCD'', whose Side or Root is 10, let ''DB'' be prolonged in ''infinitum'', and continually divided equally by the Root, or ''DB'', and those Equal Divisions numbered by 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, &c. in ''infinitum'': Upon these Numbers let Perpendiculars be erected, which call Ordinates, and each of those Perpendiculars of that length, that Perpendiculars let fall from the aforesaid Perpendiculars to the Side or Base ''CD'' (which call Complement Ordinates) the Oblongs made of the Ordinate Perpendiculars, and Complement Ordinate Perpendiculars may be ever Equal to the Square ''AD'', which is easily done thus, for it is <math>\tfrac{100}{20},\tfrac{100}{30},\tfrac{100}{40},\tfrac{100}{50}</math> &c. produces the Length of the Ordinate Perpendiculars :[..] all the Oblongs made of the Ordinates, and Complement Ordinates are each of them equal to the Square ''AD'', which is here 100 :[..] the like Demonstration serves for all the Oblongs or Parallelograms standing upon the Base ''CD'', by the Tips or Angular Points of those Parallelograms, or from the Ends of all the Ordinates standing upon 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, in ''infinitum'', draw the Curve Line from ''A'' towards ''E'', so shall you describe the Curve ''AEFGS'' [..]. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This corresponds to squeeze mappings ({{equationNote|9a}}) with ''u=v''=10 and ''k''=1,2,3,4,5,6,7,..., thus ''u'v'=uv''=100.</p> In similar terms, [[w:William Whiston]] (1710/16) wrote:<ref group=M>Whiston (1710/16). In the English version (1716) see pp. 16-17. In the original Latin version (1710) see pp. 16-18</ref> :But it is to be acknowledg'd, that many Properties of an Hyperbola are better known from another manner of generating the Figure; which Way is this: Let ''LL'' and ''MM'' be infinite Right Lines intersecting each other in any Angle whatever in the Point ''C'': From any Point whatever, as ''D'' or ''e'', let ''Dc, Dd,'' be drawn parallel to the first Lines, or (''ec, ed''), which with the Lines first drawn make the Parallelograms as ''DcCd'', or ''ecCd''; Now conceive two sides of the Parallelogram as ''Dc, Dd,'' or ''ec, ed'', to be so mov'd this way and that way, that they always keep the same Parallelism, and that at the same time the Area's always remain equal: That is to say, that ''Dc'' and ''ec'' remain always Parallel to ''MM'', and ''Dd'' or ''ed'' always Parallel to ''LL''; and that the Area of every Parallelogram be equal to every other, one Side being increas'd in the same Proportion wherein the other is diminish'd. By this means the Point ''D'' or ''e'' will describe a Curve-Line within the Angle comprehended by the first Lines; <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This corresponds to squeeze mappings ({{equationNote|9a}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Reynaud}} Reynaud (1819) – Hyperbola mapping === [[w:Antoine André Louis Reynaud]] algebraically expressed squeeze mappings by writing:<ref group=M>Reynaud (1819), p. 247</ref> :"The system of equations <math>(2)\ x=\frac{y'}{\alpha},\ y=\alpha x'</math> determines all points of the curve <math>S</math>, because <math>x'</math> and <math>y'</math> being given numbers, each arbitrary value of <math>\alpha</math> gives a point <math>x,y</math> of this curve. The elimination of the indeterminate <math>\alpha</math> between equations (2) will therefore lead to the equation <math>xy=x'y'</math> of the curve in question. This curve is therefore a hyperbola related to its asymptotes <math>xX,yY</math>." <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to (improper) Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|9a}}-2).</p> ==={{anchor|Klein}} Klein (1871) – Projective conic section=== Elaborating on the [[w:Cayley–Klein metric]], [[w:Felix Klein]] (1871) defined a [[w:Quadric#Projective quadric|w:projective conic]] in order to discuss motions such as rotation and translation in the non-Euclidean plane:<ref group=M>Klein (1871), pp. 601–602</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x_{1}x_{2}-x_{3}^{2}=0\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{1} & =\alpha_{1}y_{1}\\ x_{2} & =\alpha_{2}y_{2}\\ x_{3} & =\alpha_{3}y_{3} \end{align} \\ \left(\alpha_{1}\alpha_{2}-\alpha_{3}^{2}=0\right)\\ \hline \frac{x_{1}x_{2}}{x_{3}^{2}}=\text{invariant} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">When the conic section is a hyperbola this is equivalent to squeeze mapping ({{equationNote|9c}}). This becomes ({{equationNote|9a}}) using <math>\left[u,v\right]=\left[\tfrac{x_{1}}{x_{3}},\tfrac{x_{2}}{x_{3}}\right],\ \left[k,\tfrac{1}{k}\right]=\left[\tfrac{\alpha_{1}}{\alpha_{3}},\tfrac{\alpha_{2}}{a_{3}}\right]</math>.</p> ==={{anchor|Laisant1}} Laisant (1874) – Elliptic polar coordinates === [[w:Charles-Ange Laisant]] extended circular trigonometry to elliptic trigonometry. In his model, polar coordinates x, y of circular trigonometry are related to polar coordinates x', y' of elliptic trigonometry by the relation<ref group=M>Laisant (1874a), pp. 73–76</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x'=ax,\ y'=\frac{y}{a}\\ x'y'=xy \end{matrix}</math> He noticed the geometrical implication that any elliptic polar system of coordinates obtained by this formula is located on the same equilateral hyperbola having its asymptotes as axes. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|9a}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Lie2}} Lie (1879-84) – Transforming pseudospherical surfaces=== [[w:Sophus Lie]] (1879/80) derived an operation from [[w:Pierre Ossian Bonnet]]'s (1867) investigations on surfaces of constant curvatures, by which pseudospherical surfaces can be transformed into each other.<ref group=M>Lie (1879/80), Collected papers, vol. 3, p. 389</ref> Lie gave explicit formulas for this operation in two papers published in 1881: If <math>(s,\sigma)</math> are asymptotic coordinates of two principal tangent curves and <math>\Theta</math> their respective angle, and <math>\Theta=f(s,\sigma)</math> is a solution of the Sine-Gordon equation <math>\tfrac{d^{2}\Theta}{ds\ d\sigma}=K\sin\Theta</math>, then the following operation (now called Lie transform) is also a solution from which infinitely many new surfaces of same curvature can be derived:<ref group=M>Lie (1879/81), Collected papers, vol. 3, p. 393</ref> :<math>\Theta=f(s,\sigma)\Rightarrow\Theta=f\left(ms,\ \frac{\sigma}{m}\right)</math> In (1880/81) he wrote these relations as follows:<ref group=M>Lie (1880/81), Collected papers, vol. 3, pp. 477–478</ref> :<math>\vartheta=\Phi(s,S)\Rightarrow\vartheta=\Phi\left(ms,\ \frac{S}{m}\right)</math> In (1883/84) he showed that the combination of Lie transform ''O'' with Bianchi transform ''I'' produces [[w:Bäcklund transform]] ''B'' of pseudospherical surfaces:<ref group=M>Lie (1883/84), Collected papers, vol. 3, p. 556</ref> :<math>B=OIO^{-1}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">As shown by [[#Bianchi1|Bianchi (1886)]] and [[#Darboux1|Darboux (1891/94)]], the Lie transform is equivalent to Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|9a}}) and ({{equationNote|9b}}) in terms of light-cone coordinates ''2s=u+v'' and ''2σ=u-v''. In general, it can be shown that the Sine-Gordon equation is Lorentz invariant.</p> ==={{anchor|Gunther1}} Günther (1880/81) – Elliptic polar coordinates === Following [[#Laisant1|Laisant (1874)]], [[w:Siegmund Günther]] demonstrated the relation between circular polar coordinates and elliptic polar coordinates as<ref group=M>Günther (1880/81), pp. 383–385</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x'=ax,\ y'=\frac{1}{a}y\\ x'y'=xy \end{matrix}</math> showing that any elliptic polar system of coordinates obtained by this formula is located on the same equilateral hyperbola having its asymptotes as axes. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|9a}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Laguerre}} Laguerre (1882) – Laguerre inversion=== A transformation (later known as "Laguerre inversion") of [[../Lorentz transformation (conformal)|E:oriented lines and spheres]] was given by [[w:Edmond Laguerre]] with ''R'' being the radius and ''D'' the distance of its center to the axis:<ref group=M name=laguerre>Laguerre (1882), pp. 550–551.</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}D^{2}-D^{\prime2}=R^{2}-R^{\prime2}\\ \hline \left.\begin{align}D' & =\frac{D\left(1+\alpha^{2}\right)-2\alpha R}{1-\alpha^{2}}\\ R' & =\frac{2\alpha D-R\left(1+\alpha^{2}\right)}{1-\alpha^{2}} \end{align} \right|\begin{align}D-D' & =\alpha(R-R')\\ D+D' & =\frac{1}{\alpha}(R+R') \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent (up to a sign change for ''R'') to a squeeze mapping in terms of Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|9d}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Darboux1}} Darboux (1883–1891) === ====Transforming pseudospherical surfaces==== [[w:Gaston Darboux]] (1883) followed [[#Lie2|Lie (1879/81)]] by transforming pseudospheres into each other as follows:<ref group=M>Darboux (1883), p. 849</ref> :<math>f(x,y)\Rightarrow f\left(\frac{x}{m},\ ym\right)</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This becomes Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|9a}}) by interpreting ''x, y'' as light-cone coordinates.</p> Similar to [[#Bianchi1|Bianchi (1886)]], Darboux (1891/94) showed that the Lie transform gives rise to the following relations:<ref group=M>Darboux (1891/94), pp. 381–382</ref> :<math>\begin{align}(1)\quad & u+v=2\alpha,\ u-v=2\beta;\\ (2)\quad & \omega=\varphi\left(\alpha,\beta\right)\Rightarrow\omega=\varphi\left(\alpha m,\ \frac{\beta}{m}\right)\\ (3)\quad & \omega=\psi(u,v)\Rightarrow\omega=\psi\left(\frac{u+v\sin h}{\cos h},\ \frac{v+u\sin h}{\cos h}\right) \end{align} </math>. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Equations (1) together with transformation (2) gives Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|9a}}) in terms of light-cone coordinates.</p> ===={{anchor|Darboux2}} Laguerre inversion==== Following [[#Laguerre|Laguerre (1882)]], Darboux (1887) formulated the Laguerre inversions in four dimensions using coordinates ''x,y,z,R'':<ref group=M name=darboux>Darboux (1887)</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x^{\prime2}+y^{\prime2}+z^{\prime2}-R^{\prime2}=x^{2}+y^{2}+z^{2}-R^{2}\\ \hline \left.\begin{align}x' & =x, & z' & =\frac{1+k^{2}}{1-k^{2}}z-\frac{2kR}{1-k^{2}},\\ y' & =y, & R' & =\frac{2kz}{1-k^{2}}-\frac{1+k^{2}}{1-k^{2}}R, \end{align} \right|\begin{align}z'+R' & =\frac{1+k}{1-k}(z-R)\\ z'-R' & =\frac{1-k}{1+k}(z+R) \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent (up to a sign change for ''R'') to a squeeze mapping in terms of Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|9d}}) where Darboux's ''k'' corresponds to ''a''.</p> ==={{anchor|Lipschitz1}} Lipschitz (1885/86) - Quadratic forms === [[w:Rudolf Lipschitz]] (1885/86) formulated transformations leaving invariant the sum of squares <math>x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}\dots+x_{n}^{2}=y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n}^{2}</math>, which he rewrote as <math>x_{1}^{2}-y_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}-y_{2}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}-y_{n}^{2}=0</math>. This led to the problem of finding transformations leaving invariant the pairs <math>x_{a}^{2}-y_{a}^{2}</math> (''a''=1...n) for which he gave the following solution:<ref group=M>Lipschitz (1886), pp. 90–92</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x_{a}^{2}-y_{a}^{2}=\mathfrak{x}_{a}^{2}-\mathfrak{y}_{a}^{2}\\ \hline \begin{align}x_{a}-y_{a} & =\left(\mathfrak{x}_{a}-\mathfrak{y}_{a}\right)r_{a}\\ x_{a}+y_{a} & =\left(\mathfrak{x}_{a}+\mathfrak{y}_{a}\right)\frac{1}{r_{a}} \end{align} \quad(1)\\ \hline \Rightarrow\begin{align}2\mathfrak{x}_{a} & =\left(r_{a}+\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)x_{a}+\left(r_{a}-\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)y_{a}\\ 2\mathfrak{y}_{a} & =\left(r_{a}-\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)x_{a}+\left(r_{a}+\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)y_{a} \end{align} \quad(2) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Equation system (1) represents Lorentz boost or squeeze mapping ({{equationNote|9a}}), and (2) represents Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|9b}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Bianchi1}} Bianchi (1886–1894) – Transforming pseudospherical surfaces=== [[w:Luigi Bianchi]] (1886) followed [[#Lie2|Lie (1879/80)]] by writing the transformation of pseudospheres into each other, obtaining the result:<ref group=M>Bianchi (1886), eq. 1 can be found on p. 226, eq. (2) on p. 240, eq. (3) on pp. 240–241, and for eq. (4) see the footnote on p. 240.</ref> :<math>\begin{align}(1)\quad & u+v=2\alpha,\ u-v=2\beta;\\ (2)\quad & \Omega\left(\alpha,\beta\right)\Rightarrow\Omega\left(k\alpha,\ \frac{\beta}{k}\right);\\ (3)\quad & \theta(u,v)\Rightarrow\theta\left(\frac{u+v\sin\sigma}{\cos\sigma},\ \frac{u\sin\sigma+v}{\cos\sigma}\right)=\Theta_{\sigma}(u,v);\\ & \text{Inverse:}\left(\frac{u-v\sin\sigma}{\cos\sigma},\ \frac{-u\sin\sigma+v}{\cos\sigma}\right)\\ (4)\quad & \frac{1}{2}\left(k+\frac{1}{k}\right)=\frac{1}{\cos\sigma},\ \frac{1}{2}\left(k-\frac{1}{k}\right)=\frac{\sin\sigma}{\cos\sigma} \end{align} </math>. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Equations (1) together with transformation (2) gives Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|9a}}) in terms of light-cone coordinates. Plugging equations (4) into (3) gives Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|9b}}) in terms of Bondi's ''k'' factor.</p> In 1894, Bianchi redefined the variables ''u,v'' as asymptotic coordinates, by which the transformation obtains the form:<ref group=M>Bianchi (1894), pp. 433–434</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\Omega\left(u,v\right)\Rightarrow\omega(u,v);\quad\Omega\left(u,v\right)=\omega\left(ku,\ \frac{v}{k}\right);\\ k=\frac{1+\sin\sigma}{\cos\sigma}\Rightarrow\Omega\left(u,v\right)=\omega\left(\frac{1+\sin\sigma}{\cos\sigma}u,\ \frac{1-\sin\sigma}{\cos\sigma}v\right) \end{matrix}</math>. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is consistent with one of the choices in ({{equationNote|9e}}) where Bianchi's angle σ corresponds to θ.</p> ==={{anchor|Lindemann}} Lindemann (1890/91) – Weierstrass coordinates and Cayley absolute=== [[w:Ferdinand von Lindemann]] employed the Cayley absolute related to surfaces of second degree and its transformation<ref group=M>Lindemann & Clebsch (1890/91), pp. 361–362</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}X_{1}X_{4}+X_{2}X_{3}=0\\ X_{1}X_{4}+X_{2}X_{3}=\Xi_{1}\Xi_{4}+\Xi_{2}\Xi_{3}\\ \hline \begin{align}X_{1} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{1}\right)U_{4} & \Xi_{1} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)U_{4} & X_{1} & =\frac{\lambda+\lambda_{1}}{\lambda-\lambda_{1}}\Xi_{1}\\ X_{2} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{3}\right)U_{4} & \Xi_{2} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)U_{4} & X_{2} & =\frac{\lambda+\lambda_{3}}{\lambda-\lambda_{3}}\Xi_{2}\\ X_{3} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)U_{2} & \Xi_{3} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{3}\right)U_{2} & X_{3} & =\frac{\lambda-\lambda_{3}}{\lambda+\lambda_{3}}\Xi_{3}\\ X_{4} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)U_{1} & \Xi_{4} & =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{1}\right)U_{1} & X_{4} & =\frac{\lambda-\lambda_{1}}{\lambda+\lambda_{1}}\Xi_{4} \end{align} \end{matrix}</math> into which he put<ref group=M name=linde>Lindemann & Clebsch (1890/91), p. 496</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}\begin{align}X_{1} & =x_{1}+2kx_{4}, & X_{2} & =x_{2}+ix_{3}, & \lambda+\lambda_{1} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)e^{a},\\ X_{4} & =x_{1}-2kx_{4}, & X_{3} & =x_{2}-ix_{3}, & \lambda+\lambda_{3} & =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)e^{\alpha i}, \end{align} \\ \hline \Omega_{xx}=x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{4}^{2}=-4k^{2}\\ ds^{2}=dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+dx_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}dx_{4}^{2} \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to squeeze mapping ({{equationNote|9a}}, as well as {{equationNote|9e}} in terms of &eta;) with <math>e^{\alpha i}=1</math> and ''2k=1'' .</p> ==={{anchor|Haskell}} Haskell (1895) – Hyperbola mapping === [[w:Mellen W. Haskell]] applied the linear transformation :<math>\alpha'=k\alpha,\ \beta'=k^{-1}\beta</math> in order to transform a hyperbola into itself.<ref group=M>Haskell (1895), p. 159</ref> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|9a}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Smith}} Smith (1900) – Laguerre inversion=== [[w:Percey F. Smith]] followed [[#Laguerre|Laguerre (1882)]] and [[#Darboux2|Darboux (1887)]] and defined the Laguerre inversion as follows:<ref group=M>Smith (1900), p. 159</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}p^{\prime2}-p^{2}=R^{\prime2}-R^{2}\\ \hline \kappa=\frac{R'-R}{p'-p}\\ p'=\frac{\kappa^{2}+1}{\kappa^{2}-1}p-\frac{2\kappa}{\kappa^{2}-1}R,\quad R'=\frac{2\kappa}{\kappa^{2}-1}p-\frac{\kappa^{2}+1}{\kappa^{2}-1}R \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">This is equivalent (up to a sign change) to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|9d}}).</p> ==={{anchor|Elliott}} Elliott (1903) – Invariant theory === [[w:Edwin Bailey Elliott]] (1903) discussed a special cyclical subgroup of ternary linear transformations for which the (unit) determinant of transformation is resoluble into three ordinary algebraical factors, which he pointed out is in direct analogy to a subgroup formed by the following transformations:<ref group=M>Elliott (1903), p. 109</ref> :<math>\begin{matrix}x=X\cosh\phi+Y\sinh\phi,\quad y=X\sinh\phi+Y\cosh\phi\\ \hline X+Y=e^{-\phi}(x+y),\quad X-Y=e^{\phi}(x-y) \end{matrix}</math> <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">The second line is equivalent to squeeze mapping or Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|9a}}, as well as {{equationNote|9e}} in terms of &eta;).</p> === {{anchor|Eisenhart}} Eisenhart (1905) – Transforming pseudospherical surfaces=== [[w:Luther Pfahler Eisenhart]] followed [[#Lie2|Lie (1879/81)]], [[#Bianchi1|Bianchi (1886, 1894)]] and [[#Darboux1|Darboux (1891/94)]] in transforming pseudospherical surfaces:<ref group=M>Eisenhart (1905), p. 126</ref> :<math>\begin{align}(1)\quad & \alpha=\frac{u+v}{2},\ \beta=\frac{u-v}{2}\\ (2)\quad & \omega\left(\alpha,\beta\right)\Rightarrow\omega\left(m\alpha,\ \frac{\beta}{m}\right)\\ (3)\quad & \omega(u,v)\Rightarrow\omega(\alpha+\beta,\ \alpha-\beta)\Rightarrow\omega\left(\alpha m+\frac{\beta}{m},\ \alpha m-\frac{\beta}{m}\right)\\ & \Rightarrow\omega\left[\frac{\left(m^{2}+1\right)u+\left(m^{2}-1\right)v}{2m},\ \frac{\left(m^{2}-1\right)u+\left(m^{2}+1\right)v}{2m}\right]\\ (4)\quad & m=\frac{1-\cos\sigma}{\sin\sigma}\Rightarrow\omega\left(\frac{u-v\cos\sigma}{\sin\sigma},\ \frac{v-u\cos\sigma}{\sin\sigma}\right) \end{align}</math>. <p style="background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black">Equations (1) together with transformation (2) gives Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|9a}}) in terms of light-cone coordinates. Transformation (3) is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|9b}}) in terms of Bondi's ''k'' factor. Eisenhart's angle σ corresponds to ϑ in ({{equationNote|9e}}).</p> ==References== ===Historical mathematical sources=== {{reflist|3|group=M}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|apo}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bia86lez}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bia94diff}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|dar83cou}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|dar87cou}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|dar94cou}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eis0586lez}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eli03}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|guen80}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|hask}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|klei71}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lagu82}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lais74a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lie79a}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lie79b}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lie80}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lie83}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lind90}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lip86}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|reyn}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|smi00}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|spei}} *{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|whis}} ===Secondary sources=== {{reflist|3}} {{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/secsource|L10}} [[Category:Special Relativity]] [[Category:History of Physics]] 9c7v9xtvckj1lhqdmjyhjlzys8ovq0v 0 267737 2415574 2414943 2022-08-16T14:39:34Z Saltrabook 1417466 wikitext text/x-wiki ==Introduction == The Maritime Health Research and Education-NET MAHRE-Net is a non-profit network of researchers, seafarers and other workers, maritime students composed of four parts: # Research, based on standardized, health questionnaires, # Screening for T2 Diabetes mellitus and Hypertension in the fit-for-duty medical examinations # Health promotion program integrated with the T2DM & HTN screening program # Systematic Literature Reviews and Reviews of Systematic Reviews. The primary target study populations include maritime students, seafarers, fishermen, port workers, offshore workers, divers, and their social relations, and other industries. The aim is to provide a foundation for the evidence base for the identification of health risks to foster safe and healthy preventive strategies and policies within the UN Global Sustainable Goals.<ref>‘THE 17 GOALS | Sustainable Development. Accessed 1 May 2021. https://sdgs.un.org/goals</ref><ref>[[Maritime Health Research and Education-NET/Contribution to UNs 17 Sustainable Development Goals|Contribution to UNs 17 Sustainable Development Goals ]]</ref> The program research program includes the permanent monitoring of the main topics of the EU-Occupational Health strategy: # Mental health # Ergonomics # Safety climate, # Hypertension and Diabetes Type 2, accurate early diagnosis and prevention # COVID-19 and other infectious disease We will follow and support the young people from the maritime schools in their care in the cohort design strategies. The method is that we ask the classes of maritime (or other) students to fill out a standardized questionnaire in one of the four themes at the beginning of their studies on their mobile phones. The surveys in the maritime schools complete part of the diagnostics of a global mental health program at the schools and workplaces in the WHO health-promoting school-framework for improving the health and well being'''<ref> [https://learningportal.iiep.unesco.org/en/library/the-who-health-promoting-school-framework-for-improving-the-health-and-well-being-of?back_url=/en/library/search/occupational%20health%20research The WHO health-promoting school-framework for improving the health and well being]</ref>,<ref>https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24737131/</ref> <ref>https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-015-1360-y</ref>''' When they start their practice times at sea, they complete the same questions to identify the influence on their well-being on board. We measure how many of them leave the sea profession and we ask them how they think the profession can continue to be attractive to young people. It is intended to suggest and assist in the implementation of preventive measures based on the results. Later, we continue to ask them at some year intervals with the same questionnaires to assess whether the efforts have helped. We give the same questionnaires to the maritime students in other countries for comparison and learn from their proposals to get the best working conditions. Also, we ask what is needed of teaching to help the industry give them the best condition to stay safe in the job. Different cohort data sources like pre-employment medical health examination data can be tried out for feasibility and validity. A "Cohort" is defined in epidemiological science as a group of people who share the same characteristic, in this case, more or less the same birth years and we take several contacts to them over their life. Cohorts are also started with maritime workers through unions, other organizations, and shipping companies: ==[[/EU Consortium for Maritime Health Research and Education/]] == ==[[/Presentations pptx /|Presentations]] == ==[[/The International Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Hypertension Research Group/|International T2 Diabetes Mellitus and Hypertension Research Group]] == == [[Maritime Health Research and Education-NET/EDUCATION/Education module links|Education 1: Research Methodology]] == ==[[/Students Research Projects|Education 2: Students Thesis Research]] == ==[[/Education 3: The SDG17 International Maritime Health Journal Club/|Education 3: The International Maritime Health Journal Club]]== ==[[/Standard Questionnaire Based studies/|Questionnaire Based studies]] == ==[[/Systematic Reviews/]] == ==[[/Systematic reviews of systematic reviews /]] == ==[[/Organisation / ]] == ==[[/Publications out and on the way/]] == ==[[/ BACKGROUND - open/| Literature background- open]] == == Objectives == # International prospective exposure and health risk cohort studies with maritime students and workers # All other industries are invited to promote the similar research and education goals # Using the standard protocols with different themes # Harmonise exposure and outcome information by using standard questionnaires # Objective and subjective assessments of workplace hazards exposures # Develop and validate Job-exposure Matrices # Systematic reviews and pooled studies from the cohort rounds # Cohort-Linkage to pre-entry and follow-up health exams and other health registers # Use routine health exams for early diagnosis and primary/secondary prevention of [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prediabetes Pre-diabetes] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehypertension Pre-hypertension] # International workplace research- intervention plan based on the [https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---gender/documents/publication/wcms_762676.pdf '''ILO Guidelines integrated health testing VCT@WORK'''] # Make training materials based on the cohort study and the clinical study outcomes and other scientific sources # OHS training to maritime doctors, seafarers, fishermen, students, and others # Integrate research methodology in the supervision of student’s thesis work # Adapt to the OMEGA-NET on data sharing and reporting cohort meta-data # Keep the Excel data file copies safely (producing country and supervisor) # Disseminate the knowledge in publications and organize seminars/webinars/symposia # There is a close relation to the [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/MARITIME_HEALTH_PORTAL Maritime Health Portal] ==Contributions to the Industry == # The maritime doctors and other maritime health professionals receive updated knowledge on the health risks at sea for the specific jobs and work areas # [https://stami.no/slik-skal-stami-sikre-at-kunnskapen-nar-virksomhetene/ Systematic dissemination of knowledge in work environment-e.g. STAMI Specific project] # Job-Exposure Matrices will support the needed evidence to the health examinations according to the requirements in the ILO/WHO Guidelines # The companies receive updated knowledge that enables for strategic and thus more cost-effective prevention efforts also in the Job-Exposure Matrices # The MAHRE-Net supports the international organizations with the updated scientific evidence for updating the international conventions and regulations # The MAHRE-Net supports the Flag states to comply with their obligations to monitor the working and living environments regularly according to ILO Conventions: MLC2006 for seafarers and C188 for fishermen. ==Contributions to the Health Risk Prevention == The cohort studies can be seen as the diagnostic part of the prevention related to each of the specific items. Guidelines for the prevention for each of the standard questionnaires will be included in the Cohort Protocols. ==Phases of the preventive program for single industry== # Epidemiological standardized questionnaire studies # Occupational therapists investigate troubled job positions # Occupational Medical Doctors supply with their patients from the workplace # Statistics of work accidents in the specific areas of the workplace years # Dialogue with companies to improve safety and ergonomics positions # Improve and continue if they have done well ==Ethical requirements == The ethical rules for database research in the respective Universities and the ICOH Code of ethics are complied with. Confidentiality in handling personal information is done according to the rules set out by the national Data Protection Agencies. The European General Data Protection Regulation [https://gdpr-info.eu/ GDPR ]is complied with. All supervisors and the students are obliged to be familiar with the GDPR through a course. None of the research projects collect "personal data" as defined in the GDPR regulation and no personally sensitive information is included. All questionnaires ask for informed consent as the first question. The supervisors take care to secure that the data is processed under the Act on medical confidentiality as guidelines for good epidemiological practice. The participants' anonymity will be protected in every way and this will be indicated in the project description. It will be ensured that the electronic table is locked so that the information cannot be seen by anyone other than the researchers. The researchers respect individual ownership of the data and share publications and the data where this is convenient and keep always good partnerships as described in [https://allea.org/code-of-conduct/#toggle-id-18 ''The European Code of Conduct for Research Integrity for self-regulation in all research in 18 translations''] [https://www.allea.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/ALLEA-European-Code-of-Conduct-for-Research-Integrity-2017.pdf ''The English version''] Types of experiments not to be notified: Questionnaire and interview surveys; Registry research surveys; Quality assurance projects; Non-interventional drug trials<ref>https://komite.regionsyddanmark.dk/i-tvivl-om-anmeldelse</ref> ==[https://www.elsevier.com/about/policies/publishing-ethics Publishing Ethics] == The Elsevier publishers Guidelines include duties for the Publishers, Editors, Reviewers and the Authors corresponding to the international well-agreed different types of duties. Authorship should be limited to those who have made a significant contribution to the conception, design, execution, or interpretation of the reported study. Only those who made substantial contributions should be listed as co-authors. Others who have participated in certain substantive aspects of the paper e.g. language editing or medical writing should be recognised in the acknowledgements section. ==[[/Contribution to UNs 17 Sustainable Development Goals /]] == Goal 3: Good health and well-being for all workers <br> Goal 4: Quality Education<br> Goal 5: Gender Equity<br> Goal 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth<br> Goal 10: Reduced Inequity (Compliance with MLC2006 and the C188)<br> Goal 12: Responsible Consumption and Production (Ships’ SOx and NOx emissions)<br> Goal 14: Life underwater observations on compliance with good waste management <br> Goal 17: Partnerships to achieve the Goals<br> ==Integrated Mental Health and Work Policy OECD's recommendation == To monitor and improve the overall school and preschool climate to promote social-emotional learning, mental health, and wellbeing of all children and students through whole-of-school-based interventions and the prevention of mental stress, bullying, and aggression at school, using effective indicators of comprehensive school health and student achievement; Promote and enforce psychosocial risk assessment and risk prevention in the workplace to ensure that all companies have complied with their legal responsibilities. Develop a strategy for addressing the stigma, discrimination, and misconceptions faced by many workers living with mental health conditions at their workplace <ref>https://legalinstruments.oecd.org/public/doc/334/334.en.pdf</ref> ==Contribution to quality education == ===== For the maritime workers and the industry===== The updated scientific evidence on the prevalent health risk exposures and health conditions on board will qualify the prioritization of the preventive actions in the Safety Committees on board, in the companies, and the worker's organizations. The workers will benefit from the updated maritime doctors to better understand their possible claims and symptoms that call for adequate clinical and laboratory diagnostics and possible notification as occupational diseases. ===== For the maritime doctors===== Guidelines for early diagnosis of hypertension and diabetes type 2, the use of the Excel reporting scheme and follow-up of the new diagnosed seafarers. The outcomes of the cohort studies will be an important part of the continuing training of the Maritime Medical doctors and the training for fishermen and seafarers. <br> https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Maritime_Health_Research_and_Education-NET/MARITIME_HEALTH_PORTAL Without this knowledge, the medical doctors cannot perform their obligations adequately and give adequate advice for the seafarers and fishermen according to the ILO/IMO Guidelines on the Medical Examinations of Seafarers and act adequately with possible notification of occupational diseases<br> ===== For the students ===== Preferably we use our maritime health and safety research outcomes as the basis for our teaching for the MSc.Pub Health and the Maritime students. They learn the research methods in occupational maritime health with an assessment of reliability, generalisability and different types of bias in the scientific context including clearance of the ownership of the data. They learn how to apply the research methods in their coming professional tasks and search the scientific-based knowledge to solve practical problems in their professional life. The maritime students get interested in searching and using the scientific-based maritime knowledge for use in their professional positions as leaders on board. Personal data as defined in the EU GDPR regulation is not used in this research. ==Strengths and Weaknesses == In many countries, the interest for a seafaring carrier among young people is rather low. It is a strength to start with the young seafarers at the maritime schools because they can bring fresh perspective and a different way of thinking to the maritime business and help to attract the young seafarers. According to Unicef, most of them are eager to learn, build their experience and apply their skills in the workforce.[https://www.unicef.org/thailand/stories/6-top-benefits-hiring-young-talent Unicef: 6 top benefits hiring young talents ] The method used is easy to implement in a low budget. It is a strength to use the method that immediately identifies risk elements in the work environment that is not seen by the shipping inspectors in the harbors to be amended for the benefit of the seafarers and the companies. In contrast to the register-based studies, these studies identify actual risk elements in the work environment that will never be learned from the register-based studies. Simple frequency analysis is very useful to start preventive work. In addition, the results in graphics are very useful for basic and advanced education. By using standardized short questionnaires, a good response rate is obtained. The General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) enforced in EU since 2018 can be very complicated to manage in the research. The general survey data we use focuses on the general exposure data in the work environment and not personally identifiable information. Still, an assessment on GDPR data is always needed and in most cases, our survey research do not apply to the same ethical rules as for clinical database research. The students learn how to apply the research methods in their later professional tasks and search the scientific-based knowledge for solving practical problems in their professional life. The maritime students get interested in searching and using the scientific-based maritime knowledge for their professional positions as leaders on board. Among the weaknesses is that the response rate might be too low from the start, that they change their mail address so we have no contact and they are not willing to participate or have no time in the later rounds. Another weakness is that the cross-sectional design cannot identify the causal relations in the single studies. However, by comparison of different questionnaire rounds, the health risk hazards might be present in some cohort parts and not in others and thereby contribute to identifying the causal relations. ==The preventive maritime occupational health strategy == The maritime occupational and environmental health strategy in development will be based on the need for new knowledge of the main OH indicators. A continued accumulation of new knowledge from MAHRE-Net constitutes the base for continued development of a preventive maritime OH strategy for "constant care" of the workers at the sea.<ref>https://www.maersk.com/about/core-values    </ref> Based on the national and international OH strategies, e.g. the EU-OSHA [https://ec.europa.eu/info/law/better-regulation/have-your-say/initiatives/12673-EU-Strategic-Framework-on-Health-and-Safety-at-Work-2021-2027- EU Strategy] <ref>https://www.dropbox.com/s/kralxs9yvl569x0/The%20implementation%20of%20Occupational%20Safety%20and%20Health%20in%20the%20EUST_14630_2019_INIT_en.pdf?dl=0</ref>, The US-CDC and the WHO, ILO OH strategies we selected the four most important OH areas for constant systematic monitoring in the MAHRE-Net: 1. safety-climate, 2. mental health, 3. musculoskeletal risk and 4. Chemical risks. Besides these four main occupational health indicators the following public health indicators can be/are included in each of the surveys: height/weight for Body Mass Index, Smoking, General Health, Alcohol and questions on prevention The validated and international standard questionnaires are available with no extra costs for the student's thesis writing that seems to be an ideal way to make good progress despite the scarce financials. We profit from the results of the outstanding scientists from the Nordic countries and other countries who developed and validated the standardized questionnaires over the latest thirty years. We offer supervision and methodological support for the Bachelor and MScPubHealth graduation thesis and the thesis students in the maritime universities and other health educations like nurses, medical doctors, pharmaceuticals, etc. Data from the Radio Medical services and the seafarer's health examinations are also included. The intention is to obtain a win-win situation with the students getting inspired to continue to do more advanced studies. However, other types of research design apart from the monitor program are encouraged to be made by enthusiastic researchers based on paid clinic time, private time, or funds. Projects with pooling of data from many countries and trends analysis and combining of different questionnaires will require experienced researchers and fundings. One more very important research issue was added in May 2021, to establish early diagnosis of diseases, especially pre-hypertension and pre-diabetes, with evidence that in that time window of disease development, good effect of prevention. Altogether the research activities in MAHRE-Net are intended to be very wide from the most basic levels to the highest levels of competencies with constant education and learning in a preventive perspective. ==[[/ MARITIME HEALTH PORTAL/| Maritime Health Portal]] == ==Sharing research data== As a researcher, you are increasingly encouraged, to make your research data available and usable <ref>https://www.elsevier.com/authors/tools-and-resources/research-data</ref>. However, interviews with researchers revealed a reluctance to share data included a lack of confidence in the utility of the data <ref>https://f1000research.com/articles/7-1641</ref>Data-sharing is the desired default in the field of public health and a source of much ethical deliberation. Sharing data potentially contributes to the most efficient source of scientific data, but is fraught with contextual challenges which make stakeholders, particularly those in under-resourced contexts hesitant or slow to share <ref> Carrillo-Larco, Rodrigo M., J. Jaime Miranda, and Andre P. Kengne. ‘Data Pooling Efforts in Africa and Latin America’. The Lancet Global Health 5, no. 1 (1 January 2017): e37. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(16)30297-2</ref> For example, the Global Body-Mass Index (BMI) Mortality Collaboration1 published their work on BMI as a predictor of all-cause mortality. The investigators pooled individual participant data from 239 prospective studies, with none originating from Latin America or Africa <ref>Body-mass index and all-cause mortality: individual-participant-data meta-analysis of 239 prospective studies in four continents. Lancet. 2016; 388: 776-786</ref>, <ref>Anane-Sarpong, Evelyn, Tenzin Wangmo, Claire Leonie Ward, Osman Sankoh, Marcel Tanner, and Bernice Simone Elger. ‘“You Cannot Collect Data Using Your Own Resources and Put It on Open Access”: Perspectives from Africa about Public Health Data-Sharing’. Developing World Bioethics 18, no. 4 (December 2018): 394–405. https://doi.org/10.1111/dewb.12159</ref> Also collaboration through OMEGA-NET will enhance the scientific output from individual studies and facilitate pooled studies, data sharing, and transfer of tools and skills to make greater and more efficient use of existing cohorts. Researchers from countries outside Europe can participate in COST Actions based on ascertained mutual benefit. Mehlum, Ingrid. <ref>1673f Network on the Coordination and Harmonisation of European Occupational Cohorts (Omega-Net). Occup Environ Med. Vol. 75, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2018-ICOHabstracts.356.</ref> ==Links to relevant organizations, documents, and funds == [http://www.icohweb.org/site/homepage.asp ICOH International Commission on Occupational Health] [http://www.icoh-epicoh.org/ EPICOH Scientific Committee on Epidemiology in Occupational Health] [[Wikipedia: European_Cooperation_in_Science_and_Technology|COST explained in Wikipedia]] [https://omeganetcohorts.eu/ The OMEGA-NET Cohorts and COST] [http://dimopex.eu/about/ DiMoPEx (CA 15129)] [https://omeganetcohorts.eu/resources/scientific-publications/ Links to OMEGA-NET Scientific Publications] [https://www.heraresearcheu.eu/ The HERA network for an environmental, climate and health research agenda] [https://www.cost.eu/who-we-are/mission-vision-and-values/ The COST mission vision and values] [https://www.europeansurveyresearch.org The European Survey Research Association] [https://www.eurofound.europa.eu/surveys/european-working-conditions-surveys-ewcs European Working Conditions Surveys (EWCS)] [https://ec.europa.eu/esf/main.jsp?catId=67&langId=en&newsId=9691 The European Social Fund] == https://www.fi-compass.eu/esif/emff<br> [https://www.norden.org/en/funding-opportunities/nordic-council-ministers-funding-programme-ngo-co-operation-baltic-sea-region Nordic Council Ministers Funding NGO Co-Operation Baltic Sea Region] <br> [https://www.norden.org/en/information/about-funding-nordic-council-ministers Funding Nordic Council Ministers]<br> [https://www.norden.org/en/funding-opportunities/nordic-council-ministers-open-call-funding-opportunity-nordic-russian-co Nordic Council Ministers Funding-opportunity Nordic-Russian Co-Operation] <br> [https://www.seafarerstrust.org/about/ ITF Seafarers Trust]<br> [https://terravivagrants.org/grant-makers/cross-cutting/nippon-foundation/ Nippon Foundation]<br> [https://novonordiskfonden.dk/en/ Novo Nordisk Found] ==References== 6tlcr55utzv684l3odh9iln5aq5k5ot 2 273648 2415673 2412435 2022-08-17T02:01:21Z SophiaSemper 2916858 /* Recent developments */ wikitext text/x-wiki <big> Ectopolitan • 外局人 • एक्टोपॉलिटन • Ectopolita • ექტოპოლიტი • Ektopolitas • Ektopolīts • Ектополитен • Ectopolite • خارجبوليتان • বাহিরেবিশ্বজনীন • Эктополит • Ektopolitan • ایکٹوپولیٹن • Ektopolit • エクトポリタン • اکتوپولیتن • ਐਕਟੋਪੋਲੀਟਨ • ఎక్టోపాలిటన్ • 엑토폴리탄 • Người ngoài • எக்டோபாலிட்டன் • خارج وطنی • ความเป็นข้างนอก • બહારગરિક • ኤክቶፖሊታን • Waje siyasa • Ektopolityczny • ಎಕ್ಟೋಪಾಲಿಟನ್ • Ектополіт • എക്ടോപൊളിറ്റൻ • ଏକ୍ଟୋପଲିଟାନ୍ • اکتوشهری • ນອກໂລກ • Ectopolitische • এক্টোপলিটান • ඒක්ටොපොලිටන් • Ektopolît • Εκτοπολίτικος • Ektopolita • Ektopolitní • Ectopolit • Ектополитска • Ektopolitiska • ኢክቶፖሊታን • Ìta olóṣèlú • Ngaphandle kwepolitiki • Ngaphandle kwezopolitiko • Ektopolitiese • Эктапаліт • Էկտոպոլիտան • Ektopolitisk • Ектополит • Ektopoliittinen • Ektopolitiske • Ektopolitný • ཕྱིའི་མི་སྣ • אַקְטוֹפּוֹלִיטִי • Ektopoliit • Utanborgari • Ektopolito • A-muigh-poilitigs • Waho-politika • Jawa llaqta • ᐁᒃᑐᐳᓕᑕᓐ • Ectopolites • ɒɈiloqoɈɔɘ '''''Nota Bene'': the article below may not be published in formats permissible for citizens of UN member countries, or even for cosmopolitans, and/or for stateless people, as the human being below is an [http://5wcwiki.pbworks.com/w/page/147494235/ectopolitan ''ectopolitan''], which means that he does not identify or align with, nor permits traditional politics, and/or business, to influence or undermine his life, his natural affections, his natural affiliations, and/or his natural community. The individual below considers all UN member countries as no more dignified than Aristotelian zoos, which constantly violate human rights, treat ''de jure'' citizens like ''de facto'' slaves, and national and multinational corporations as entities authorised to violate human rights by their respective states or countries (ie, as criminal entities), and with no actual legal accountability in the constitutions of states or countries for their crimes against natural human beings.''' {|width="280" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="4" border="1" align="right" style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em; border: 1px #aaaaaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;" |style="background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center;" colspan="2"|<big><br>'''Make natural science,<br>not war on nature.<br>&mdash; ''Kaisiris Tallini''<br><br>'''</big> |- |style="background: #E8E8F8; text-align: center;" colspan="2"|<br><big>'''Meddíss Túvtiks Kaisiris Tallini'''</big><br />''born''<br>'''Hon Most Rev Dr Cesidio Tallini'''</br></br> |-bgcolor="#f9f9f9" |style="text-align: center;" colspan="2"|[[File:Hmrdct.jpg|270px]]<br />Kaisiris in 2009 |- |style="background: #f9f9f9; text-align: center;" colspan="2"|'''Personal info under Cesidian law''' |-bgcolor="#f9f9f9" |'''Ectopolitan name''' |Kaisiris Tallini |-bgcolor="#f9f9f9" |'''Born again''' |Week K2<br>Neptunday 22 Jung 2013<br>460 millidays<br>(K2Ψ22J2013•460) |-bgcolor="#f9f9f9" |'''Pythagorean name''' |Cesidio Tallini |-bgcolor="#f9f9f9" |'''Born''' |Week S1<br>Neptunday 26 Edison 1962<br>229 millidays<br>(S1Ψ26E1962•229) |-bgcolor="#f9f9f9" |'''Spouses or Partners (''stirpes'')''' |None |-bgcolor="#f9f9f9" |'''Clan name or ''gentilicius'' (''gens'')''' |Kaisiris (Kaisiris Clan), INN (Interfaith Nutrition Network) |-bgcolor="#f9f9f9" |'''Demonym or gentilic (''curia'')''' |Cesidian or Holocartesian (Cesidian Network) |-bgcolor="#f9f9f9" |'''Nationalities (''tribus'')''' |Neocartesian (Saint René Descartes University), Cal Alumnus (Cal Alumni Association), Penn State Alumnus (Penn State Alumni Association), Honourary Antarctican (by affiliation) |-bgcolor="#f9f9f9" |'''Citizenships (''cives'')''' |Pythagorean (Centre for Cesidian Law and Paradiplomatic Affairs), Nature Israel conservationist (American Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel) |-bgcolor="#f9f9f9" |'''Delineation (''genus'')''' |[http://5wcwiki.pbworks.com/w/page/147494235/ectopolitan ''Ectopolitan''] |-bgcolor="#f9f9f9" |'''Ectoprofessions''' |Analytic theologian; multidisciplinary scholar |-bgcolor="#f9f9f9" |'''Website''' |[http://5wcwiki.pbworks.com/w/page/143342355/mtkt >>LINK<<] |} '''MT<ref>Kaisiris Tallini is neither a 'Mister' (Mr), nor a 'Doctor' (Dr). These terms are wholly political or professional terms which states and countries have invented, which in fact treat adult persons as slaves or subjects of states or countries, not as independent and dignity-deserving adults. Kaisiris Tallini is a 'MT', an abbreviation for the Oscan words «''Meddíss Túvtiks''». The ''Meddíss Túvtiks'' — Oscan-Latinish: «''Meddix Tuticus''»; English: Community Manager — was the name of the supreme magistrate among the Oscan people. The MT was the single magistrate on whom would devolve military command, civil and criminal jurisdiction, functions of political and religious representation, and several other responsibilities, for the MT could also have been a great teacher and healer, besides being a man of religion. Think of a real tribal chieftain or the tribune of a natural society, and you can begin to understand what a 'MT' was. Kaisiris Tallini is also a 'SD', an abbreviation for the Ectoenglish words 'Salubriology Doyen'. An SD in the health field — there are also SDs in the organisational, engineering, education, legal, and religious fields — is a genuine physician, or ''iatros'' (ιατρός) in Ectogreek. Kaisiris Tallini considers the appellative 'Mr Tallini' offensive, besides being grossly inaccurate, because it should imply that he is a master of the Tallinis, or of any adult person with a Tallini surname, yet he considers the Tallinis related to him as lower than beasts (reptiles) on the human spiritual scale, or completely vile, vulgar, and plutocratic.</ref> [http://5wcwiki.pbworks.com/w/page/144142176/Kaisiris%20multilingual Kaisiris Tallini]''' (New York, [https://takemeback.to/10-May-1962 10 May 1962] – Ω) — born ''Cesidio Tallini''<ref>The name 'Cesidio Tallini' has existed since Thursday, 10 May 1962 [S1Ψ26E1962•229], or since his birthdate. It should be noted, however, that the name 'Kaisiris Tallini' has existed only since Tuesday, 3 September 2013 [K2Ψ22J2013•460], when it was registered for the first time through the Paradiplomatic Affairs ectogovernmental organisation (EGO).</ref> — is Analytic Theologian and founder of the Cesidian Network; Chancellor of Saint René Descartes University; and Rector of the Centre for Cesidian Law. Kaisiris is the world's first [https://www.britannica.com/topic/micronation micronationalist] recognised in ''de jure'', or acknowledged in ''de facto'' fashion by several government or quasi-government bodies<ref>[http://selfherald.blogspot.com/2017/11/who-is-cesidio-tallini.html Who is Cesidio Tallini?] article.</ref>. He is also the first micronationalist to be recognised for multiple nationalities within the same developing new region of the world, so Kaisiris is both a micronationalist and a multinationalist. Kaisiris has assisted two micronations — ''Principado Independente do Ilhéu da Pontinha'', and Kingdom of Ourania — with their development; claims two Native African — [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Cabinda Republic of Cabinda] and [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Cameroons Southern Cameroons (Ambazonia)] — nationalities by naturalisation; and claims to be the world's first full Antarctic national by affiliation. Since 2 April 2021, Kaisiris is also the world's first ''de jure'' [http://5wcwiki.pbworks.com/w/page/147494235/ectopolitan ''ectopolitan''], a word which comes from the Greek, and describes a person outside of politics altogether, a ''delineate'' of the world, rather than a citizen of the world. An ectopolitan can be described as a spiritual, and/or physical expatriate to all countries; a wannabe extraterrestrial; an earthling who is even more odd to locals than a cosmopolitan; or someone who doesn't feel related to the United Nations, and/or any of its member countries. Kaisiris has earned both American and Italian high school diplomas in the past; has earned several different post-secondary education diplomas and certificates, including a National Work Readiness Credential from the National Work Readiness Council, and a Certificate of Qualification to Practice from the Law Society of Cabinda; and has earned a BS degree from the University of Phoenix, another BSc degree, two religious doctorate degrees, and was awarded two honourary doctorates. Kaisiris has also recently earned a degree from Saint René Descartes University, after becoming the world's first self-made Salubriology Doyen (SD), so besides being ''Kohen Gadol'' [כּוֹהֵן גָדוֹל] of Lineage of the Blessed Hermes (LBH), and ''Meddíss Túvtiks'' of the Kaisiris Clan, he is also ''Archiatros'' (Αρχιατρός) of the Salubriology School. Kaisiris is also the ''de facto'' or ''de jure'' author of several books in English and Italian; the father of Cesidian law, Cesidian analytic theology, Cesidian salubriology, Cesidian societal-political science, and Cesidian spiritual science; the developer of several indigenous and novel time, linguistic, educational, and intellectual property systems; and an independent scholar. Finally, Kaisiris is also Regent of Paradiplomatic Affairs (PdA), and ''Wujieren'' (无界人) and founder of Global Earth Oceans (GEO), a new region under development. ==Early life== Kaisiris was born in Jamaica Hospital, New York, on 10 May 1962. He has resided for extensive periods of time both in Italy and in the United States. He moved to Italy at the age of 9, where he continued his education. He eventually earned an Italian ''Diploma di Maturità Scientifica'' from La Scuola D'Italia "Guglielmo Marconi" of New York City, and an American High School Equivalency Diploma from the University at Albany (SUNY). ==Later developments== Kaisiris is an honourary alumnus of the University of California at Berkeley since October 2010; an honourary alumnus of Pennsylvania State University since May 2011; and an international life member of the Chamber of Computer Logistics People (CCLP) Worldwide since August 2011. Most post-1998 developments in Kaisiris' life are at least indirectly related to Cesidian societal-political science, although even more legal, theological, and linguistics developments have taken place through time. Kaisiris co-founded the Cesidian Root in September 2005, but no longer has a relationship with the organisation<ref>[https://www.foxnews.com/tech/the-cesidian-root-a-bizarre-peek-at-the-world-wide-weird The Cesidian Root: A bizarre peek at the world wide weird] article.</ref><ref>[https://second.wiki/wiki/cesidian_root Cesidian Root] wiki article.</ref>. On 30 April 2007, Kaisiris earned a Bachelor of Science in Information Technology from the University of Phoenix (with honours). On 13 December 2007, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes René Descartes] is consecrated as the first saint of the Cesidian Church. Kaisiris also founded the United Micronations Multi-Oceanic Archipelago (UMMOA) political party in May 2008, but disbanded the party in June 2017. On 8 August 2009, Kaisiris issued the first Print Monopoly ⓟⓜ. On 20 January 2010, Kaisiris received an honourary Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in International law from the Academy of Universal Global Peace. On 8 July 2011, Kaisiris was ordained as an Independent Catholic Priest and appointed to the title of Bishop, with apostolic succession and lineage to Christ. He also became a member of the Board of Bishops of the Universal Life Church World Headquarters (later renamed "Universal One Church"). On 22 July 2011, the Cesidian Church was granted a church charter by the Universal Life Church World Headquarters (later renamed "Universal One Church"). Kaisiris has also earned a Doctor of Divinity (DD), and a Doctor of Theology (ThD) from the Universal Life Church World Headquarters School of Theology. On 1 November 2011, upon certification by the Examining Committee of the Law Society of Cabinda, Kaisiris was admitted as an Advocate, and is now authorised to practice before all the Courts and Tribunals of the Republic of Cabinda. On 23 January 2012, Kaisiris was appointed Communications Director for the Organization of Emerging African States (OEAS). During the 7th Meeting of the Committee on NGOs, held on 2 February 2012 at the United Nations Headquarters in New York, the Chamber of Computer Logistics People Worldwide (CCLP Worldwide) was recommended for Special Consultative Status. This development became possible after CCLP Worldwide's Special Representative Cesidio Tallini managed to overcome to the persistent objections of the Distinguished Representative of Pakistan on the night of 1 February 2012. In August 2012, CCLP Worldwide was granted Special Consultative Status with the United Nations' Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). On 27 December 2012, Kaisiris was made Ambassador at Large of Antarctica and Unrepresented or Underrepresented Polities for The Multipurpose Inter-Parliamentary Union (TMIPU). On 31 December 2012, Kaisiris was appointed Interim Deputy Minister of Information for the Republic of Cabinda. On 8 April 2013, the Saint René Descartes University's 2013 Nobel Peace Prize recommendation is welcomed by the Norwegian Nobel Committee, and Saint René Descartes University's Scholar's Degree (SD) is also accepted. On 7 June 2013, the Paradiplomatic Affairs (PDA) agency was launched. On 3 September 2013, the Hernici (8ED) tribe is formally registered with Paradiplomatic Affairs (PDA). This marks the beginning of the official existence of the Aboriginal European Hernici (8ED) Tribe. On 22 September 2013, the Government of Southern Cameroons recognises the UMMOA's Aphrodite Island claim. On 9 January 2014, Kaisiris provides the first services as Ambassador at Large of Antarctica to a Native Antarctican. On 3 October 2014, it is first noticed that UMMOA English (UGV; en-UGV; ⓤ) had appeared authoritatively in Google searches. What was originally judged as a new English variety, variant, or lect†, since 30 December 2020 is called Ectoenglish (ⓔ), the world's first ectolanguage. Kaisiris has also started to develop other ectolanguages besides Ectoenglishⓔ, ectoitalianoⓘ [Ectoitalian], and ⓞoɔƨooɈɔɘ [Ectooscan]. On 5 November 2015, the Aphrodite Island claim/name is accepted by author and geographer Nick Middleton (in the English language). On 11 November 2015, the [https://time.is/CMT Cyberterra Mean Time] (CMT) standard appeared in ''AcronymFinder.com'' for the first time. On 21 January 2016, the UK's Foreign and Commonwealth Office published a summary of the UMMOA party's views. This is the first indirect acknowledgement of the work of the Paradiplomatic Affairs (PDA) agency. On 5 October 2017, the Indigo race (or ''Homo sapiens ethicus''/''Homo noeticus'') concept is accepted by author and social anthropologist Beth Singler. On 11 August 2019, Lady Anna Tallini, Kaisiris' mother, passed away. This is Kaisiris' greatest loss. ==Recent developments== Since his mother's passing, and the end of the Marian Christianity (11.02.1858 – 11.08.2019) era, Kaisiris has founded the asocial, but not anti-social Kaisiris Clan (11.08.2019 – Ω), and the Cesidian Network (09.10.2019 – Ω) is beyond its conception or birth, beyond its ''bar/bat mitzvah'' age, and may be considered at least a college graduate, following all these actual developments: * Johannine Christianity (11.08.2019 – 09.07.2020) era started [first post-Marian Christian era which failed to materialise] * Cesidian spiritual science (Css) or Cesidianism conception: 29.11.2019 * Cesidian law gentilisation/neoaristocratic union process: 09.01.2020 * Polyphilia and multisocietalism concepts: 23.01.2020 * Cesidian law curialisation/neoecclesiastic union process: 05.02.2020 * Conception of Cesidian psychology: 24.03.2020 * Conception of the Restored Ancient Order of Melchizedek (RAOM): 20.05.2020 * Magdalene Christianity (09.07.2020 – 03.02.2021) era started [second post-Marian Christian era which failed to materialise] * Css/Cesidianism graduates into a post-tribal religion tradition (foreshadowing of the Cesidian era): 28.09.2020 * Cesidian psychology development of the redefined Maslow's pyramid of human needs: 15.11.2020 * Cesidian law "all speech is political speech" development: 17.11.2020 [a sign non-Cesidian law is largely a fiction] * New ectopolitical or multisocietal, rather than political or cosmopolitan paradigm development (''Homo sapiens ethicus''): 29.12.2020 * Birth of Ectoenglishⓔ, Ectoitalianⓘ, ectolanguages, and ectolinguistics: 30.12.2020 * New ectojournalism and ectohistorian development: 15.01.2021 * Birth of Ectofrenchⓕ: 17.01.2021 * Ectolinguistics and Cesidian law connection: 02.02.2021 * Cyberterra ectogeography connection (new ''genus'' not continental, and more ocean- than island-based): 03.02.2021 * Cesidian era started (post-Christianity, or post-religion without spirituality era): 03.02.2021 * Ecology, agriculture, and zoology connections (politics favours zookeepers, and is unfavourable even to wild and domesticated species): 08.02.2021 * Copernican (astronomical) versus the Cesidian (religious, legal, linguistic, holoscientific<ref>The ''holoscientific'' term was coined on 3 April 2022 [N1Χ15D2022•065].</ref>) revolution: 09.02.2021 * Biological or adopted, social or societal, religious or spiritual, economic or scientific, ethical or legal brothers concept: 21.02.2021 * Birth of Ectochineseⓩ: 27.02.2021 * Even cities like London (main-belt asteroid of 8837 London in particular) can be both cosmopolitan and ''ectopolitan'': 18.03.2021 * Birth of Ectohebrewⓗ: 26.03.2021 * Birth of Ectolatinⓛ: 28.03.2021 * Birth of Ectogreekⓖ: 28.03.2021 * New Marian Dogma — Mary is both ''Theotokos'' (Θεοτόκος) and ''Theogonos'' (Θεογόνος): 28.03.2021 * Cesidianism is a form of Ectochristianity: 07.04.2021 * Birth of Ectooscanⓞ: 14.04.2021 * First quality ⓔⓘⓞ triectolingual message posted: 17.04.2021 * Birth of The Ectolanguage Organism ⓔⓛⓞ, the first societal organism: 28.04.2021 * The Fleming 2021 Declaration: 14.05.2021 * Conception of ecto-governmental organisation (ego) concept: 21.06.2021 * Formation of ''Asking Facebook for a 'No Country' or ''Ectopolitan'' country option'' group: 14.07.2021 * Made admin of ''The World Academy of Buddhist Scholars'' Facebook group: 06.08.2021 * The regular English (en-GB/en-US) word 'wife' became archaic or obsolete in Ectoenglish (ⓔ; een): 19.09.2021 * The regular English (en-GB/en-US) word 'citizen' became archaic or obsolete in Ectoenglish (ⓔ; een): 23.09.2021 * The 'ectoinformatics' term is born: 29.09.2021 * The 'ectoagriculture' and 'ectoenvironmental' terms are born: 07.10.2021 * Single's Day holiday is introduced into the Cesidian calendar: 11.11.2021 * Decision made to introduce first ''Ectopolitans''' Day and Ectohomes' Day on 13.05.2022 and 23.08.2022 respectively into the Cesidian calendar: 22.11.2021 * The all-out assault (AOA) on "science" began: 10.12.2021 * All-out assault (AOA) on the world government quadropus: 16.12.2021 * Formation of the Lineage of the Blessed Hermes (LBH): 28.12.2021 * Birth of Ectokoreanⓚ: 06.01.2022 * The difference between a wiki and an 'ectowiki' is first shown: 11.01.2022 * After a new and improved translation of 'ectopolitan' in Ojibwe, 5 new ectolanguages were born: Ectogermanⓓ, Ectojapaneseⓙ, Ectoportugueseⓟ, Ectorussianⓡ, and Ectospanishⓢ: 24.01.2022 * Realisation Kaisiris Tallini is the first ''de facto'' [http://5wcwiki.pbworks.com/w/page/147494235/ectopolitan ''ectopolitan''], but also the first ''de jure'' or legal [http://5wcwiki.pbworks.com/w/page/147494235/ectopolitan ''ectopolitan'']: 26.02.2022 * Birth of Ectovietnameseⓥ: 10.03.2022 * With the rigourous proof that ectopolitans are gods, Cesidian spiritual science (Css) graduates into the "Queen of the Sciences": 14.03.2022 * The ''centimilliday'' (cmd) was introduced into the Cyberterra Mean Time format (CMTf): 15.03.2022 * Birth of Ectocurrency Unit (Ɇ; ECU), and possible Cesidian economics revolution concept: 17.03.2022 * Acknowledgement of ectoeducational science component of Cesidian revolution: 24.03.2022 * The 'holoscientific' term is born: 03.04.2022 * Start of Ectopolitan Wiki: 06.04.2022 * Birth of Ectobattery Hens in Hazmat Suits Organisation (EBHHSO): 28.04.2022 * Development of Cesidian analytic theology's "People of the Book" graph: 30.05.2022 * The 'ectoprofessional' term is born: 05.06.2022 * The 'ectoscientist' term is born: 05.06.2022 * First language–ectolanguage translation: 07.06.2022 * The 7th and 8th Cesidian saint is canonised: 08.06.2022 * "Cesidian pyramid" addition to the redefined Maslow's pyramid of human needs: 25.06.2022 * First legal document certifying [http://5wcwiki.pbworks.com/w/page/147494235/ectopolitan ''ectopolitan''] status devised and signed: 04.07.2022 * Ectoenglish update: the once, twice, and thrice etc list, completed for Ectoenglish up to ten times (''tence''): 14.07.2022 * Discovery of the parallels between ectopolitans or gods, and the Ancient Greek ''daimones'' (δαίμονες) concept [singular: ''daimon'' (δαίμων)]; discovery of the parallels between exopolitans or Gods, and the Ancient Greek ''theoi''/''thees'' (θεοί/θεές) concept [singular: ''theos''/''thea'' (θεός/θεά)]; as well as the discovery that the Cesidian ''Homo noeticus'' ['self-knowing' person], and the Buddhist ''Bodhisattva'' [person both 'awake' (''bodhi''), and 'sentient' (''sattva'')] concepts, are actually synonymous: 17.07.2022 * Published ''The Far High Theory'' (ectoscientific concept) article: 27.07.2022 * Published ''The Cesidian Age started for scientific reasons'' (ectohistorical concept) article: 06.08.2022 * The 'partescience' term is born (means highly atomised, or non-holistic single science field): 10.08.2022 * The 'zookeeperspeak' and 'American oligarch' terms are born: 12.08.2022 * The «''Médecins Sans Chercheurs D'or''» or "Doctors Without Gold Diggers" Print Monopolies ⓟⓜ are issued: 12.08.2022 * '''The 'daimonological' term is''' not used for the first time, but '''first used in 'an anti-Irenaeus of Smyrna manner'''', since daimons are claimed part of the 'daimonological' division or ''genus'' of humanity (''Homo noeticus''), and thus clearly Ectochristian in essence, or '''completely outside of Christianity when compared to Irenaeus of Smyrna''', who is judged as nothing but your typical ''anthropoi'' (ἄνθρωποι) — singular: ''anthropos'' (ἄνθρωπος) —, that is, part of the anthropological division or ''genus'' of humanity (''fictus Homo sapiens''), or part of "We the People", even when they pretentiously believe to be otherwise, as arrogant daemons like Satan often do; and so daemons are completely associated with '''Catholic orthodoxy''', and completely disassociated from daimons and '''Cesidianism''': 14:08.2022 It should be noted that while the socially limited Kaisiris Clan (11.08.2019 – Ω), and the Cesidian Network (09.10.2019 – Ω) high spirituality organisation are connected with some real micronationalists, there is no Judaeo-Christian group which is. Yet Kaisiris is treated like ''persona non grata'' by most micronationalists (non-[http://5wcwiki.pbworks.com/w/page/147494235/ectopolitan ''ectopolitans'']), so he enjoys no understanding among most micronationalists, but also receives no support. All current forms of micronationalism are either purely self-centred simulations and entertainment, or primordial forms of tribalism without genuine societalistic or [http://5wcwiki.pbworks.com/w/page/147494235/ectopolitan ''ectopolitan''] foundations. It should also be noted that Saint René Descartes University (24.11.2007 – Ω), and its Centre for Cesidian law (08.08.2006 – Ω) and Salubriology School (11.02.2009 – Ω) continue to exist, and are active as genuine educational and research institutions, and the Paradiplomatic Affairs (24.05.2013 – Ω) agency continues to exist as a paradiplomatic and [http://5wcwiki.pbworks.com/w/page/147494235/ectopolitan ''ectopolitan''] organisation, albeit less actively. Cesidian spiritual science (Css) has become, in essence, Cesidian legal, spiritual and theological, salubriological and psychological, linguistic, journalistic and historical, geological, geographic and astronomical, economics, societal and political, ecological and agricultural, informatics, educational and library science, or the world's first holistic, ethical, and scientific paradigm. The table of Cesidian spiritual science (Css) milestones follows below. {| class="wikitable sortable" |- ! '''Date''' || '''Css milestone''' !! '''Life milestone''' |- | 29.11.2019 || Css term is coined. || Birth |- | 21.12.2019 || Fishy Christianity "facts". || ''Bar/bat mitzvah'' |- | 05.02.2020 || Curialisation/neoecclesiastic union process. || High school graduation |- | 29.12.2020 || Ectolinguistics begins: ectopolitical/ectopolitics terms. || College graduation: BS degree |- | 03.02.2021 || Cyberterra ectogeography/ectogeology connection. || University graduation: MS degree |- | 14.03.2022 || Proof ectopolitans are gods: Css "Queen of the Sciences". || PhD dissertation successfully defended |} ==Important ectonyms and exonyms ([http://5wcwiki.pbworks.com/w/page/144142176/Kaisiris%20multilingual multilingual plus sound])== * Ectoenglishⓔ: Kaisiris Tallini [born Cesidio Tallini] * Ectoespañolⓢ: Kaisiris Tallini [nacido Cesidio Tallini] * Català: Kaisiris Tallini [nascut Cesidio Tallini] * 外中文ⓩ： 凯西里斯·塔利尼（出生：塞西迪奥·塔利尼） * Oʻzbekcha: Kaisiris Tallini * Қазақша: Кайсирис Таллини [туылған: Сесидио Таллини] * Türkmençe: Kaisiris Tallini [doglan Cesidio Tallini] * Тоҷикӣ: Кайсирис Таллини [таваллуд: Сесидио Таллини] * Монгол: Кайсирис Таллини [төрсөн: Сесидио Таллини] * བོད་ཡིག༇ཁའི་སིཨའིརིས་ཏལིནའི༺འཁྲུངས་ཆེསིདིཨོ་ཏལིནའི༻ * Ektodeutschⓓ: Kaisiris Tallini [geboren Cesidio Tallini] * Nederlands: Kaisiris Tallini * Svenska: Kaisiris Tallini * Dansk: Kaissiris Tallini * Suomi: Kaisiris Tallini * Norsk bokmål: Kaisiris Tallini * Íslenska: Kaisiris Tallini * Gàidhlig: Kaisiris Tallini * Cymraeg: Kaisiris Tallini * Bahasa Indonesia: Kaisiris Tallini * Jawa: Kaisiris Tallini * Sunda: Kaisiris Tallini * Ectofrançaisⓕ: Kaisiris Tallini [né Césidio Tallini] * Kreyòl ayisyen: Kaisiris Tallini * Corsu: Kaisiris Tallini [natu Cesidio Tallini] * Экторусскийⓡ: Кайсирис Таллини [урожденный Чесидио Таллини] * Беларуская: Кайсірыс Талліні * Кыргызча: Кайсирис Таллини * Українська: Кайсіріс Талліні * Română: Kaisiris Tallini * Српски: Каисирис Таллини * Հայերեն: Կայզիրիս Տալլինի * ქართველი: კაისირის ტალლინი * ｴｸﾄﾆﾎﾝｺﾞⓙ: ｶｲｼﾘｽ･ﾀﾘｰﾆ (ｳﾏﾚ: ﾁｪｼﾃﾞｨｵ･ﾀﾘｰﾆ) * Ectoitalianoⓘ: Kaisiris Tallini [nato Cesidio Tallini] * Hrvatski: Kaisiris Tallini * Slovenščina: Kaisiris Tallini * Magyar: Kaissiris Tallini * Shqip: Kaisiris Tallini * Македонски: Каисирис Таллини * Bosanski: Kaisiris Tallini * አማርኛ፦ ካይሲሪስ ታልሊኒ * ቲግሪንያ፦ ካይሲሪስ ታልሊኒ * Čeština: Kaisiris Tallini * Slovenčina: Kaisiris Tallini * Hausa: Kaisiris Tallini * Yorùbá: Kaisiris Tallini * Igbo: Kaisiris Tallini * Malagasy: Kaisiris Tallini * Kiswahili: Kaisiris Tallini * IsiZulu: Kaisiris Tallini * Ikinyarwanda: Kaisiris Tallini * IsiXhosa: Kaisiris Tallini * Afrikaans: Kaiciris Tallini * Vèneto: Kaisiris Tallini [nato Cesidio Tallini] * Napulitano: Kaisiris Tallini [nato Cesidio Tallini] * Sicilianu: Kaisiris Tallini [nascitu Cesidio Tallini] * Sardu: Kaisiris Tallini [nasciu Cesidio Tallini] * Malti: Kaisiris Tallini [imwieled Cesidio Tallini] * Ōlelo Hawaiʻi: Kaisiris Tallini [hānau ʻia ʻo Cesidio Tallini] * Εκτοελληνικάⓖ: Καϊσίρης Ταλλίνι [αρχικά Τσεσίδιο Ταλλίνι] * Ectoportuguêsⓟ: Kaisiris Tallini [nascido Cesidio Tallini] * Interlingua: Kaisiris Tallini [nascite Cesidio Tallini] * Esperanto: Kaisiris Tallini [origine Cesidio Tallini] * Polski: Kaisiris Tallini * Eesti: Kaisiris Tallini * Lietuvių: Kaisiris Tallini * Latviešu: Kaisiris Tallini * Türkçe: Kaisiris Tallini * Azərbaycanca: Kaisiris Tallini * Kurdî: Kaisiris Tallini * Български: Кайсирис Таллини * 엑토한국어ⓚ: 카이시리스 탈리니 (태어난: 체시디오 탈리니) * Ngoài tiếng việtⓥ: Kaisíris Tallini [sinh ra: Chêsidio Tallini] * Tagalog: Kaisiris Tallini [ipinanganak na Cesidio Tallini] * Cebuano: Kaisiris Tallini [natawo nga Cesidio Tallini] * ไทย: ไคสิริส ทัลลินี [เกิด: เชศรีดิโอ ทัลลินี] * Ectolatinaⓛ: Kaisidis Tallini [natus Caesidius Tallini] * Qhichwa: Kaisiris Tallini * ᐊᓂᔑᓈᐯᒧᐎᓐ: ᑲᐃᓯᕆᔅ ᑕᓪᓕᓂ [ᓃᑭ ᒉᓯᑎᐅ ᑕᓪᓕᓂ] * हिंदी: काईसिरिस तालिनी * বাংলা: কাইসিরিস তালিনি * नेपाली: कैसिरिस तल्लिनी * తెలుగు: కైసిరిస్ తల్లిని * தமிழ்: கைசிரிஸ் தாலினி * मराठी: काईसीरिस तल्लीनी * ગુજરાતી: કૈસીરીસ તલ્લિની * ಕನ್ನಡ: ಕೈಸಿರಿಸ್ ಟಾಲಿನಿ * മലയാളം: കൈസിരിസ് തല്ലിനി * ଓଡିଆ: କେସିରିସ୍ ତାଲିନି * ລາວ: ໄຄຊີຣິສ ທາລິນີ * অসমীয়া: কাইচিৰিছ টালিনি * සිංහල: කෛසිරිස් ටල්ලිනි * ਪੰਜਾਬੀ: ਕੈਸੀਰਿਸ ਟੱਲੀਨੀ <big>پنجابی: قیصریس تلینی </big>▪ <big>دری: قیصریس تالینی </big>▪ <big>فارسی: کایسیریس تالینی </big>▪ <big>[קַאִיסִירִיס טָאללִינִי [נוֹלַד צ'סִידָיו טָאללִינִי :ⓗאַקְטוֹעִבְרִית </big>▪ '''[inillɒɈ oibiƨɘɔ oɈɒn] †inillɒɈ ƨiɿiƨiɒʞ :ⓞoɔƨooɈɔɘ''' ▪ <big>[عربى: كايسيريس تاليني [ولد سيسيديو تاليني </big>▪ <big>اردو: کائیسیرس تاللینی </big>▪ † ''Originally named UMMOA or UGV English, it wasn't judged a new language, but as a new English variety, variant, or lect (assessment provided by Melinda Lyons, ISO 639-3 registration authority for SIL International). Since 30.12.2020, UMMOA or UGV English is now called Ectoenglishⓔ, the world's first ectolanguage. Kaisiris has also started to develop other ectolanguages besides Ectoenglishⓔ, ectoitalianoⓘ [Ectoitalian], and ⓞoɔƨooɈɔɘ [Ectooscan].'' ==Citations== </big> 72a423dfdsbt08ownaak2xf693b63xl 0 276755 2415651 2413097 2022-08-17T00:12:53Z Jtneill 10242 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{title|Social contributions}}</noinclude> A "social contribution", in the context of [[motivation and emotion]], is an edit or discussion/social media post which in some way directly or indirectly improves the quality of book chapters that other people are working on. This page provides a brief overview, with links to more detailed information. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] - have you made at least one social contribution and summarised it on your Wikiversity user page? * What are “social contributions”? ** Any publicly viewable contribution to the internet that enhances the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book project]] beyond the chapter you are working on. * Why social contributions? ** Reward student engagement ** Encourage and support peer feedback ** Enhance communication skills * How to make social contributions ** Contributions can be made via: *** Wikiversity book chapter (past and present) **** Editing **** Commenting *** {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum posts *** Twitter - use {{Motivation and emotion/Hashtag}} ** Summarise contributions on Wikiversity user page with links to evidence * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]] * More info: ** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Socialcontribution|Social contribution]] ** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions|Summarising social contributions]]<noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity]] bvs2he4ee8gl1q687uq0ii579u1c7m8 2415658 2415651 2022-08-17T00:20:15Z Jtneill 10242 wikitext text/x-wiki <noinclude>{{title|Social contributions}}</noinclude> A "social contribution", in the context of [[motivation and emotion]], is an edit or discussion/social media post which in some way directly or indirectly improves the quality of book chapters that other people are working on. This page provides a brief overview, with links to more detailed information. ==Topic development== * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] - have you made at least one social contribution and summarised it on your Wikiversity user page? ==What are "social contributions”?== * Any publicly viewable contribution to the internet that enhances the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book project]] beyond the chapter you are working on. == Why social contributions?== * Reward student engagement * Encourage and support peer feedback * Enhance communication skills ==How to make social contributions== Contributions can be made via: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Past chapters]]: ** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]] ** Add links to related, more recent chapters * Current book chapters ** Edit and improve the chapter pages ** Comment and provide feedback on chapter and/or user talk pages * {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum posts e.g., respond to requests for feedback * Twitter - use {{Motivation and emotion/Hashtag}} ==Summarising social contributions== * Summarise contributions on Wikiversity user page with links to evidence ==More info== * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Socialcontribution|Social contribution]] * [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions|Summarising social contributions]]<noinclude> [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity]] 16g0o3qd6geszzi3w5bgif4yly73m2h 0 277076 2415801 2379359 2022-08-17T10:21:21Z Earthxangel 2947535 /* Overview */ fixed some grammar wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Mixed emotions:<br>What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed?}} {{MECR3|https://youtu.be/_Iqfq3lTNY8}} __TOC__ == Overview == Emotions give people the ability to communicate with each other through nonverbal and verbal gestures. All around the world people are able to recognise each emotion,{{gr}} Charles Darwin noticed there are no cultural boundaries amongst people. Some cultural backgrounds have cultural-specific signals and greetings, however language does not play much of an impact of understanding emotions. This chapter discusses the definition of a mixed emotion, {{gr}} broad overview of what a mixed emotion is and identifying each core emotion from Paul Ekman's facial expressions model. The core emotions outlined are: fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy, surprise and contempt with a brief summary and what each emotions look like. The mixed emotions discussions mention The James Lange theory of emotions and compound emotions by Du, Tau and Martinez from Ohio State University. The James Lange theory involves the event (stimulus), arousal (physiological response) and interpretation which leads to the emotion. Compound emotions are similar to the wheel of emotions by Plutchik with more specific emotions in the middle of the core emotions. The managing strategies for mixed emotions are,{{gr}} suppression, reappraisal and situation modification. == What are mixed emotions? == [[File:Bipolar disorder moods 2683232.svg|thumb|''Fig. 1'' Mixed Emotion Picture |150x150px]] '''Definition of what mixed emotions mean''' <blockquote>"Short-lived, feeling-purposive-expressive-bodily responses that help us adapt to the opportunities and challenges we face during important life events" (Reeve, 2018). </blockquote> Identifying the key mixed emotions and what they look like People experience emotions due to a response to a significant life event, that is specific and short-lived. Moods are different from emotions, they are long-lived, influence cognition and can be unclear. The brain region responsible for emotions is the amygdala, especially for fear, anxiety and anger. [[File:Body of Emotion.png|center|frameless|320x320px|(Reeve, 2018)]] This chapter focuses on the six basic core emotions by [[w:Paul Ekman|Paul Ekman]].;{{gr}} * Fear * Anger * Disgust * Sadness * Interest * Joy * Surprise * Contempt There are many emotions that individuals experience. The majority of emotions are sub-emotions from the basic core emotions. The best example of the sub-emotions is by Robert Plutchik. The self-conscious has five emotions: shame, guilt, embarrassment, pride and triumph (Tracy & Robins, 2004). The cognitively complex has eight emotions: envy, gratitude, disappointment, regret, hope, [[mwod:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]], empathy and compassion (Pekrun & Stephens, 2010). Emotion stems from arousal of feelings through facial movements, the facial temperature change and glandular activity in the facial skin (Haidt et al., 2012). Ekman analysed Darwin's theory of all humans display emotions through facial features in the same way throughout different cultures (Ekman, 2009). One of the ways to identify emotions is facial expressions, people have eighty facial muscles and thirty six facial expressions (Du et al., 2014). [[File:Plutchiks-emotional-wheel.png|center|thumb|''Fig. 2'' Wheel of emotions by Plutchik ]] === '''<u>Fear</u>''' === <blockquote>"A basic, intense emotion aroused by the detection of imminent threat, involving an immediate alarm reaction that mobilises the organism by triggering a set of psychological changes" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> [[File:Fear computer.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 3'' Core Emotion: Fear]] '''What does fear look like?''' Fear can also include the fear response; [https://dictionary.apa.org/fight-or-flight-response fight-or-flight response] which the [https://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/m/s4/chapter06.html amygdala] is responsible for. Feeling fear is when an individual experiences an event (car accident for example) that makes them feel scared from a threat or danger (Ohman & Mineka, 2003). Physical features include display high eyebrows, raised eyelids, lips slightly stretched and jaw drop. Fear involves the raising of their heart beat, sweating (head, armpits or palms), freezing, trembling and the abrupt drop of their skin temperature because the blood is flowing to the legs to get adrenaline ready for running, this is also known as the fight-flight response (cortisone) (Haidt et al., 2012). Having fear for long periods of time can cause anxiety, phobias (specific situations or events from a particular object or place) and post-traumatic stress disorder (resulting from extreme danger) (Ohman, 2008). === '''<u>Anger</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotion characterised by tension and hostility arising from frustration, real or imagined injury by another, or perceived injustice" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does anger look like?''' The fear emotion is located in the brain region of the amygdala. The individual would display their eyebrows pulled down and together, eyes would be opened wide and staring and lips would be pressed together. The individual would experience an event that makes them feel upset (for example, road rage), the heart rate would increase and also the skin temperature (Haidt et al., 2012). The individual can also demonstrate yelling or screaming, anger can quickly turn into aggression for 10% of the time (Tafrate Kassinove & Dundin, 2002).The function of anger is to help overcome obstacles by asserting and maintaining control (Maan Diong et al., 2005). The anger emotion displays the most energy compared to the other basic emotions and it is also healthy to experience (Levenson, 2011). === '''<u>Disgust</u>''' === [[File:MOREmoji eww.svg|thumb|''Fig. 4'' Core Emotion: Disgust]] <blockquote>"A strong aversion, for example, to the taste, smell, or touch of something deemed revolting, or toward a person or behaviour deemed morally repugnant" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does disgust look like?''' Disgust is a primitive function to protect the human body from harmful substances (Rozin & Fallon, 1987). The disgust emotion is located in the brain region of the left amygdala, the [[wikipedia:Inferior_frontal_gyrus|left inferior frontal cortex]], and the [https://n.neurology.org/content/93/21/932 insular cortex]. The individual would experience an event (unpleasant smell or irritating noise) the heart rate and skin temperature would decrease (Haidt et al., 2012). The individual would display lowered eyebrows, big wrinkle on the side of the nose and the bridge of the nose, the lip would be raised which forms an arch and the lower lip would be raised and protruding (Ekman, 1988). The function for disgust is to ensure the individual removes or gets away from any contaminated or spoiled objects (Tybur et al., 2004). Conditions that are related to disgust is obsessive- compulsive disorder, phobias and eating disorders (Olatungi & Sawchuk, 2005). The emotion of disgust has several domains by (Haidt et al., 1994) * Food * Bodily waste (for example, blood or faeces, animals, sexual behaviours, poor hygiene, contact with death or corpses, violations of the exterior body like or deformities), * Contact with distasteful people * Moral offences (for example, child abuse, incest, infidelity and more) === '''<u>Sadness</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotional state of unhappiness, ranging in intensity from mild to extreme and usually aroused by the loss of something that is highly valued (e.g by the rupture of a relationship)" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> [[File:Girl with sad face.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 5'' Core Emotion: Sadness]] '''What does sadness look like?''' The sadness emotion is located in several brain regions in right [https://www.neuroskills.com/brain-injury/occipital-lobes/ occipital lobe], left insular, left [[wikipedia:Thalamus|thalamus]], amygdala and the [https://www.news-medical.net/health/Hippocampus-Functions.aspx hippocampus]. The individual would experience an emotional event (breakup, someone dying) that makes them feel sad and upset. The heart rate would increase, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2695635/#:~:text=The%20skin%20conductance%20response%20(SCR)%20is%20an%20indirect%20measure%20of,emotional%20valence%20(Bradley%20et%20al. skin conductance] would be decreased, constricts breathing and the [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK532914/#:~:text=The%20lacrimal%20gland%20is%20a,fossa%20of%20the%20frontal%20bone. lacrimal glads] would active for crying (Reeve, 2018). The individual would display the inner corners of their eyebrows pulled up and together, the upper eyelids would be drooped down and the eye would be looking down and the corner of the lips would also be lowered (Ekman, 2019). The function of the emotion of sadness is too alleviate and to prevent distressful circumstances. Sadness is important when a person is grieving, however long periods of sadness can produce depression (Bonanno et al., 2008). [[File:Interest (emotion).jpg|thumb|153x153px|''Fig. 6'' Core Emotion: Interest ]] === '''<u>Interest</u>''' === <blockquote> "An attitude characterised by a need or desire to give selective attention to something that is significant to the individual, such as an activity, goal, or research area" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does interest look like?''' The emotion of interest is present everyday, individual would experience an interest for a certain time then find a new interest to focus on (Izard, 1991). The function for interest is for skill development and engagement (Thoman, Smith, & Silvia, 2011). The interest emotion is located in the brain region of the limbic system, anterior insula and right inferior frontal gyrus. The individual would display the eyebrows would be pulled up, eyes would be opened wide, the corner of the lips would lower and the top of the lip would be raised (SlideToDoc, n.d). === '''<u>Joy</u>''' === [[File:Happy-Smiley.png|thumb|''Fig. 7'' Core Emotion: Joy|190x190px]] <blockquote> "A feeling of extreme gladness, delight, or exultation of the spirit arising from a sense of well-being or satisfaction" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does joy look like?''' The emotion of joy, is when an individual experiences success on a task, personal achievement, gaining respect or love or affection (Ekman & Friesen, 1975; Izard, 1991; Shaver Schwartz, Kirson, & O’Connor, 1987).The emotion of joy, is located in several brain regions in the right frontal cortex, the [[wikipedia:Precuneus|precuneus]], left amygdala, and the left insula. Individuals would experience an event (wedding or birth) that would produce the emotion of joy, the heart rate, skin temperature and skin conductance were low and stable (Reeve, 2018). The individual would display their eyes would be narrowed and a wrinkle would start to show on the side of the eyes, the cheeks would be raised, the lips would be pulled back and the teeth would be showing indicating a smile (Ekman, 1988). The function of joy is to assist relationships and strengthen them, engage in social activities and maintain social interaction (Langsdorff, Izard, Rayias, & Hembree, 1983). Another function of joy is to preserve psychological wellbeing, especially when something bad happens (Joiner Pettit, Perez, & Burns, 2001). [[File:SURPRISE.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 8'' Core Emotion: Surprise]] === '''<u>Surprise</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotion typically resulting from the violation of an expectation or the detection of novelty in the environment" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote>'''What does surprise look like?''' The surprise emotion is located in the brain regions of inferior frontal gyrus and hippocampus. The individual would display similar facial features, for example when they show interest with only few differences. The eyebrows would be raised, but not drawn together, the upper eyelids would be raised but the lower eyelids would remain neutral and the jaw would drop down (Ekman,1988). An individual would experience the emotion of surprised for presents or surprise birthday party for example.   === '''<u>Contempt</u>''' === [[File:Contempt facial expression.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 9'' Core Emotion: Contempt|200x200px]]<blockquote> "An emotion characterised by negative regard for anything or anybody considered to be inferior, vile, or worthless" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does contempt look like?''' The emotion of contempt means being morally superior towards another person. Contempt is similar to disgust, although the facial expressions are different (Ekman & Friesen, 1986; Ekman & Heider, 1988; Matsumoto, 1992; Matsumoto & Ekman, 2004).The contempt emotion is located in the brain region of the [https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain/brain-anatomy/limbic-system limbic system]. The individual would display the tightened and raised lip corner and the eyes would remain neutral (Ekman, 1988). The function of contempt is to sustain social hierarchy and some events include a toxic marriage, where one individual enforces rules to maintain dominance (Gottman & Silver, 1999). An individual would feel superior compared to the other person, they would disrespect others, mock them and sarcastic. Knowledge Check: <quiz display="simple"> {Lacrimal glads are responsible for crying: |type="()"} +True -False {The wheel of emotions is by Paul Ekman} -True + False {The facial expressions for anger is, eyes staring, eyebrows pulled down and together and skin temperature increases} +True -False </quiz> == What causes mixed emotions? == {{expand}} === '''What causes each emotion?''' === [[File:Emotions Image.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 10'' Mixed Emotions]] Emotions start when a significant life event occurs and then distinct patterns of neural activity start to form. There is {{gr}} a few theories when it comes to emotion biological perspective; {{gr}} the cognitive perspective and neurological perspective. The cognitive perspective involves appraisal, emotion knowledge and attribution (Gross, 2002). Appraisal means how significant the event is and emotion knowledge means the ability to differentiate between various basic emotions (Gross, 2002). Attribution explains why the event outcome occurred (Reeve, 2018). The biological perspective refers to the body response when an event occurs causing the emotion, it emphasises main emotions like anger or fear (Gurney, 1884). The neurological perspective involves the neural activity in the brain, in response to emotion (Gurney, 1884). The biological perspective involves the automatic nervous system, subcortical brain circuits and facial feedback (Sato et al., 2004). One study used a fMRI ("measures the small changes in blood flow that occur with the brain activity" (Radiology (ACR), 2018) and analysed the facial expressions to emotions (Sato et al., 2004). The study used two types of controlled stimuli (1) static facial expressions which means certain specific facial structures associated to that emotion (2) dynamic facial images and the results found the left amygdala was activated in response to fearful stimuli (Sato et al., 2004). === '''What is the purpose of emotions?''' === The main purpose of emotions is the coping functions which means individuals can adapt better to life event (Reeve, 2018). Another reason is the social functions involved, making social interactions better and communication (Ekman & Friesen, 1969). There are multiple benefits for experiencing emotions like sadness to cause reparative behaviour and make the individual more caring towards others. === '''What happens when an individual experiences multiple emotions at once?''' === Complex emotions occur when an individual feels happy (positive) and sad (negative) at the same time, caused by an event (for example starting a new job, the individual may experience feeling excited but also nervous at the same time). It happens when an individual experiences different emotions and physiological reactions for the same event (Gurny, 1884). Complex emotions are harder to identify and recognise than basic emotions (Ekman et al., 1999). Emotion differentiation happens when someone appraises the same event at two different times (Gurney, 1884). The amygdala is responsible for the appraisals and appraisals occur after the stimulus exposure happens around (1 1/2 seconds){{fact}}. Another theory is there are four core emotions for example: happiness, sadness, fear and anger overlap causing a Venn diagram and it would create a compound emotion (Du et al., 2012). A compound emotion can occur when two or more core emotions happen simultaneously (Duet al., 2012). The theory provides more specific definition of emotions in result of an event, rather having a timeline of emotions before and after the event occurred, assuming each emotions would have a physiological response.{{expand}} == How are mixed emotions managed? == There are a few managing strategies for mixed emotions, {{gr}} reappraisal, suppression and situation modification will be discussed. Reappraisal was researched by James Gross and it means modifying the emotion or maintain emotion regulation (Gross, 2002). Another managing strategy is suppression which was also researched by Gross and it means decreasing unwanted behaviour, physiological responses includes rise in blood pressure, [[wikipedia:Electrodermal_activity|electrodermal response]] and heart rate (Gross, 2002). Situation modification is another managing tool which involves problem-focused approach from a significant life event, for example someone apologising for their actions (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). '''Is it healthy having mixed emotions? If so for how long?''' Mixed emotions are normal to have and people that recognise between positive or negative emotion are more resilient especially when people experience more positive emotion (Pitzer & Bergeman, 2013). Individuals will also recover faster when experiencing a loss (Pitzer & Bergeman, 2013). As people age, the individual would understand the positive and negative aspects of an event more maturely (Labouvie-Vief, 2015). Individuals would also tolerate complex and conflicting emotions, try to problem-solve (Labouvi-Vief, 2015). Complex emotions are healthy to have and strengthen interpersonal relationships (Ekman, 2010). When individuals age to midlife the ability of tolerating conflicting emotions changes (Charles et al., 2017). Long term effects of negative emotions like fear, anger or sadness for example can cause mental illness (depression or anxiety) and physical problems{{fact}}. Long term positive effects{{gr}} to an individual leads to better wellbeing, overall health and living a longer life{{gr}}. == Conclusion == This chapter discussed each core emotion: fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy, surprised and contempt. Each section of emotions analysed what the emotion look {{gr}} like (facial features and non verbal cues) and what happens when an individual experiences that emotion in the brain. Managing strategies for mixed {{missing}} were also discussed, reappraisal, situation modification and suppression for emotion regulation{{gr}}. Mixed emotions are normal to have, particularly positive emotions make people more resilient compared to negative emotions. During a human lifespan, adults understand emotions and problem-solve more efficiently. It is possible to experience more than one emotion which multiple theorists tried to explain. For an {{gr}} particular event like starting school, happy (positive) or fear (negative) and experience physiological reaction which is known as the James- Lange theory of emotion. Another theory is compound emotion which is extracted from the core emotions and provides specific emotions, imagine a Venn diagram with the core emotions or the wheel of emotions. '''Summarising what has been found and further research opportunities''' There is not a clear answer how mixed emotions do occur. It is possible to experience mixed emotions towards an event, like going to school for the first time, does each emotion switch simultaneously or does{{gr}}. Perhaps, each person experience emotions differently and cannot be defined{{gr}}. For future research, psychologists should analyse each core emotion and see how each emotion interacts with one another. After analysing the core emotions, psychologist should also examine sub-emotions{{gr}}. Furthermore, researchers should analyse if core emotions and sub emotions could produce mixed emotions{{explain}}. == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Mixed emotions|Mixed emotions]] (Book chapter, 2022) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= American Psychological Association. (n.d.). APA Dictionary of Psychology. Dictionary.apa.org. Retrieved September 16, 2021, from https://dictionary.apa.org/fear Charles, S. T., Piazza, J. R., & Urban, E. J. (2017). Mixed emotions across adulthood: when, where, and why? Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 15, 58–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.05.007 Dalgleish, T., Power, M. J., & Ekman, P. (1999). Handbook of cognition and emotion. Wiley. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=vsLvrhohXhAC&oi=fnd&pg=PA45&dq=basic+emotions+ekman&ots=uUxJamT7Lg&sig=XU0-_ToIhTcXYJySe_ggij-rY3M#v=onepage&q=basic%20emotions%20ekman&f=false Du, S., Tao, Y., & Martinez, A. M. (2014). Compound facial expressions of emotion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(15), E1454–E1462. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1322355111 Ekman, P. (2009). Darwin’s contributions to our understanding of emotional expressions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1535), 3449–3451. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0189 Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1969). The Repertoire of Nonverbal Behavior: Categories, Origins, Usage, and Coding. Semiotica, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.1515/semi.1969.1.1.49 Gross, J. J. (2002). Emotion regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences. Psychophysiology, 39(3), 281–291. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0048577201393198 Gurney, E. (1884). What is an Emotion? Mind, 9(35). JSTOR. Hahn, A. C., Whitehead, R. D., Albrecht, M., Lefevre, C. E., & Perrett, D. I. (2012). Hot or not? Thermal reactions to social contact. Biology Letters, 8(5), 864–867. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2012.0338 Haidt, J., McCauley, C., & Rozin, P. (1994). Individual differences in sensitivity to disgust: A scale sampling seven domains of disgust elicitors. Personality and Individual Differences, 16(5), 701–713. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(94)90212-7 How the Brain Processes Emotions. (n.d.). Neurology Live. Retrieved September 24, 2021, from https://www.neurologylive.com/view/how-brain-processes-emotions Izard, C. E. (2004). The Psychology Of Emotions. Kluwer Academic Pub. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=RPv-shA_sxMC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Izard,+1991+interest&ots=cUA88oX7T9&sig=4Y3drrASb_x8GIXp4MrTlwSU_4A&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Izard%2C%201991%20interest&f=false Izard, C. E., Hembree, E. A., Dougherty, L. M., & Spizzirri, C. C. (1983). Changes in facial expressions of 2- to 19-month-old infants following acute pain. Developmental Psychology, 19(3), 418–426. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.19.3.418 John Mordechai Gottman, & Silver, N. (2018). The seven principles for making marriage work. Seven Dials An Imprint Of Orion Publishing Group Ltd. Joiner, T. E., Pettit, J. W., Perez, M., Burns, A. B., Gencoz, T., Gencoz, F., & Rudd, M. D. (2001). Can positive emotion influence problem-solving attitudes among suicidal adults? Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 32(5), 507–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.32.5.507 Labouvie-Vief, G. (2015). Integrating emotions and cognition throughout the lifespan. Springer. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-319-09822-7 Larsen, J. T., & McGraw, A. P. (2011). Further evidence for mixed emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(6), 1095–1110. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021846 Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=i-ySQQuUpr8C&oi=fnd&pg=PR5&dq=lazarus+and+Folkman+1984&ots=DgFRirgiNi&sig=p3B0ABh0uvLb0MdCjEQIhEiK1-Y&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=lazarus%20and%20Folkman%201984&f=false Levenson, R. W. (2011). Basic Emotion Questions. Emotion Review, 3(4), 379–386. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073911410743 Maan Diong, S., Bishop, G. D., Enkelmann, H. C., Tong, E. M. W., Why, Y. P., Ang, J. C. H., & Khader, M. (2005). Anger, stress, coping, social support and health: Modelling the relationships. Psychology & Health, 20(4), 467–495. https://doi.org/10.1080/0887044040512331333960 Ohman, A. (2008). APA PsycNet. Psycnet.apa.org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2008-07784-044 Öhman, A., & Mineka, S. (2003). The Malicious Serpent. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(1), 5–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.01211 Olatunji, B. O., & Sawchuk, C. N. (2005). Disgust: Characteristic Features, Social Manifestations, and Clinical Implications. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 24(7), 932–962. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2005.24.7.932 Pekrun, R., & Stephens, E. J. (2010). Achievement Emotions: A Control-Value Approach. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4(4), 238–255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00259.x Pitzer, L. M., & Bergeman, C. S. (2013). Synchrony in Affect Among Stressed Adults: The Notre Dame Widowhood Study. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 69B(1), 29–39. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbt026 Radiology (ACR), R. S. of N. A. (RSNA) and A. C. of. (2018, February 25). Magnetic Resonance, Functional (fMRI) - Brain. Radiologyinfo.org. https://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info/fmribrain#:~:text=Functional%20magnetic%20resonance%20imaging%20(fMRI Rozin, P., & Fallon, A. E. (1987). A perspective on disgust. Psychological Review, 94(1), 23–41. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.94.1.23 Sato, W., Kochiyama, T., Yoshikawa, S., Naito, E., & Matsumura, M. (2004). Enhanced neural activity in response to dynamic facial expressions of emotion: an fMRI study. Cognitive Brain Research, 20(1), 81–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2004.01.008 Shaver, P., Schwartz, J., Kirson, D., & O’Connor, C. (1987). Emotion knowledge: Further exploration of a prototype approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(6), 1061–1086. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1061 SlideToDoc. (n.d.). The Expression of Emotion Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal Communication. Slidetodoc.com. Retrieved September 26, 2021, from https://slidetodoc.com/the-expression-of-emotion-nonverbal-communication-nonverbal-communication/ Tafrate, R. C., Kassinove, H., & Dundin, L. (2002). Anger episodes in high- and low-trait-anger community adults. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(12), 1573–1590. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10076 Thoman, D. B., Smith, J. L., & Silvia, P. J. (2011). The Resource Replenishment Function of Interest. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(6), 592–599. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550611402521 Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2004). TARGET ARTICLE: “Putting the Self Into Self-Conscious Emotions: A Theoretical Model.” Psychological Inquiry, 15(2), 103–125. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli1502_01 Tybur, J. M., Lieberman, D., Kurzban, R., & DeScioli, P. (2013). Disgust: Evolved function and structure. Psychological Review, 120(1), 65–84. https://doi.org/10.1037/a003077 }} == External links == https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAMbkJk6gnE&t=52s (YouTube - All about the feels: CrashCourse Psychology) https://www.paulekman.com/resources/universal-facial-expressions/ (Paul Ekman Group: Universal Facial Expressions) http://atlasofemotions.org/ (Interactive Tool for Understanding Emotions) https://psychology.wikia.org/wiki/Emotions (Wikia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] 03qtmy6dkuiwe5zvjtgvk46fqhqtdsy 2415809 2415801 2022-08-17T10:53:37Z Earthxangel 2947535 /* Overview */ grammar change wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Mixed emotions:<br>What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed?}} {{MECR3|https://youtu.be/_Iqfq3lTNY8}} __TOC__ == Overview == Emotions give people the ability to communicate with each other through nonverbal and verbal gestures. Charles Darwin noted that people worldwide are able to recognise emotions, regardless of their cultural background. Some cultural backgrounds have cultural-specific signals and greetings, however language does not play much of an impact of understanding emotions. This chapter discusses the definition of a mixed emotion, {{gr}} broad overview of what a mixed emotion is and identifying each core emotion from Paul Ekman's facial expressions model. The core emotions outlined are: fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy, surprise and contempt with a brief summary and what each emotions look like. The mixed emotions discussions mention The James Lange theory of emotions and compound emotions by Du, Tau and Martinez from Ohio State University. The James Lange theory involves the event (stimulus), arousal (physiological response) and interpretation which leads to the emotion. Compound emotions are similar to the wheel of emotions by Plutchik with more specific emotions in the middle of the core emotions. The managing strategies for mixed emotions are,{{gr}} suppression, reappraisal and situation modification. == What are mixed emotions? == [[File:Bipolar disorder moods 2683232.svg|thumb|''Fig. 1'' Mixed Emotion Picture |150x150px]] '''Definition of what mixed emotions mean''' <blockquote>"Short-lived, feeling-purposive-expressive-bodily responses that help us adapt to the opportunities and challenges we face during important life events" (Reeve, 2018). </blockquote> Identifying the key mixed emotions and what they look like People experience emotions due to a response to a significant life event, that is specific and short-lived. Moods are different from emotions, they are long-lived, influence cognition and can be unclear. The brain region responsible for emotions is the amygdala, especially for fear, anxiety and anger. [[File:Body of Emotion.png|center|frameless|320x320px|(Reeve, 2018)]] This chapter focuses on the six basic core emotions by [[w:Paul Ekman|Paul Ekman]].;{{gr}} * Fear * Anger * Disgust * Sadness * Interest * Joy * Surprise * Contempt There are many emotions that individuals experience. The majority of emotions are sub-emotions from the basic core emotions. The best example of the sub-emotions is by Robert Plutchik. The self-conscious has five emotions: shame, guilt, embarrassment, pride and triumph (Tracy & Robins, 2004). The cognitively complex has eight emotions: envy, gratitude, disappointment, regret, hope, [[mwod:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]], empathy and compassion (Pekrun & Stephens, 2010). Emotion stems from arousal of feelings through facial movements, the facial temperature change and glandular activity in the facial skin (Haidt et al., 2012). Ekman analysed Darwin's theory of all humans display emotions through facial features in the same way throughout different cultures (Ekman, 2009). One of the ways to identify emotions is facial expressions, people have eighty facial muscles and thirty six facial expressions (Du et al., 2014). [[File:Plutchiks-emotional-wheel.png|center|thumb|''Fig. 2'' Wheel of emotions by Plutchik ]] === '''<u>Fear</u>''' === <blockquote>"A basic, intense emotion aroused by the detection of imminent threat, involving an immediate alarm reaction that mobilises the organism by triggering a set of psychological changes" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> [[File:Fear computer.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 3'' Core Emotion: Fear]] '''What does fear look like?''' Fear can also include the fear response; [https://dictionary.apa.org/fight-or-flight-response fight-or-flight response] which the [https://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/m/s4/chapter06.html amygdala] is responsible for. Feeling fear is when an individual experiences an event (car accident for example) that makes them feel scared from a threat or danger (Ohman & Mineka, 2003). Physical features include display high eyebrows, raised eyelids, lips slightly stretched and jaw drop. Fear involves the raising of their heart beat, sweating (head, armpits or palms), freezing, trembling and the abrupt drop of their skin temperature because the blood is flowing to the legs to get adrenaline ready for running, this is also known as the fight-flight response (cortisone) (Haidt et al., 2012). Having fear for long periods of time can cause anxiety, phobias (specific situations or events from a particular object or place) and post-traumatic stress disorder (resulting from extreme danger) (Ohman, 2008). === '''<u>Anger</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotion characterised by tension and hostility arising from frustration, real or imagined injury by another, or perceived injustice" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does anger look like?''' The fear emotion is located in the brain region of the amygdala. The individual would display their eyebrows pulled down and together, eyes would be opened wide and staring and lips would be pressed together. The individual would experience an event that makes them feel upset (for example, road rage), the heart rate would increase and also the skin temperature (Haidt et al., 2012). The individual can also demonstrate yelling or screaming, anger can quickly turn into aggression for 10% of the time (Tafrate Kassinove & Dundin, 2002).The function of anger is to help overcome obstacles by asserting and maintaining control (Maan Diong et al., 2005). The anger emotion displays the most energy compared to the other basic emotions and it is also healthy to experience (Levenson, 2011). === '''<u>Disgust</u>''' === [[File:MOREmoji eww.svg|thumb|''Fig. 4'' Core Emotion: Disgust]] <blockquote>"A strong aversion, for example, to the taste, smell, or touch of something deemed revolting, or toward a person or behaviour deemed morally repugnant" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does disgust look like?''' Disgust is a primitive function to protect the human body from harmful substances (Rozin & Fallon, 1987). The disgust emotion is located in the brain region of the left amygdala, the [[wikipedia:Inferior_frontal_gyrus|left inferior frontal cortex]], and the [https://n.neurology.org/content/93/21/932 insular cortex]. The individual would experience an event (unpleasant smell or irritating noise) the heart rate and skin temperature would decrease (Haidt et al., 2012). The individual would display lowered eyebrows, big wrinkle on the side of the nose and the bridge of the nose, the lip would be raised which forms an arch and the lower lip would be raised and protruding (Ekman, 1988). The function for disgust is to ensure the individual removes or gets away from any contaminated or spoiled objects (Tybur et al., 2004). Conditions that are related to disgust is obsessive- compulsive disorder, phobias and eating disorders (Olatungi & Sawchuk, 2005). The emotion of disgust has several domains by (Haidt et al., 1994) * Food * Bodily waste (for example, blood or faeces, animals, sexual behaviours, poor hygiene, contact with death or corpses, violations of the exterior body like or deformities), * Contact with distasteful people * Moral offences (for example, child abuse, incest, infidelity and more) === '''<u>Sadness</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotional state of unhappiness, ranging in intensity from mild to extreme and usually aroused by the loss of something that is highly valued (e.g by the rupture of a relationship)" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> [[File:Girl with sad face.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 5'' Core Emotion: Sadness]] '''What does sadness look like?''' The sadness emotion is located in several brain regions in right [https://www.neuroskills.com/brain-injury/occipital-lobes/ occipital lobe], left insular, left [[wikipedia:Thalamus|thalamus]], amygdala and the [https://www.news-medical.net/health/Hippocampus-Functions.aspx hippocampus]. The individual would experience an emotional event (breakup, someone dying) that makes them feel sad and upset. The heart rate would increase, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2695635/#:~:text=The%20skin%20conductance%20response%20(SCR)%20is%20an%20indirect%20measure%20of,emotional%20valence%20(Bradley%20et%20al. skin conductance] would be decreased, constricts breathing and the [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK532914/#:~:text=The%20lacrimal%20gland%20is%20a,fossa%20of%20the%20frontal%20bone. lacrimal glads] would active for crying (Reeve, 2018). The individual would display the inner corners of their eyebrows pulled up and together, the upper eyelids would be drooped down and the eye would be looking down and the corner of the lips would also be lowered (Ekman, 2019). The function of the emotion of sadness is too alleviate and to prevent distressful circumstances. Sadness is important when a person is grieving, however long periods of sadness can produce depression (Bonanno et al., 2008). [[File:Interest (emotion).jpg|thumb|153x153px|''Fig. 6'' Core Emotion: Interest ]] === '''<u>Interest</u>''' === <blockquote> "An attitude characterised by a need or desire to give selective attention to something that is significant to the individual, such as an activity, goal, or research area" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does interest look like?''' The emotion of interest is present everyday, individual would experience an interest for a certain time then find a new interest to focus on (Izard, 1991). The function for interest is for skill development and engagement (Thoman, Smith, & Silvia, 2011). The interest emotion is located in the brain region of the limbic system, anterior insula and right inferior frontal gyrus. The individual would display the eyebrows would be pulled up, eyes would be opened wide, the corner of the lips would lower and the top of the lip would be raised (SlideToDoc, n.d). === '''<u>Joy</u>''' === [[File:Happy-Smiley.png|thumb|''Fig. 7'' Core Emotion: Joy|190x190px]] <blockquote> "A feeling of extreme gladness, delight, or exultation of the spirit arising from a sense of well-being or satisfaction" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does joy look like?''' The emotion of joy, is when an individual experiences success on a task, personal achievement, gaining respect or love or affection (Ekman & Friesen, 1975; Izard, 1991; Shaver Schwartz, Kirson, & O’Connor, 1987).The emotion of joy, is located in several brain regions in the right frontal cortex, the [[wikipedia:Precuneus|precuneus]], left amygdala, and the left insula. Individuals would experience an event (wedding or birth) that would produce the emotion of joy, the heart rate, skin temperature and skin conductance were low and stable (Reeve, 2018). The individual would display their eyes would be narrowed and a wrinkle would start to show on the side of the eyes, the cheeks would be raised, the lips would be pulled back and the teeth would be showing indicating a smile (Ekman, 1988). The function of joy is to assist relationships and strengthen them, engage in social activities and maintain social interaction (Langsdorff, Izard, Rayias, & Hembree, 1983). Another function of joy is to preserve psychological wellbeing, especially when something bad happens (Joiner Pettit, Perez, & Burns, 2001). [[File:SURPRISE.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 8'' Core Emotion: Surprise]] === '''<u>Surprise</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotion typically resulting from the violation of an expectation or the detection of novelty in the environment" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote>'''What does surprise look like?''' The surprise emotion is located in the brain regions of inferior frontal gyrus and hippocampus. The individual would display similar facial features, for example when they show interest with only few differences. The eyebrows would be raised, but not drawn together, the upper eyelids would be raised but the lower eyelids would remain neutral and the jaw would drop down (Ekman,1988). An individual would experience the emotion of surprised for presents or surprise birthday party for example.   === '''<u>Contempt</u>''' === [[File:Contempt facial expression.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 9'' Core Emotion: Contempt|200x200px]]<blockquote> "An emotion characterised by negative regard for anything or anybody considered to be inferior, vile, or worthless" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does contempt look like?''' The emotion of contempt means being morally superior towards another person. Contempt is similar to disgust, although the facial expressions are different (Ekman & Friesen, 1986; Ekman & Heider, 1988; Matsumoto, 1992; Matsumoto & Ekman, 2004).The contempt emotion is located in the brain region of the [https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain/brain-anatomy/limbic-system limbic system]. The individual would display the tightened and raised lip corner and the eyes would remain neutral (Ekman, 1988). The function of contempt is to sustain social hierarchy and some events include a toxic marriage, where one individual enforces rules to maintain dominance (Gottman & Silver, 1999). An individual would feel superior compared to the other person, they would disrespect others, mock them and sarcastic. Knowledge Check: <quiz display="simple"> {Lacrimal glads are responsible for crying: |type="()"} +True -False {The wheel of emotions is by Paul Ekman} -True + False {The facial expressions for anger is, eyes staring, eyebrows pulled down and together and skin temperature increases} +True -False </quiz> == What causes mixed emotions? == {{expand}} === '''What causes each emotion?''' === [[File:Emotions Image.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 10'' Mixed Emotions]] Emotions start when a significant life event occurs and then distinct patterns of neural activity start to form. There is {{gr}} a few theories when it comes to emotion biological perspective; {{gr}} the cognitive perspective and neurological perspective. The cognitive perspective involves appraisal, emotion knowledge and attribution (Gross, 2002). Appraisal means how significant the event is and emotion knowledge means the ability to differentiate between various basic emotions (Gross, 2002). Attribution explains why the event outcome occurred (Reeve, 2018). The biological perspective refers to the body response when an event occurs causing the emotion, it emphasises main emotions like anger or fear (Gurney, 1884). The neurological perspective involves the neural activity in the brain, in response to emotion (Gurney, 1884). The biological perspective involves the automatic nervous system, subcortical brain circuits and facial feedback (Sato et al., 2004). One study used a fMRI ("measures the small changes in blood flow that occur with the brain activity" (Radiology (ACR), 2018) and analysed the facial expressions to emotions (Sato et al., 2004). The study used two types of controlled stimuli (1) static facial expressions which means certain specific facial structures associated to that emotion (2) dynamic facial images and the results found the left amygdala was activated in response to fearful stimuli (Sato et al., 2004). === '''What is the purpose of emotions?''' === The main purpose of emotions is the coping functions which means individuals can adapt better to life event (Reeve, 2018). Another reason is the social functions involved, making social interactions better and communication (Ekman & Friesen, 1969). There are multiple benefits for experiencing emotions like sadness to cause reparative behaviour and make the individual more caring towards others. === '''What happens when an individual experiences multiple emotions at once?''' === Complex emotions occur when an individual feels happy (positive) and sad (negative) at the same time, caused by an event (for example starting a new job, the individual may experience feeling excited but also nervous at the same time). It happens when an individual experiences different emotions and physiological reactions for the same event (Gurny, 1884). Complex emotions are harder to identify and recognise than basic emotions (Ekman et al., 1999). Emotion differentiation happens when someone appraises the same event at two different times (Gurney, 1884). The amygdala is responsible for the appraisals and appraisals occur after the stimulus exposure happens around (1 1/2 seconds){{fact}}. Another theory is there are four core emotions for example: happiness, sadness, fear and anger overlap causing a Venn diagram and it would create a compound emotion (Du et al., 2012). A compound emotion can occur when two or more core emotions happen simultaneously (Duet al., 2012). The theory provides more specific definition of emotions in result of an event, rather having a timeline of emotions before and after the event occurred, assuming each emotions would have a physiological response.{{expand}} == How are mixed emotions managed? == There are a few managing strategies for mixed emotions, {{gr}} reappraisal, suppression and situation modification will be discussed. Reappraisal was researched by James Gross and it means modifying the emotion or maintain emotion regulation (Gross, 2002). Another managing strategy is suppression which was also researched by Gross and it means decreasing unwanted behaviour, physiological responses includes rise in blood pressure, [[wikipedia:Electrodermal_activity|electrodermal response]] and heart rate (Gross, 2002). Situation modification is another managing tool which involves problem-focused approach from a significant life event, for example someone apologising for their actions (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). '''Is it healthy having mixed emotions? If so for how long?''' Mixed emotions are normal to have and people that recognise between positive or negative emotion are more resilient especially when people experience more positive emotion (Pitzer & Bergeman, 2013). Individuals will also recover faster when experiencing a loss (Pitzer & Bergeman, 2013). As people age, the individual would understand the positive and negative aspects of an event more maturely (Labouvie-Vief, 2015). Individuals would also tolerate complex and conflicting emotions, try to problem-solve (Labouvi-Vief, 2015). Complex emotions are healthy to have and strengthen interpersonal relationships (Ekman, 2010). When individuals age to midlife the ability of tolerating conflicting emotions changes (Charles et al., 2017). Long term effects of negative emotions like fear, anger or sadness for example can cause mental illness (depression or anxiety) and physical problems{{fact}}. Long term positive effects{{gr}} to an individual leads to better wellbeing, overall health and living a longer life{{gr}}. == Conclusion == This chapter discussed each core emotion: fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy, surprised and contempt. Each section of emotions analysed what the emotion look {{gr}} like (facial features and non verbal cues) and what happens when an individual experiences that emotion in the brain. Managing strategies for mixed {{missing}} were also discussed, reappraisal, situation modification and suppression for emotion regulation{{gr}}. Mixed emotions are normal to have, particularly positive emotions make people more resilient compared to negative emotions. During a human lifespan, adults understand emotions and problem-solve more efficiently. It is possible to experience more than one emotion which multiple theorists tried to explain. For an {{gr}} particular event like starting school, happy (positive) or fear (negative) and experience physiological reaction which is known as the James- Lange theory of emotion. Another theory is compound emotion which is extracted from the core emotions and provides specific emotions, imagine a Venn diagram with the core emotions or the wheel of emotions. '''Summarising what has been found and further research opportunities''' There is not a clear answer how mixed emotions do occur. It is possible to experience mixed emotions towards an event, like going to school for the first time, does each emotion switch simultaneously or does{{gr}}. Perhaps, each person experience emotions differently and cannot be defined{{gr}}. For future research, psychologists should analyse each core emotion and see how each emotion interacts with one another. After analysing the core emotions, psychologist should also examine sub-emotions{{gr}}. Furthermore, researchers should analyse if core emotions and sub emotions could produce mixed emotions{{explain}}. == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Mixed emotions|Mixed emotions]] (Book chapter, 2022) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= American Psychological Association. (n.d.). APA Dictionary of Psychology. Dictionary.apa.org. Retrieved September 16, 2021, from https://dictionary.apa.org/fear Charles, S. T., Piazza, J. R., & Urban, E. J. (2017). Mixed emotions across adulthood: when, where, and why? Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 15, 58–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.05.007 Dalgleish, T., Power, M. J., & Ekman, P. (1999). Handbook of cognition and emotion. Wiley. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=vsLvrhohXhAC&oi=fnd&pg=PA45&dq=basic+emotions+ekman&ots=uUxJamT7Lg&sig=XU0-_ToIhTcXYJySe_ggij-rY3M#v=onepage&q=basic%20emotions%20ekman&f=false Du, S., Tao, Y., & Martinez, A. M. (2014). Compound facial expressions of emotion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(15), E1454–E1462. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1322355111 Ekman, P. (2009). Darwin’s contributions to our understanding of emotional expressions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1535), 3449–3451. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0189 Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1969). The Repertoire of Nonverbal Behavior: Categories, Origins, Usage, and Coding. Semiotica, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.1515/semi.1969.1.1.49 Gross, J. J. (2002). Emotion regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences. Psychophysiology, 39(3), 281–291. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0048577201393198 Gurney, E. (1884). What is an Emotion? Mind, 9(35). JSTOR. Hahn, A. C., Whitehead, R. D., Albrecht, M., Lefevre, C. E., & Perrett, D. I. (2012). Hot or not? Thermal reactions to social contact. Biology Letters, 8(5), 864–867. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2012.0338 Haidt, J., McCauley, C., & Rozin, P. (1994). Individual differences in sensitivity to disgust: A scale sampling seven domains of disgust elicitors. Personality and Individual Differences, 16(5), 701–713. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(94)90212-7 How the Brain Processes Emotions. (n.d.). Neurology Live. Retrieved September 24, 2021, from https://www.neurologylive.com/view/how-brain-processes-emotions Izard, C. E. (2004). The Psychology Of Emotions. Kluwer Academic Pub. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=RPv-shA_sxMC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Izard,+1991+interest&ots=cUA88oX7T9&sig=4Y3drrASb_x8GIXp4MrTlwSU_4A&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Izard%2C%201991%20interest&f=false Izard, C. E., Hembree, E. A., Dougherty, L. M., & Spizzirri, C. C. (1983). Changes in facial expressions of 2- to 19-month-old infants following acute pain. Developmental Psychology, 19(3), 418–426. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.19.3.418 John Mordechai Gottman, & Silver, N. (2018). The seven principles for making marriage work. Seven Dials An Imprint Of Orion Publishing Group Ltd. Joiner, T. E., Pettit, J. W., Perez, M., Burns, A. B., Gencoz, T., Gencoz, F., & Rudd, M. D. (2001). Can positive emotion influence problem-solving attitudes among suicidal adults? Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 32(5), 507–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.32.5.507 Labouvie-Vief, G. (2015). Integrating emotions and cognition throughout the lifespan. Springer. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-319-09822-7 Larsen, J. T., & McGraw, A. P. (2011). Further evidence for mixed emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(6), 1095–1110. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021846 Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=i-ySQQuUpr8C&oi=fnd&pg=PR5&dq=lazarus+and+Folkman+1984&ots=DgFRirgiNi&sig=p3B0ABh0uvLb0MdCjEQIhEiK1-Y&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=lazarus%20and%20Folkman%201984&f=false Levenson, R. W. (2011). Basic Emotion Questions. Emotion Review, 3(4), 379–386. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073911410743 Maan Diong, S., Bishop, G. D., Enkelmann, H. C., Tong, E. M. W., Why, Y. P., Ang, J. C. H., & Khader, M. (2005). Anger, stress, coping, social support and health: Modelling the relationships. Psychology & Health, 20(4), 467–495. https://doi.org/10.1080/0887044040512331333960 Ohman, A. (2008). APA PsycNet. Psycnet.apa.org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2008-07784-044 Öhman, A., & Mineka, S. (2003). The Malicious Serpent. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(1), 5–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.01211 Olatunji, B. O., & Sawchuk, C. N. (2005). Disgust: Characteristic Features, Social Manifestations, and Clinical Implications. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 24(7), 932–962. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2005.24.7.932 Pekrun, R., & Stephens, E. J. (2010). Achievement Emotions: A Control-Value Approach. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4(4), 238–255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00259.x Pitzer, L. M., & Bergeman, C. S. (2013). Synchrony in Affect Among Stressed Adults: The Notre Dame Widowhood Study. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 69B(1), 29–39. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbt026 Radiology (ACR), R. S. of N. A. (RSNA) and A. C. of. (2018, February 25). Magnetic Resonance, Functional (fMRI) - Brain. Radiologyinfo.org. https://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info/fmribrain#:~:text=Functional%20magnetic%20resonance%20imaging%20(fMRI Rozin, P., & Fallon, A. E. (1987). A perspective on disgust. Psychological Review, 94(1), 23–41. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.94.1.23 Sato, W., Kochiyama, T., Yoshikawa, S., Naito, E., & Matsumura, M. (2004). Enhanced neural activity in response to dynamic facial expressions of emotion: an fMRI study. Cognitive Brain Research, 20(1), 81–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2004.01.008 Shaver, P., Schwartz, J., Kirson, D., & O’Connor, C. (1987). Emotion knowledge: Further exploration of a prototype approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(6), 1061–1086. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1061 SlideToDoc. (n.d.). The Expression of Emotion Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal Communication. Slidetodoc.com. Retrieved September 26, 2021, from https://slidetodoc.com/the-expression-of-emotion-nonverbal-communication-nonverbal-communication/ Tafrate, R. C., Kassinove, H., & Dundin, L. (2002). Anger episodes in high- and low-trait-anger community adults. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(12), 1573–1590. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10076 Thoman, D. B., Smith, J. L., & Silvia, P. J. (2011). The Resource Replenishment Function of Interest. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(6), 592–599. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550611402521 Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2004). TARGET ARTICLE: “Putting the Self Into Self-Conscious Emotions: A Theoretical Model.” Psychological Inquiry, 15(2), 103–125. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli1502_01 Tybur, J. M., Lieberman, D., Kurzban, R., & DeScioli, P. (2013). Disgust: Evolved function and structure. Psychological Review, 120(1), 65–84. https://doi.org/10.1037/a003077 }} == External links == https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAMbkJk6gnE&t=52s (YouTube - All about the feels: CrashCourse Psychology) https://www.paulekman.com/resources/universal-facial-expressions/ (Paul Ekman Group: Universal Facial Expressions) http://atlasofemotions.org/ (Interactive Tool for Understanding Emotions) https://psychology.wikia.org/wiki/Emotions (Wikia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] e43l63tqk4u7h7t7bxhkphr4um30vic 2415812 2415809 2022-08-17T11:02:26Z Earthxangel 2947535 /* Overview */ sentence restructure and grammar change wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Mixed emotions:<br>What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed?}} {{MECR3|https://youtu.be/_Iqfq3lTNY8}} __TOC__ == Overview == Emotions give people the ability to communicate with each other through nonverbal and verbal gestures. Charles Darwin noted that people worldwide are able to recognise emotions, regardless of their cultural background. Some cultural backgrounds have cultural-specific signals and greetings, however language does not play much of an impact of understanding emotions. This book chapter provides a broad overview on what mixed emotions are and each of the core emotions from Paul Ekman's model on facial expressions. The core emotions outlined are: fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy, surprise and contempt with a brief summary and what each emotions look like. The mixed emotions discussions mention The James Lange theory of emotions and compound emotions by Du, Tau and Martinez from Ohio State University. The James Lange theory involves the event (stimulus), arousal (physiological response) and interpretation which leads to the emotion. Compound emotions are similar to the wheel of emotions by Plutchik with more specific emotions in the middle of the core emotions. The managing strategies for mixed emotions are,{{gr}} suppression, reappraisal and situation modification. == What are mixed emotions? == [[File:Bipolar disorder moods 2683232.svg|thumb|''Fig. 1'' Mixed Emotion Picture |150x150px]] '''Definition of what mixed emotions mean''' <blockquote>"Short-lived, feeling-purposive-expressive-bodily responses that help us adapt to the opportunities and challenges we face during important life events" (Reeve, 2018). </blockquote> Identifying the key mixed emotions and what they look like People experience emotions due to a response to a significant life event, that is specific and short-lived. Moods are different from emotions, they are long-lived, influence cognition and can be unclear. The brain region responsible for emotions is the amygdala, especially for fear, anxiety and anger. [[File:Body of Emotion.png|center|frameless|320x320px|(Reeve, 2018)]] This chapter focuses on the six basic core emotions by [[w:Paul Ekman|Paul Ekman]].;{{gr}} * Fear * Anger * Disgust * Sadness * Interest * Joy * Surprise * Contempt There are many emotions that individuals experience. The majority of emotions are sub-emotions from the basic core emotions. The best example of the sub-emotions is by Robert Plutchik. The self-conscious has five emotions: shame, guilt, embarrassment, pride and triumph (Tracy & Robins, 2004). The cognitively complex has eight emotions: envy, gratitude, disappointment, regret, hope, [[mwod:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]], empathy and compassion (Pekrun & Stephens, 2010). Emotion stems from arousal of feelings through facial movements, the facial temperature change and glandular activity in the facial skin (Haidt et al., 2012). Ekman analysed Darwin's theory of all humans display emotions through facial features in the same way throughout different cultures (Ekman, 2009). One of the ways to identify emotions is facial expressions, people have eighty facial muscles and thirty six facial expressions (Du et al., 2014). [[File:Plutchiks-emotional-wheel.png|center|thumb|''Fig. 2'' Wheel of emotions by Plutchik ]] === '''<u>Fear</u>''' === <blockquote>"A basic, intense emotion aroused by the detection of imminent threat, involving an immediate alarm reaction that mobilises the organism by triggering a set of psychological changes" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> [[File:Fear computer.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 3'' Core Emotion: Fear]] '''What does fear look like?''' Fear can also include the fear response; [https://dictionary.apa.org/fight-or-flight-response fight-or-flight response] which the [https://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/m/s4/chapter06.html amygdala] is responsible for. Feeling fear is when an individual experiences an event (car accident for example) that makes them feel scared from a threat or danger (Ohman & Mineka, 2003). Physical features include display high eyebrows, raised eyelids, lips slightly stretched and jaw drop. Fear involves the raising of their heart beat, sweating (head, armpits or palms), freezing, trembling and the abrupt drop of their skin temperature because the blood is flowing to the legs to get adrenaline ready for running, this is also known as the fight-flight response (cortisone) (Haidt et al., 2012). Having fear for long periods of time can cause anxiety, phobias (specific situations or events from a particular object or place) and post-traumatic stress disorder (resulting from extreme danger) (Ohman, 2008). === '''<u>Anger</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotion characterised by tension and hostility arising from frustration, real or imagined injury by another, or perceived injustice" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does anger look like?''' The fear emotion is located in the brain region of the amygdala. The individual would display their eyebrows pulled down and together, eyes would be opened wide and staring and lips would be pressed together. The individual would experience an event that makes them feel upset (for example, road rage), the heart rate would increase and also the skin temperature (Haidt et al., 2012). The individual can also demonstrate yelling or screaming, anger can quickly turn into aggression for 10% of the time (Tafrate Kassinove & Dundin, 2002).The function of anger is to help overcome obstacles by asserting and maintaining control (Maan Diong et al., 2005). The anger emotion displays the most energy compared to the other basic emotions and it is also healthy to experience (Levenson, 2011). === '''<u>Disgust</u>''' === [[File:MOREmoji eww.svg|thumb|''Fig. 4'' Core Emotion: Disgust]] <blockquote>"A strong aversion, for example, to the taste, smell, or touch of something deemed revolting, or toward a person or behaviour deemed morally repugnant" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does disgust look like?''' Disgust is a primitive function to protect the human body from harmful substances (Rozin & Fallon, 1987). The disgust emotion is located in the brain region of the left amygdala, the [[wikipedia:Inferior_frontal_gyrus|left inferior frontal cortex]], and the [https://n.neurology.org/content/93/21/932 insular cortex]. The individual would experience an event (unpleasant smell or irritating noise) the heart rate and skin temperature would decrease (Haidt et al., 2012). The individual would display lowered eyebrows, big wrinkle on the side of the nose and the bridge of the nose, the lip would be raised which forms an arch and the lower lip would be raised and protruding (Ekman, 1988). The function for disgust is to ensure the individual removes or gets away from any contaminated or spoiled objects (Tybur et al., 2004). Conditions that are related to disgust is obsessive- compulsive disorder, phobias and eating disorders (Olatungi & Sawchuk, 2005). The emotion of disgust has several domains by (Haidt et al., 1994) * Food * Bodily waste (for example, blood or faeces, animals, sexual behaviours, poor hygiene, contact with death or corpses, violations of the exterior body like or deformities), * Contact with distasteful people * Moral offences (for example, child abuse, incest, infidelity and more) === '''<u>Sadness</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotional state of unhappiness, ranging in intensity from mild to extreme and usually aroused by the loss of something that is highly valued (e.g by the rupture of a relationship)" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> [[File:Girl with sad face.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 5'' Core Emotion: Sadness]] '''What does sadness look like?''' The sadness emotion is located in several brain regions in right [https://www.neuroskills.com/brain-injury/occipital-lobes/ occipital lobe], left insular, left [[wikipedia:Thalamus|thalamus]], amygdala and the [https://www.news-medical.net/health/Hippocampus-Functions.aspx hippocampus]. The individual would experience an emotional event (breakup, someone dying) that makes them feel sad and upset. The heart rate would increase, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2695635/#:~:text=The%20skin%20conductance%20response%20(SCR)%20is%20an%20indirect%20measure%20of,emotional%20valence%20(Bradley%20et%20al. skin conductance] would be decreased, constricts breathing and the [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK532914/#:~:text=The%20lacrimal%20gland%20is%20a,fossa%20of%20the%20frontal%20bone. lacrimal glads] would active for crying (Reeve, 2018). The individual would display the inner corners of their eyebrows pulled up and together, the upper eyelids would be drooped down and the eye would be looking down and the corner of the lips would also be lowered (Ekman, 2019). The function of the emotion of sadness is too alleviate and to prevent distressful circumstances. Sadness is important when a person is grieving, however long periods of sadness can produce depression (Bonanno et al., 2008). [[File:Interest (emotion).jpg|thumb|153x153px|''Fig. 6'' Core Emotion: Interest ]] === '''<u>Interest</u>''' === <blockquote> "An attitude characterised by a need or desire to give selective attention to something that is significant to the individual, such as an activity, goal, or research area" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does interest look like?''' The emotion of interest is present everyday, individual would experience an interest for a certain time then find a new interest to focus on (Izard, 1991). The function for interest is for skill development and engagement (Thoman, Smith, & Silvia, 2011). The interest emotion is located in the brain region of the limbic system, anterior insula and right inferior frontal gyrus. The individual would display the eyebrows would be pulled up, eyes would be opened wide, the corner of the lips would lower and the top of the lip would be raised (SlideToDoc, n.d). === '''<u>Joy</u>''' === [[File:Happy-Smiley.png|thumb|''Fig. 7'' Core Emotion: Joy|190x190px]] <blockquote> "A feeling of extreme gladness, delight, or exultation of the spirit arising from a sense of well-being or satisfaction" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does joy look like?''' The emotion of joy, is when an individual experiences success on a task, personal achievement, gaining respect or love or affection (Ekman & Friesen, 1975; Izard, 1991; Shaver Schwartz, Kirson, & O’Connor, 1987).The emotion of joy, is located in several brain regions in the right frontal cortex, the [[wikipedia:Precuneus|precuneus]], left amygdala, and the left insula. Individuals would experience an event (wedding or birth) that would produce the emotion of joy, the heart rate, skin temperature and skin conductance were low and stable (Reeve, 2018). The individual would display their eyes would be narrowed and a wrinkle would start to show on the side of the eyes, the cheeks would be raised, the lips would be pulled back and the teeth would be showing indicating a smile (Ekman, 1988). The function of joy is to assist relationships and strengthen them, engage in social activities and maintain social interaction (Langsdorff, Izard, Rayias, & Hembree, 1983). Another function of joy is to preserve psychological wellbeing, especially when something bad happens (Joiner Pettit, Perez, & Burns, 2001). [[File:SURPRISE.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 8'' Core Emotion: Surprise]] === '''<u>Surprise</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotion typically resulting from the violation of an expectation or the detection of novelty in the environment" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote>'''What does surprise look like?''' The surprise emotion is located in the brain regions of inferior frontal gyrus and hippocampus. The individual would display similar facial features, for example when they show interest with only few differences. The eyebrows would be raised, but not drawn together, the upper eyelids would be raised but the lower eyelids would remain neutral and the jaw would drop down (Ekman,1988). An individual would experience the emotion of surprised for presents or surprise birthday party for example.   === '''<u>Contempt</u>''' === [[File:Contempt facial expression.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 9'' Core Emotion: Contempt|200x200px]]<blockquote> "An emotion characterised by negative regard for anything or anybody considered to be inferior, vile, or worthless" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does contempt look like?''' The emotion of contempt means being morally superior towards another person. Contempt is similar to disgust, although the facial expressions are different (Ekman & Friesen, 1986; Ekman & Heider, 1988; Matsumoto, 1992; Matsumoto & Ekman, 2004).The contempt emotion is located in the brain region of the [https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain/brain-anatomy/limbic-system limbic system]. The individual would display the tightened and raised lip corner and the eyes would remain neutral (Ekman, 1988). The function of contempt is to sustain social hierarchy and some events include a toxic marriage, where one individual enforces rules to maintain dominance (Gottman & Silver, 1999). An individual would feel superior compared to the other person, they would disrespect others, mock them and sarcastic. Knowledge Check: <quiz display="simple"> {Lacrimal glads are responsible for crying: |type="()"} +True -False {The wheel of emotions is by Paul Ekman} -True + False {The facial expressions for anger is, eyes staring, eyebrows pulled down and together and skin temperature increases} +True -False </quiz> == What causes mixed emotions? == {{expand}} === '''What causes each emotion?''' === [[File:Emotions Image.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 10'' Mixed Emotions]] Emotions start when a significant life event occurs and then distinct patterns of neural activity start to form. There is {{gr}} a few theories when it comes to emotion biological perspective; {{gr}} the cognitive perspective and neurological perspective. The cognitive perspective involves appraisal, emotion knowledge and attribution (Gross, 2002). Appraisal means how significant the event is and emotion knowledge means the ability to differentiate between various basic emotions (Gross, 2002). Attribution explains why the event outcome occurred (Reeve, 2018). The biological perspective refers to the body response when an event occurs causing the emotion, it emphasises main emotions like anger or fear (Gurney, 1884). The neurological perspective involves the neural activity in the brain, in response to emotion (Gurney, 1884). The biological perspective involves the automatic nervous system, subcortical brain circuits and facial feedback (Sato et al., 2004). One study used a fMRI ("measures the small changes in blood flow that occur with the brain activity" (Radiology (ACR), 2018) and analysed the facial expressions to emotions (Sato et al., 2004). The study used two types of controlled stimuli (1) static facial expressions which means certain specific facial structures associated to that emotion (2) dynamic facial images and the results found the left amygdala was activated in response to fearful stimuli (Sato et al., 2004). === '''What is the purpose of emotions?''' === The main purpose of emotions is the coping functions which means individuals can adapt better to life event (Reeve, 2018). Another reason is the social functions involved, making social interactions better and communication (Ekman & Friesen, 1969). There are multiple benefits for experiencing emotions like sadness to cause reparative behaviour and make the individual more caring towards others. === '''What happens when an individual experiences multiple emotions at once?''' === Complex emotions occur when an individual feels happy (positive) and sad (negative) at the same time, caused by an event (for example starting a new job, the individual may experience feeling excited but also nervous at the same time). It happens when an individual experiences different emotions and physiological reactions for the same event (Gurny, 1884). Complex emotions are harder to identify and recognise than basic emotions (Ekman et al., 1999). Emotion differentiation happens when someone appraises the same event at two different times (Gurney, 1884). The amygdala is responsible for the appraisals and appraisals occur after the stimulus exposure happens around (1 1/2 seconds){{fact}}. Another theory is there are four core emotions for example: happiness, sadness, fear and anger overlap causing a Venn diagram and it would create a compound emotion (Du et al., 2012). A compound emotion can occur when two or more core emotions happen simultaneously (Duet al., 2012). The theory provides more specific definition of emotions in result of an event, rather having a timeline of emotions before and after the event occurred, assuming each emotions would have a physiological response.{{expand}} == How are mixed emotions managed? == There are a few managing strategies for mixed emotions, {{gr}} reappraisal, suppression and situation modification will be discussed. Reappraisal was researched by James Gross and it means modifying the emotion or maintain emotion regulation (Gross, 2002). Another managing strategy is suppression which was also researched by Gross and it means decreasing unwanted behaviour, physiological responses includes rise in blood pressure, [[wikipedia:Electrodermal_activity|electrodermal response]] and heart rate (Gross, 2002). Situation modification is another managing tool which involves problem-focused approach from a significant life event, for example someone apologising for their actions (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). '''Is it healthy having mixed emotions? If so for how long?''' Mixed emotions are normal to have and people that recognise between positive or negative emotion are more resilient especially when people experience more positive emotion (Pitzer & Bergeman, 2013). Individuals will also recover faster when experiencing a loss (Pitzer & Bergeman, 2013). As people age, the individual would understand the positive and negative aspects of an event more maturely (Labouvie-Vief, 2015). Individuals would also tolerate complex and conflicting emotions, try to problem-solve (Labouvi-Vief, 2015). Complex emotions are healthy to have and strengthen interpersonal relationships (Ekman, 2010). When individuals age to midlife the ability of tolerating conflicting emotions changes (Charles et al., 2017). Long term effects of negative emotions like fear, anger or sadness for example can cause mental illness (depression or anxiety) and physical problems{{fact}}. Long term positive effects{{gr}} to an individual leads to better wellbeing, overall health and living a longer life{{gr}}. == Conclusion == This chapter discussed each core emotion: fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy, surprised and contempt. Each section of emotions analysed what the emotion look {{gr}} like (facial features and non verbal cues) and what happens when an individual experiences that emotion in the brain. Managing strategies for mixed {{missing}} were also discussed, reappraisal, situation modification and suppression for emotion regulation{{gr}}. Mixed emotions are normal to have, particularly positive emotions make people more resilient compared to negative emotions. During a human lifespan, adults understand emotions and problem-solve more efficiently. It is possible to experience more than one emotion which multiple theorists tried to explain. For an {{gr}} particular event like starting school, happy (positive) or fear (negative) and experience physiological reaction which is known as the James- Lange theory of emotion. Another theory is compound emotion which is extracted from the core emotions and provides specific emotions, imagine a Venn diagram with the core emotions or the wheel of emotions. '''Summarising what has been found and further research opportunities''' There is not a clear answer how mixed emotions do occur. It is possible to experience mixed emotions towards an event, like going to school for the first time, does each emotion switch simultaneously or does{{gr}}. Perhaps, each person experience emotions differently and cannot be defined{{gr}}. For future research, psychologists should analyse each core emotion and see how each emotion interacts with one another. After analysing the core emotions, psychologist should also examine sub-emotions{{gr}}. Furthermore, researchers should analyse if core emotions and sub emotions could produce mixed emotions{{explain}}. == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Mixed emotions|Mixed emotions]] (Book chapter, 2022) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= American Psychological Association. (n.d.). APA Dictionary of Psychology. Dictionary.apa.org. Retrieved September 16, 2021, from https://dictionary.apa.org/fear Charles, S. T., Piazza, J. R., & Urban, E. J. (2017). Mixed emotions across adulthood: when, where, and why? Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 15, 58–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.05.007 Dalgleish, T., Power, M. J., & Ekman, P. (1999). Handbook of cognition and emotion. Wiley. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=vsLvrhohXhAC&oi=fnd&pg=PA45&dq=basic+emotions+ekman&ots=uUxJamT7Lg&sig=XU0-_ToIhTcXYJySe_ggij-rY3M#v=onepage&q=basic%20emotions%20ekman&f=false Du, S., Tao, Y., & Martinez, A. M. (2014). Compound facial expressions of emotion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(15), E1454–E1462. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1322355111 Ekman, P. (2009). Darwin’s contributions to our understanding of emotional expressions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1535), 3449–3451. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0189 Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1969). The Repertoire of Nonverbal Behavior: Categories, Origins, Usage, and Coding. Semiotica, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.1515/semi.1969.1.1.49 Gross, J. J. (2002). Emotion regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences. Psychophysiology, 39(3), 281–291. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0048577201393198 Gurney, E. (1884). What is an Emotion? Mind, 9(35). JSTOR. Hahn, A. C., Whitehead, R. D., Albrecht, M., Lefevre, C. E., & Perrett, D. I. (2012). Hot or not? Thermal reactions to social contact. Biology Letters, 8(5), 864–867. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2012.0338 Haidt, J., McCauley, C., & Rozin, P. (1994). Individual differences in sensitivity to disgust: A scale sampling seven domains of disgust elicitors. Personality and Individual Differences, 16(5), 701–713. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(94)90212-7 How the Brain Processes Emotions. (n.d.). Neurology Live. Retrieved September 24, 2021, from https://www.neurologylive.com/view/how-brain-processes-emotions Izard, C. E. (2004). The Psychology Of Emotions. Kluwer Academic Pub. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=RPv-shA_sxMC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Izard,+1991+interest&ots=cUA88oX7T9&sig=4Y3drrASb_x8GIXp4MrTlwSU_4A&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Izard%2C%201991%20interest&f=false Izard, C. E., Hembree, E. A., Dougherty, L. M., & Spizzirri, C. C. (1983). Changes in facial expressions of 2- to 19-month-old infants following acute pain. Developmental Psychology, 19(3), 418–426. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.19.3.418 John Mordechai Gottman, & Silver, N. (2018). The seven principles for making marriage work. Seven Dials An Imprint Of Orion Publishing Group Ltd. Joiner, T. E., Pettit, J. W., Perez, M., Burns, A. B., Gencoz, T., Gencoz, F., & Rudd, M. D. (2001). Can positive emotion influence problem-solving attitudes among suicidal adults? Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 32(5), 507–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.32.5.507 Labouvie-Vief, G. (2015). Integrating emotions and cognition throughout the lifespan. Springer. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-319-09822-7 Larsen, J. T., & McGraw, A. P. (2011). Further evidence for mixed emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(6), 1095–1110. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021846 Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=i-ySQQuUpr8C&oi=fnd&pg=PR5&dq=lazarus+and+Folkman+1984&ots=DgFRirgiNi&sig=p3B0ABh0uvLb0MdCjEQIhEiK1-Y&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=lazarus%20and%20Folkman%201984&f=false Levenson, R. W. (2011). Basic Emotion Questions. Emotion Review, 3(4), 379–386. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073911410743 Maan Diong, S., Bishop, G. D., Enkelmann, H. C., Tong, E. M. W., Why, Y. P., Ang, J. C. H., & Khader, M. (2005). Anger, stress, coping, social support and health: Modelling the relationships. Psychology & Health, 20(4), 467–495. https://doi.org/10.1080/0887044040512331333960 Ohman, A. (2008). APA PsycNet. Psycnet.apa.org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2008-07784-044 Öhman, A., & Mineka, S. (2003). The Malicious Serpent. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(1), 5–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.01211 Olatunji, B. O., & Sawchuk, C. N. (2005). Disgust: Characteristic Features, Social Manifestations, and Clinical Implications. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 24(7), 932–962. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2005.24.7.932 Pekrun, R., & Stephens, E. J. (2010). Achievement Emotions: A Control-Value Approach. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4(4), 238–255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00259.x Pitzer, L. M., & Bergeman, C. S. (2013). Synchrony in Affect Among Stressed Adults: The Notre Dame Widowhood Study. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 69B(1), 29–39. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbt026 Radiology (ACR), R. S. of N. A. (RSNA) and A. C. of. (2018, February 25). Magnetic Resonance, Functional (fMRI) - Brain. Radiologyinfo.org. https://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info/fmribrain#:~:text=Functional%20magnetic%20resonance%20imaging%20(fMRI Rozin, P., & Fallon, A. E. (1987). A perspective on disgust. Psychological Review, 94(1), 23–41. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.94.1.23 Sato, W., Kochiyama, T., Yoshikawa, S., Naito, E., & Matsumura, M. (2004). Enhanced neural activity in response to dynamic facial expressions of emotion: an fMRI study. Cognitive Brain Research, 20(1), 81–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2004.01.008 Shaver, P., Schwartz, J., Kirson, D., & O’Connor, C. (1987). Emotion knowledge: Further exploration of a prototype approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(6), 1061–1086. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1061 SlideToDoc. (n.d.). The Expression of Emotion Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal Communication. Slidetodoc.com. Retrieved September 26, 2021, from https://slidetodoc.com/the-expression-of-emotion-nonverbal-communication-nonverbal-communication/ Tafrate, R. C., Kassinove, H., & Dundin, L. (2002). Anger episodes in high- and low-trait-anger community adults. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(12), 1573–1590. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10076 Thoman, D. B., Smith, J. L., & Silvia, P. J. (2011). The Resource Replenishment Function of Interest. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(6), 592–599. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550611402521 Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2004). TARGET ARTICLE: “Putting the Self Into Self-Conscious Emotions: A Theoretical Model.” Psychological Inquiry, 15(2), 103–125. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli1502_01 Tybur, J. M., Lieberman, D., Kurzban, R., & DeScioli, P. (2013). Disgust: Evolved function and structure. Psychological Review, 120(1), 65–84. https://doi.org/10.1037/a003077 }} == External links == https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAMbkJk6gnE&t=52s (YouTube - All about the feels: CrashCourse Psychology) https://www.paulekman.com/resources/universal-facial-expressions/ (Paul Ekman Group: Universal Facial Expressions) http://atlasofemotions.org/ (Interactive Tool for Understanding Emotions) https://psychology.wikia.org/wiki/Emotions (Wikia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] 6p2f9zr4ueyfr2gnuxf7nti12ds8ktz 2415814 2415812 2022-08-17T11:05:34Z Earthxangel 2947535 /* Overview */ grammar fix wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Mixed emotions:<br>What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed?}} {{MECR3|https://youtu.be/_Iqfq3lTNY8}} __TOC__ == Overview == Emotions give people the ability to communicate with each other through nonverbal and verbal gestures. Charles Darwin noted that people worldwide are able to recognise emotions, regardless of their cultural background. Some cultural backgrounds have cultural-specific signals and greetings, however language does not play much of an impact of understanding emotions. This book chapter provides a broad overview on what mixed emotions are and each of the core emotions from Paul Ekman's model on facial expressions. The core emotions outlined are: fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy, surprise and contempt with a brief summary and what each emotions look like. The mixed emotions discussions mention The James Lange theory of emotions and compound emotions by Du, Tau and Martinez from Ohio State University. The James Lange theory involves the event (stimulus), arousal (physiological response) and interpretation which leads to the emotion. Compound emotions are similar to the wheel of emotions by Plutchik with more specific emotions in the middle of the core emotions. The managing strategies for mixed emotions are suppression, reappraisal and situation modification. == What are mixed emotions? == [[File:Bipolar disorder moods 2683232.svg|thumb|''Fig. 1'' Mixed Emotion Picture |150x150px]] '''Definition of what mixed emotions mean''' <blockquote>"Short-lived, feeling-purposive-expressive-bodily responses that help us adapt to the opportunities and challenges we face during important life events" (Reeve, 2018). </blockquote> Identifying the key mixed emotions and what they look like People experience emotions due to a response to a significant life event, that is specific and short-lived. Moods are different from emotions, they are long-lived, influence cognition and can be unclear. The brain region responsible for emotions is the amygdala, especially for fear, anxiety and anger. [[File:Body of Emotion.png|center|frameless|320x320px|(Reeve, 2018)]] This chapter focuses on the six basic core emotions by [[w:Paul Ekman|Paul Ekman]].;{{gr}} * Fear * Anger * Disgust * Sadness * Interest * Joy * Surprise * Contempt There are many emotions that individuals experience. The majority of emotions are sub-emotions from the basic core emotions. The best example of the sub-emotions is by Robert Plutchik. The self-conscious has five emotions: shame, guilt, embarrassment, pride and triumph (Tracy & Robins, 2004). The cognitively complex has eight emotions: envy, gratitude, disappointment, regret, hope, [[mwod:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]], empathy and compassion (Pekrun & Stephens, 2010). Emotion stems from arousal of feelings through facial movements, the facial temperature change and glandular activity in the facial skin (Haidt et al., 2012). Ekman analysed Darwin's theory of all humans display emotions through facial features in the same way throughout different cultures (Ekman, 2009). One of the ways to identify emotions is facial expressions, people have eighty facial muscles and thirty six facial expressions (Du et al., 2014). [[File:Plutchiks-emotional-wheel.png|center|thumb|''Fig. 2'' Wheel of emotions by Plutchik ]] === '''<u>Fear</u>''' === <blockquote>"A basic, intense emotion aroused by the detection of imminent threat, involving an immediate alarm reaction that mobilises the organism by triggering a set of psychological changes" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> [[File:Fear computer.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 3'' Core Emotion: Fear]] '''What does fear look like?''' Fear can also include the fear response; [https://dictionary.apa.org/fight-or-flight-response fight-or-flight response] which the [https://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/m/s4/chapter06.html amygdala] is responsible for. Feeling fear is when an individual experiences an event (car accident for example) that makes them feel scared from a threat or danger (Ohman & Mineka, 2003). Physical features include display high eyebrows, raised eyelids, lips slightly stretched and jaw drop. Fear involves the raising of their heart beat, sweating (head, armpits or palms), freezing, trembling and the abrupt drop of their skin temperature because the blood is flowing to the legs to get adrenaline ready for running, this is also known as the fight-flight response (cortisone) (Haidt et al., 2012). Having fear for long periods of time can cause anxiety, phobias (specific situations or events from a particular object or place) and post-traumatic stress disorder (resulting from extreme danger) (Ohman, 2008). === '''<u>Anger</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotion characterised by tension and hostility arising from frustration, real or imagined injury by another, or perceived injustice" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does anger look like?''' The fear emotion is located in the brain region of the amygdala. The individual would display their eyebrows pulled down and together, eyes would be opened wide and staring and lips would be pressed together. The individual would experience an event that makes them feel upset (for example, road rage), the heart rate would increase and also the skin temperature (Haidt et al., 2012). The individual can also demonstrate yelling or screaming, anger can quickly turn into aggression for 10% of the time (Tafrate Kassinove & Dundin, 2002).The function of anger is to help overcome obstacles by asserting and maintaining control (Maan Diong et al., 2005). The anger emotion displays the most energy compared to the other basic emotions and it is also healthy to experience (Levenson, 2011). === '''<u>Disgust</u>''' === [[File:MOREmoji eww.svg|thumb|''Fig. 4'' Core Emotion: Disgust]] <blockquote>"A strong aversion, for example, to the taste, smell, or touch of something deemed revolting, or toward a person or behaviour deemed morally repugnant" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does disgust look like?''' Disgust is a primitive function to protect the human body from harmful substances (Rozin & Fallon, 1987). The disgust emotion is located in the brain region of the left amygdala, the [[wikipedia:Inferior_frontal_gyrus|left inferior frontal cortex]], and the [https://n.neurology.org/content/93/21/932 insular cortex]. The individual would experience an event (unpleasant smell or irritating noise) the heart rate and skin temperature would decrease (Haidt et al., 2012). The individual would display lowered eyebrows, big wrinkle on the side of the nose and the bridge of the nose, the lip would be raised which forms an arch and the lower lip would be raised and protruding (Ekman, 1988). The function for disgust is to ensure the individual removes or gets away from any contaminated or spoiled objects (Tybur et al., 2004). Conditions that are related to disgust is obsessive- compulsive disorder, phobias and eating disorders (Olatungi & Sawchuk, 2005). The emotion of disgust has several domains by (Haidt et al., 1994) * Food * Bodily waste (for example, blood or faeces, animals, sexual behaviours, poor hygiene, contact with death or corpses, violations of the exterior body like or deformities), * Contact with distasteful people * Moral offences (for example, child abuse, incest, infidelity and more) === '''<u>Sadness</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotional state of unhappiness, ranging in intensity from mild to extreme and usually aroused by the loss of something that is highly valued (e.g by the rupture of a relationship)" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> [[File:Girl with sad face.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 5'' Core Emotion: Sadness]] '''What does sadness look like?''' The sadness emotion is located in several brain regions in right [https://www.neuroskills.com/brain-injury/occipital-lobes/ occipital lobe], left insular, left [[wikipedia:Thalamus|thalamus]], amygdala and the [https://www.news-medical.net/health/Hippocampus-Functions.aspx hippocampus]. The individual would experience an emotional event (breakup, someone dying) that makes them feel sad and upset. The heart rate would increase, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2695635/#:~:text=The%20skin%20conductance%20response%20(SCR)%20is%20an%20indirect%20measure%20of,emotional%20valence%20(Bradley%20et%20al. skin conductance] would be decreased, constricts breathing and the [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK532914/#:~:text=The%20lacrimal%20gland%20is%20a,fossa%20of%20the%20frontal%20bone. lacrimal glads] would active for crying (Reeve, 2018). The individual would display the inner corners of their eyebrows pulled up and together, the upper eyelids would be drooped down and the eye would be looking down and the corner of the lips would also be lowered (Ekman, 2019). The function of the emotion of sadness is too alleviate and to prevent distressful circumstances. Sadness is important when a person is grieving, however long periods of sadness can produce depression (Bonanno et al., 2008). [[File:Interest (emotion).jpg|thumb|153x153px|''Fig. 6'' Core Emotion: Interest ]] === '''<u>Interest</u>''' === <blockquote> "An attitude characterised by a need or desire to give selective attention to something that is significant to the individual, such as an activity, goal, or research area" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does interest look like?''' The emotion of interest is present everyday, individual would experience an interest for a certain time then find a new interest to focus on (Izard, 1991). The function for interest is for skill development and engagement (Thoman, Smith, & Silvia, 2011). The interest emotion is located in the brain region of the limbic system, anterior insula and right inferior frontal gyrus. The individual would display the eyebrows would be pulled up, eyes would be opened wide, the corner of the lips would lower and the top of the lip would be raised (SlideToDoc, n.d). === '''<u>Joy</u>''' === [[File:Happy-Smiley.png|thumb|''Fig. 7'' Core Emotion: Joy|190x190px]] <blockquote> "A feeling of extreme gladness, delight, or exultation of the spirit arising from a sense of well-being or satisfaction" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does joy look like?''' The emotion of joy, is when an individual experiences success on a task, personal achievement, gaining respect or love or affection (Ekman & Friesen, 1975; Izard, 1991; Shaver Schwartz, Kirson, & O’Connor, 1987).The emotion of joy, is located in several brain regions in the right frontal cortex, the [[wikipedia:Precuneus|precuneus]], left amygdala, and the left insula. Individuals would experience an event (wedding or birth) that would produce the emotion of joy, the heart rate, skin temperature and skin conductance were low and stable (Reeve, 2018). The individual would display their eyes would be narrowed and a wrinkle would start to show on the side of the eyes, the cheeks would be raised, the lips would be pulled back and the teeth would be showing indicating a smile (Ekman, 1988). The function of joy is to assist relationships and strengthen them, engage in social activities and maintain social interaction (Langsdorff, Izard, Rayias, & Hembree, 1983). Another function of joy is to preserve psychological wellbeing, especially when something bad happens (Joiner Pettit, Perez, & Burns, 2001). [[File:SURPRISE.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 8'' Core Emotion: Surprise]] === '''<u>Surprise</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotion typically resulting from the violation of an expectation or the detection of novelty in the environment" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote>'''What does surprise look like?''' The surprise emotion is located in the brain regions of inferior frontal gyrus and hippocampus. The individual would display similar facial features, for example when they show interest with only few differences. The eyebrows would be raised, but not drawn together, the upper eyelids would be raised but the lower eyelids would remain neutral and the jaw would drop down (Ekman,1988). An individual would experience the emotion of surprised for presents or surprise birthday party for example.   === '''<u>Contempt</u>''' === [[File:Contempt facial expression.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 9'' Core Emotion: Contempt|200x200px]]<blockquote> "An emotion characterised by negative regard for anything or anybody considered to be inferior, vile, or worthless" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does contempt look like?''' The emotion of contempt means being morally superior towards another person. Contempt is similar to disgust, although the facial expressions are different (Ekman & Friesen, 1986; Ekman & Heider, 1988; Matsumoto, 1992; Matsumoto & Ekman, 2004).The contempt emotion is located in the brain region of the [https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain/brain-anatomy/limbic-system limbic system]. The individual would display the tightened and raised lip corner and the eyes would remain neutral (Ekman, 1988). The function of contempt is to sustain social hierarchy and some events include a toxic marriage, where one individual enforces rules to maintain dominance (Gottman & Silver, 1999). An individual would feel superior compared to the other person, they would disrespect others, mock them and sarcastic. Knowledge Check: <quiz display="simple"> {Lacrimal glads are responsible for crying: |type="()"} +True -False {The wheel of emotions is by Paul Ekman} -True + False {The facial expressions for anger is, eyes staring, eyebrows pulled down and together and skin temperature increases} +True -False </quiz> == What causes mixed emotions? == {{expand}} === '''What causes each emotion?''' === [[File:Emotions Image.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 10'' Mixed Emotions]] Emotions start when a significant life event occurs and then distinct patterns of neural activity start to form. There is {{gr}} a few theories when it comes to emotion biological perspective; {{gr}} the cognitive perspective and neurological perspective. The cognitive perspective involves appraisal, emotion knowledge and attribution (Gross, 2002). Appraisal means how significant the event is and emotion knowledge means the ability to differentiate between various basic emotions (Gross, 2002). Attribution explains why the event outcome occurred (Reeve, 2018). The biological perspective refers to the body response when an event occurs causing the emotion, it emphasises main emotions like anger or fear (Gurney, 1884). The neurological perspective involves the neural activity in the brain, in response to emotion (Gurney, 1884). The biological perspective involves the automatic nervous system, subcortical brain circuits and facial feedback (Sato et al., 2004). One study used a fMRI ("measures the small changes in blood flow that occur with the brain activity" (Radiology (ACR), 2018) and analysed the facial expressions to emotions (Sato et al., 2004). The study used two types of controlled stimuli (1) static facial expressions which means certain specific facial structures associated to that emotion (2) dynamic facial images and the results found the left amygdala was activated in response to fearful stimuli (Sato et al., 2004). === '''What is the purpose of emotions?''' === The main purpose of emotions is the coping functions which means individuals can adapt better to life event (Reeve, 2018). Another reason is the social functions involved, making social interactions better and communication (Ekman & Friesen, 1969). There are multiple benefits for experiencing emotions like sadness to cause reparative behaviour and make the individual more caring towards others. === '''What happens when an individual experiences multiple emotions at once?''' === Complex emotions occur when an individual feels happy (positive) and sad (negative) at the same time, caused by an event (for example starting a new job, the individual may experience feeling excited but also nervous at the same time). It happens when an individual experiences different emotions and physiological reactions for the same event (Gurny, 1884). Complex emotions are harder to identify and recognise than basic emotions (Ekman et al., 1999). Emotion differentiation happens when someone appraises the same event at two different times (Gurney, 1884). The amygdala is responsible for the appraisals and appraisals occur after the stimulus exposure happens around (1 1/2 seconds){{fact}}. Another theory is there are four core emotions for example: happiness, sadness, fear and anger overlap causing a Venn diagram and it would create a compound emotion (Du et al., 2012). A compound emotion can occur when two or more core emotions happen simultaneously (Duet al., 2012). The theory provides more specific definition of emotions in result of an event, rather having a timeline of emotions before and after the event occurred, assuming each emotions would have a physiological response.{{expand}} == How are mixed emotions managed? == There are a few managing strategies for mixed emotions, {{gr}} reappraisal, suppression and situation modification will be discussed. Reappraisal was researched by James Gross and it means modifying the emotion or maintain emotion regulation (Gross, 2002). Another managing strategy is suppression which was also researched by Gross and it means decreasing unwanted behaviour, physiological responses includes rise in blood pressure, [[wikipedia:Electrodermal_activity|electrodermal response]] and heart rate (Gross, 2002). Situation modification is another managing tool which involves problem-focused approach from a significant life event, for example someone apologising for their actions (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). '''Is it healthy having mixed emotions? If so for how long?''' Mixed emotions are normal to have and people that recognise between positive or negative emotion are more resilient especially when people experience more positive emotion (Pitzer & Bergeman, 2013). Individuals will also recover faster when experiencing a loss (Pitzer & Bergeman, 2013). As people age, the individual would understand the positive and negative aspects of an event more maturely (Labouvie-Vief, 2015). Individuals would also tolerate complex and conflicting emotions, try to problem-solve (Labouvi-Vief, 2015). Complex emotions are healthy to have and strengthen interpersonal relationships (Ekman, 2010). When individuals age to midlife the ability of tolerating conflicting emotions changes (Charles et al., 2017). Long term effects of negative emotions like fear, anger or sadness for example can cause mental illness (depression or anxiety) and physical problems{{fact}}. Long term positive effects{{gr}} to an individual leads to better wellbeing, overall health and living a longer life{{gr}}. == Conclusion == This chapter discussed each core emotion: fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy, surprised and contempt. Each section of emotions analysed what the emotion look {{gr}} like (facial features and non verbal cues) and what happens when an individual experiences that emotion in the brain. Managing strategies for mixed {{missing}} were also discussed, reappraisal, situation modification and suppression for emotion regulation{{gr}}. Mixed emotions are normal to have, particularly positive emotions make people more resilient compared to negative emotions. During a human lifespan, adults understand emotions and problem-solve more efficiently. It is possible to experience more than one emotion which multiple theorists tried to explain. For an {{gr}} particular event like starting school, happy (positive) or fear (negative) and experience physiological reaction which is known as the James- Lange theory of emotion. Another theory is compound emotion which is extracted from the core emotions and provides specific emotions, imagine a Venn diagram with the core emotions or the wheel of emotions. '''Summarising what has been found and further research opportunities''' There is not a clear answer how mixed emotions do occur. It is possible to experience mixed emotions towards an event, like going to school for the first time, does each emotion switch simultaneously or does{{gr}}. Perhaps, each person experience emotions differently and cannot be defined{{gr}}. For future research, psychologists should analyse each core emotion and see how each emotion interacts with one another. After analysing the core emotions, psychologist should also examine sub-emotions{{gr}}. Furthermore, researchers should analyse if core emotions and sub emotions could produce mixed emotions{{explain}}. == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Mixed emotions|Mixed emotions]] (Book chapter, 2022) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= American Psychological Association. (n.d.). APA Dictionary of Psychology. Dictionary.apa.org. Retrieved September 16, 2021, from https://dictionary.apa.org/fear Charles, S. T., Piazza, J. R., & Urban, E. J. (2017). Mixed emotions across adulthood: when, where, and why? Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 15, 58–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.05.007 Dalgleish, T., Power, M. J., & Ekman, P. (1999). Handbook of cognition and emotion. Wiley. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=vsLvrhohXhAC&oi=fnd&pg=PA45&dq=basic+emotions+ekman&ots=uUxJamT7Lg&sig=XU0-_ToIhTcXYJySe_ggij-rY3M#v=onepage&q=basic%20emotions%20ekman&f=false Du, S., Tao, Y., & Martinez, A. M. (2014). Compound facial expressions of emotion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(15), E1454–E1462. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1322355111 Ekman, P. (2009). Darwin’s contributions to our understanding of emotional expressions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1535), 3449–3451. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0189 Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1969). The Repertoire of Nonverbal Behavior: Categories, Origins, Usage, and Coding. Semiotica, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.1515/semi.1969.1.1.49 Gross, J. J. (2002). Emotion regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences. Psychophysiology, 39(3), 281–291. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0048577201393198 Gurney, E. (1884). What is an Emotion? Mind, 9(35). JSTOR. Hahn, A. C., Whitehead, R. D., Albrecht, M., Lefevre, C. E., & Perrett, D. I. (2012). Hot or not? Thermal reactions to social contact. Biology Letters, 8(5), 864–867. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2012.0338 Haidt, J., McCauley, C., & Rozin, P. (1994). Individual differences in sensitivity to disgust: A scale sampling seven domains of disgust elicitors. Personality and Individual Differences, 16(5), 701–713. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(94)90212-7 How the Brain Processes Emotions. (n.d.). Neurology Live. Retrieved September 24, 2021, from https://www.neurologylive.com/view/how-brain-processes-emotions Izard, C. E. (2004). The Psychology Of Emotions. Kluwer Academic Pub. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=RPv-shA_sxMC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Izard,+1991+interest&ots=cUA88oX7T9&sig=4Y3drrASb_x8GIXp4MrTlwSU_4A&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Izard%2C%201991%20interest&f=false Izard, C. E., Hembree, E. A., Dougherty, L. M., & Spizzirri, C. C. (1983). Changes in facial expressions of 2- to 19-month-old infants following acute pain. Developmental Psychology, 19(3), 418–426. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.19.3.418 John Mordechai Gottman, & Silver, N. (2018). The seven principles for making marriage work. Seven Dials An Imprint Of Orion Publishing Group Ltd. Joiner, T. E., Pettit, J. W., Perez, M., Burns, A. B., Gencoz, T., Gencoz, F., & Rudd, M. D. (2001). Can positive emotion influence problem-solving attitudes among suicidal adults? Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 32(5), 507–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.32.5.507 Labouvie-Vief, G. (2015). Integrating emotions and cognition throughout the lifespan. Springer. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-319-09822-7 Larsen, J. T., & McGraw, A. P. (2011). Further evidence for mixed emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(6), 1095–1110. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021846 Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=i-ySQQuUpr8C&oi=fnd&pg=PR5&dq=lazarus+and+Folkman+1984&ots=DgFRirgiNi&sig=p3B0ABh0uvLb0MdCjEQIhEiK1-Y&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=lazarus%20and%20Folkman%201984&f=false Levenson, R. W. (2011). Basic Emotion Questions. Emotion Review, 3(4), 379–386. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073911410743 Maan Diong, S., Bishop, G. D., Enkelmann, H. C., Tong, E. M. W., Why, Y. P., Ang, J. C. H., & Khader, M. (2005). Anger, stress, coping, social support and health: Modelling the relationships. Psychology & Health, 20(4), 467–495. https://doi.org/10.1080/0887044040512331333960 Ohman, A. (2008). APA PsycNet. Psycnet.apa.org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2008-07784-044 Öhman, A., & Mineka, S. (2003). The Malicious Serpent. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(1), 5–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.01211 Olatunji, B. O., & Sawchuk, C. N. (2005). Disgust: Characteristic Features, Social Manifestations, and Clinical Implications. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 24(7), 932–962. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2005.24.7.932 Pekrun, R., & Stephens, E. J. (2010). Achievement Emotions: A Control-Value Approach. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4(4), 238–255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00259.x Pitzer, L. M., & Bergeman, C. S. (2013). Synchrony in Affect Among Stressed Adults: The Notre Dame Widowhood Study. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 69B(1), 29–39. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbt026 Radiology (ACR), R. S. of N. A. (RSNA) and A. C. of. (2018, February 25). Magnetic Resonance, Functional (fMRI) - Brain. Radiologyinfo.org. https://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info/fmribrain#:~:text=Functional%20magnetic%20resonance%20imaging%20(fMRI Rozin, P., & Fallon, A. E. (1987). A perspective on disgust. Psychological Review, 94(1), 23–41. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.94.1.23 Sato, W., Kochiyama, T., Yoshikawa, S., Naito, E., & Matsumura, M. (2004). Enhanced neural activity in response to dynamic facial expressions of emotion: an fMRI study. Cognitive Brain Research, 20(1), 81–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2004.01.008 Shaver, P., Schwartz, J., Kirson, D., & O’Connor, C. (1987). Emotion knowledge: Further exploration of a prototype approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(6), 1061–1086. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1061 SlideToDoc. (n.d.). The Expression of Emotion Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal Communication. Slidetodoc.com. Retrieved September 26, 2021, from https://slidetodoc.com/the-expression-of-emotion-nonverbal-communication-nonverbal-communication/ Tafrate, R. C., Kassinove, H., & Dundin, L. (2002). Anger episodes in high- and low-trait-anger community adults. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(12), 1573–1590. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10076 Thoman, D. B., Smith, J. L., & Silvia, P. J. (2011). The Resource Replenishment Function of Interest. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(6), 592–599. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550611402521 Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2004). TARGET ARTICLE: “Putting the Self Into Self-Conscious Emotions: A Theoretical Model.” Psychological Inquiry, 15(2), 103–125. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli1502_01 Tybur, J. M., Lieberman, D., Kurzban, R., & DeScioli, P. (2013). Disgust: Evolved function and structure. Psychological Review, 120(1), 65–84. https://doi.org/10.1037/a003077 }} == External links == https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAMbkJk6gnE&t=52s (YouTube - All about the feels: CrashCourse Psychology) https://www.paulekman.com/resources/universal-facial-expressions/ (Paul Ekman Group: Universal Facial Expressions) http://atlasofemotions.org/ (Interactive Tool for Understanding Emotions) https://psychology.wikia.org/wiki/Emotions (Wikia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] ryti4czkmyz7uwxj5kcczss7956h8wv 2415816 2415814 2022-08-17T11:09:11Z Earthxangel 2947535 /* What are mixed emotions? */ grammar edit wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Mixed emotions:<br>What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed?}} {{MECR3|https://youtu.be/_Iqfq3lTNY8}} __TOC__ == Overview == Emotions give people the ability to communicate with each other through nonverbal and verbal gestures. Charles Darwin noted that people worldwide are able to recognise emotions, regardless of their cultural background. Some cultural backgrounds have cultural-specific signals and greetings, however language does not play much of an impact of understanding emotions. This book chapter provides a broad overview on what mixed emotions are and each of the core emotions from Paul Ekman's model on facial expressions. The core emotions outlined are: fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy, surprise and contempt with a brief summary and what each emotions look like. The mixed emotions discussions mention The James Lange theory of emotions and compound emotions by Du, Tau and Martinez from Ohio State University. The James Lange theory involves the event (stimulus), arousal (physiological response) and interpretation which leads to the emotion. Compound emotions are similar to the wheel of emotions by Plutchik with more specific emotions in the middle of the core emotions. The managing strategies for mixed emotions are suppression, reappraisal and situation modification. == What are mixed emotions? == [[File:Bipolar disorder moods 2683232.svg|thumb|''Fig. 1'' Mixed Emotion Picture |150x150px]] '''Definition of what mixed emotions mean''' <blockquote>"Short-lived, feeling-purposive-expressive-bodily responses that help us adapt to the opportunities and challenges we face during important life events" (Reeve, 2018). </blockquote> Identifying the key mixed emotions and what they look like People experience emotions due to a response to a significant life event, that is specific and short-lived. Moods are different from emotions, they are long-lived, influence cognition and can be unclear. The brain region responsible for emotions is the amygdala, especially for fear, anxiety and anger. [[File:Body of Emotion.png|center|frameless|320x320px|(Reeve, 2018)]] The six basic core emotions by [[w:Paul Ekman|Paul Ekman]]: * Fear * Anger * Disgust * Sadness * Interest * Joy * Surprise * Contempt There are many emotions that individuals experience. The majority of emotions are sub-emotions from the basic core emotions. The best example of the sub-emotions is by Robert Plutchik. The self-conscious has five emotions: shame, guilt, embarrassment, pride and triumph (Tracy & Robins, 2004). The cognitively complex has eight emotions: envy, gratitude, disappointment, regret, hope, [[mwod:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]], empathy and compassion (Pekrun & Stephens, 2010). Emotion stems from arousal of feelings through facial movements, the facial temperature change and glandular activity in the facial skin (Haidt et al., 2012). Ekman analysed Darwin's theory of all humans display emotions through facial features in the same way throughout different cultures (Ekman, 2009). One of the ways to identify emotions is facial expressions, people have eighty facial muscles and thirty six facial expressions (Du et al., 2014). [[File:Plutchiks-emotional-wheel.png|center|thumb|''Fig. 2'' Wheel of emotions by Plutchik ]] === '''<u>Fear</u>''' === <blockquote>"A basic, intense emotion aroused by the detection of imminent threat, involving an immediate alarm reaction that mobilises the organism by triggering a set of psychological changes" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> [[File:Fear computer.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 3'' Core Emotion: Fear]] '''What does fear look like?''' Fear can also include the fear response; [https://dictionary.apa.org/fight-or-flight-response fight-or-flight response] which the [https://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/m/s4/chapter06.html amygdala] is responsible for. Feeling fear is when an individual experiences an event (car accident for example) that makes them feel scared from a threat or danger (Ohman & Mineka, 2003). Physical features include display high eyebrows, raised eyelids, lips slightly stretched and jaw drop. Fear involves the raising of their heart beat, sweating (head, armpits or palms), freezing, trembling and the abrupt drop of their skin temperature because the blood is flowing to the legs to get adrenaline ready for running, this is also known as the fight-flight response (cortisone) (Haidt et al., 2012). Having fear for long periods of time can cause anxiety, phobias (specific situations or events from a particular object or place) and post-traumatic stress disorder (resulting from extreme danger) (Ohman, 2008). === '''<u>Anger</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotion characterised by tension and hostility arising from frustration, real or imagined injury by another, or perceived injustice" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does anger look like?''' The fear emotion is located in the brain region of the amygdala. The individual would display their eyebrows pulled down and together, eyes would be opened wide and staring and lips would be pressed together. The individual would experience an event that makes them feel upset (for example, road rage), the heart rate would increase and also the skin temperature (Haidt et al., 2012). The individual can also demonstrate yelling or screaming, anger can quickly turn into aggression for 10% of the time (Tafrate Kassinove & Dundin, 2002).The function of anger is to help overcome obstacles by asserting and maintaining control (Maan Diong et al., 2005). The anger emotion displays the most energy compared to the other basic emotions and it is also healthy to experience (Levenson, 2011). === '''<u>Disgust</u>''' === [[File:MOREmoji eww.svg|thumb|''Fig. 4'' Core Emotion: Disgust]] <blockquote>"A strong aversion, for example, to the taste, smell, or touch of something deemed revolting, or toward a person or behaviour deemed morally repugnant" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does disgust look like?''' Disgust is a primitive function to protect the human body from harmful substances (Rozin & Fallon, 1987). The disgust emotion is located in the brain region of the left amygdala, the [[wikipedia:Inferior_frontal_gyrus|left inferior frontal cortex]], and the [https://n.neurology.org/content/93/21/932 insular cortex]. The individual would experience an event (unpleasant smell or irritating noise) the heart rate and skin temperature would decrease (Haidt et al., 2012). The individual would display lowered eyebrows, big wrinkle on the side of the nose and the bridge of the nose, the lip would be raised which forms an arch and the lower lip would be raised and protruding (Ekman, 1988). The function for disgust is to ensure the individual removes or gets away from any contaminated or spoiled objects (Tybur et al., 2004). Conditions that are related to disgust is obsessive- compulsive disorder, phobias and eating disorders (Olatungi & Sawchuk, 2005). The emotion of disgust has several domains by (Haidt et al., 1994) * Food * Bodily waste (for example, blood or faeces, animals, sexual behaviours, poor hygiene, contact with death or corpses, violations of the exterior body like or deformities), * Contact with distasteful people * Moral offences (for example, child abuse, incest, infidelity and more) === '''<u>Sadness</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotional state of unhappiness, ranging in intensity from mild to extreme and usually aroused by the loss of something that is highly valued (e.g by the rupture of a relationship)" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> [[File:Girl with sad face.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 5'' Core Emotion: Sadness]] '''What does sadness look like?''' The sadness emotion is located in several brain regions in right [https://www.neuroskills.com/brain-injury/occipital-lobes/ occipital lobe], left insular, left [[wikipedia:Thalamus|thalamus]], amygdala and the [https://www.news-medical.net/health/Hippocampus-Functions.aspx hippocampus]. The individual would experience an emotional event (breakup, someone dying) that makes them feel sad and upset. The heart rate would increase, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2695635/#:~:text=The%20skin%20conductance%20response%20(SCR)%20is%20an%20indirect%20measure%20of,emotional%20valence%20(Bradley%20et%20al. skin conductance] would be decreased, constricts breathing and the [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK532914/#:~:text=The%20lacrimal%20gland%20is%20a,fossa%20of%20the%20frontal%20bone. lacrimal glads] would active for crying (Reeve, 2018). The individual would display the inner corners of their eyebrows pulled up and together, the upper eyelids would be drooped down and the eye would be looking down and the corner of the lips would also be lowered (Ekman, 2019). The function of the emotion of sadness is too alleviate and to prevent distressful circumstances. Sadness is important when a person is grieving, however long periods of sadness can produce depression (Bonanno et al., 2008). [[File:Interest (emotion).jpg|thumb|153x153px|''Fig. 6'' Core Emotion: Interest ]] === '''<u>Interest</u>''' === <blockquote> "An attitude characterised by a need or desire to give selective attention to something that is significant to the individual, such as an activity, goal, or research area" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does interest look like?''' The emotion of interest is present everyday, individual would experience an interest for a certain time then find a new interest to focus on (Izard, 1991). The function for interest is for skill development and engagement (Thoman, Smith, & Silvia, 2011). The interest emotion is located in the brain region of the limbic system, anterior insula and right inferior frontal gyrus. The individual would display the eyebrows would be pulled up, eyes would be opened wide, the corner of the lips would lower and the top of the lip would be raised (SlideToDoc, n.d). === '''<u>Joy</u>''' === [[File:Happy-Smiley.png|thumb|''Fig. 7'' Core Emotion: Joy|190x190px]] <blockquote> "A feeling of extreme gladness, delight, or exultation of the spirit arising from a sense of well-being or satisfaction" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does joy look like?''' The emotion of joy, is when an individual experiences success on a task, personal achievement, gaining respect or love or affection (Ekman & Friesen, 1975; Izard, 1991; Shaver Schwartz, Kirson, & O’Connor, 1987).The emotion of joy, is located in several brain regions in the right frontal cortex, the [[wikipedia:Precuneus|precuneus]], left amygdala, and the left insula. Individuals would experience an event (wedding or birth) that would produce the emotion of joy, the heart rate, skin temperature and skin conductance were low and stable (Reeve, 2018). The individual would display their eyes would be narrowed and a wrinkle would start to show on the side of the eyes, the cheeks would be raised, the lips would be pulled back and the teeth would be showing indicating a smile (Ekman, 1988). The function of joy is to assist relationships and strengthen them, engage in social activities and maintain social interaction (Langsdorff, Izard, Rayias, & Hembree, 1983). Another function of joy is to preserve psychological wellbeing, especially when something bad happens (Joiner Pettit, Perez, & Burns, 2001). [[File:SURPRISE.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 8'' Core Emotion: Surprise]] === '''<u>Surprise</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotion typically resulting from the violation of an expectation or the detection of novelty in the environment" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote>'''What does surprise look like?''' The surprise emotion is located in the brain regions of inferior frontal gyrus and hippocampus. The individual would display similar facial features, for example when they show interest with only few differences. The eyebrows would be raised, but not drawn together, the upper eyelids would be raised but the lower eyelids would remain neutral and the jaw would drop down (Ekman,1988). An individual would experience the emotion of surprised for presents or surprise birthday party for example.   === '''<u>Contempt</u>''' === [[File:Contempt facial expression.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 9'' Core Emotion: Contempt|200x200px]]<blockquote> "An emotion characterised by negative regard for anything or anybody considered to be inferior, vile, or worthless" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does contempt look like?''' The emotion of contempt means being morally superior towards another person. Contempt is similar to disgust, although the facial expressions are different (Ekman & Friesen, 1986; Ekman & Heider, 1988; Matsumoto, 1992; Matsumoto & Ekman, 2004).The contempt emotion is located in the brain region of the [https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain/brain-anatomy/limbic-system limbic system]. The individual would display the tightened and raised lip corner and the eyes would remain neutral (Ekman, 1988). The function of contempt is to sustain social hierarchy and some events include a toxic marriage, where one individual enforces rules to maintain dominance (Gottman & Silver, 1999). An individual would feel superior compared to the other person, they would disrespect others, mock them and sarcastic. Knowledge Check: <quiz display="simple"> {Lacrimal glads are responsible for crying: |type="()"} +True -False {The wheel of emotions is by Paul Ekman} -True + False {The facial expressions for anger is, eyes staring, eyebrows pulled down and together and skin temperature increases} +True -False </quiz> == What causes mixed emotions? == {{expand}} === '''What causes each emotion?''' === [[File:Emotions Image.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 10'' Mixed Emotions]] Emotions start when a significant life event occurs and then distinct patterns of neural activity start to form. There is {{gr}} a few theories when it comes to emotion biological perspective; {{gr}} the cognitive perspective and neurological perspective. The cognitive perspective involves appraisal, emotion knowledge and attribution (Gross, 2002). Appraisal means how significant the event is and emotion knowledge means the ability to differentiate between various basic emotions (Gross, 2002). Attribution explains why the event outcome occurred (Reeve, 2018). The biological perspective refers to the body response when an event occurs causing the emotion, it emphasises main emotions like anger or fear (Gurney, 1884). The neurological perspective involves the neural activity in the brain, in response to emotion (Gurney, 1884). The biological perspective involves the automatic nervous system, subcortical brain circuits and facial feedback (Sato et al., 2004). One study used a fMRI ("measures the small changes in blood flow that occur with the brain activity" (Radiology (ACR), 2018) and analysed the facial expressions to emotions (Sato et al., 2004). The study used two types of controlled stimuli (1) static facial expressions which means certain specific facial structures associated to that emotion (2) dynamic facial images and the results found the left amygdala was activated in response to fearful stimuli (Sato et al., 2004). === '''What is the purpose of emotions?''' === The main purpose of emotions is the coping functions which means individuals can adapt better to life event (Reeve, 2018). Another reason is the social functions involved, making social interactions better and communication (Ekman & Friesen, 1969). There are multiple benefits for experiencing emotions like sadness to cause reparative behaviour and make the individual more caring towards others. === '''What happens when an individual experiences multiple emotions at once?''' === Complex emotions occur when an individual feels happy (positive) and sad (negative) at the same time, caused by an event (for example starting a new job, the individual may experience feeling excited but also nervous at the same time). It happens when an individual experiences different emotions and physiological reactions for the same event (Gurny, 1884). Complex emotions are harder to identify and recognise than basic emotions (Ekman et al., 1999). Emotion differentiation happens when someone appraises the same event at two different times (Gurney, 1884). The amygdala is responsible for the appraisals and appraisals occur after the stimulus exposure happens around (1 1/2 seconds){{fact}}. Another theory is there are four core emotions for example: happiness, sadness, fear and anger overlap causing a Venn diagram and it would create a compound emotion (Du et al., 2012). A compound emotion can occur when two or more core emotions happen simultaneously (Duet al., 2012). The theory provides more specific definition of emotions in result of an event, rather having a timeline of emotions before and after the event occurred, assuming each emotions would have a physiological response.{{expand}} == How are mixed emotions managed? == There are a few managing strategies for mixed emotions, {{gr}} reappraisal, suppression and situation modification will be discussed. Reappraisal was researched by James Gross and it means modifying the emotion or maintain emotion regulation (Gross, 2002). Another managing strategy is suppression which was also researched by Gross and it means decreasing unwanted behaviour, physiological responses includes rise in blood pressure, [[wikipedia:Electrodermal_activity|electrodermal response]] and heart rate (Gross, 2002). Situation modification is another managing tool which involves problem-focused approach from a significant life event, for example someone apologising for their actions (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). '''Is it healthy having mixed emotions? If so for how long?''' Mixed emotions are normal to have and people that recognise between positive or negative emotion are more resilient especially when people experience more positive emotion (Pitzer & Bergeman, 2013). Individuals will also recover faster when experiencing a loss (Pitzer & Bergeman, 2013). As people age, the individual would understand the positive and negative aspects of an event more maturely (Labouvie-Vief, 2015). Individuals would also tolerate complex and conflicting emotions, try to problem-solve (Labouvi-Vief, 2015). Complex emotions are healthy to have and strengthen interpersonal relationships (Ekman, 2010). When individuals age to midlife the ability of tolerating conflicting emotions changes (Charles et al., 2017). Long term effects of negative emotions like fear, anger or sadness for example can cause mental illness (depression or anxiety) and physical problems{{fact}}. Long term positive effects{{gr}} to an individual leads to better wellbeing, overall health and living a longer life{{gr}}. == Conclusion == This chapter discussed each core emotion: fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy, surprised and contempt. Each section of emotions analysed what the emotion look {{gr}} like (facial features and non verbal cues) and what happens when an individual experiences that emotion in the brain. Managing strategies for mixed {{missing}} were also discussed, reappraisal, situation modification and suppression for emotion regulation{{gr}}. Mixed emotions are normal to have, particularly positive emotions make people more resilient compared to negative emotions. During a human lifespan, adults understand emotions and problem-solve more efficiently. It is possible to experience more than one emotion which multiple theorists tried to explain. For an {{gr}} particular event like starting school, happy (positive) or fear (negative) and experience physiological reaction which is known as the James- Lange theory of emotion. Another theory is compound emotion which is extracted from the core emotions and provides specific emotions, imagine a Venn diagram with the core emotions or the wheel of emotions. '''Summarising what has been found and further research opportunities''' There is not a clear answer how mixed emotions do occur. It is possible to experience mixed emotions towards an event, like going to school for the first time, does each emotion switch simultaneously or does{{gr}}. Perhaps, each person experience emotions differently and cannot be defined{{gr}}. For future research, psychologists should analyse each core emotion and see how each emotion interacts with one another. After analysing the core emotions, psychologist should also examine sub-emotions{{gr}}. Furthermore, researchers should analyse if core emotions and sub emotions could produce mixed emotions{{explain}}. == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Mixed emotions|Mixed emotions]] (Book chapter, 2022) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= American Psychological Association. (n.d.). APA Dictionary of Psychology. Dictionary.apa.org. Retrieved September 16, 2021, from https://dictionary.apa.org/fear Charles, S. T., Piazza, J. R., & Urban, E. J. (2017). Mixed emotions across adulthood: when, where, and why? Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 15, 58–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.05.007 Dalgleish, T., Power, M. J., & Ekman, P. (1999). Handbook of cognition and emotion. Wiley. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=vsLvrhohXhAC&oi=fnd&pg=PA45&dq=basic+emotions+ekman&ots=uUxJamT7Lg&sig=XU0-_ToIhTcXYJySe_ggij-rY3M#v=onepage&q=basic%20emotions%20ekman&f=false Du, S., Tao, Y., & Martinez, A. M. (2014). Compound facial expressions of emotion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(15), E1454–E1462. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1322355111 Ekman, P. (2009). Darwin’s contributions to our understanding of emotional expressions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1535), 3449–3451. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0189 Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1969). The Repertoire of Nonverbal Behavior: Categories, Origins, Usage, and Coding. Semiotica, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.1515/semi.1969.1.1.49 Gross, J. J. (2002). Emotion regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences. Psychophysiology, 39(3), 281–291. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0048577201393198 Gurney, E. (1884). What is an Emotion? Mind, 9(35). JSTOR. Hahn, A. C., Whitehead, R. D., Albrecht, M., Lefevre, C. E., & Perrett, D. I. (2012). Hot or not? Thermal reactions to social contact. Biology Letters, 8(5), 864–867. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2012.0338 Haidt, J., McCauley, C., & Rozin, P. (1994). Individual differences in sensitivity to disgust: A scale sampling seven domains of disgust elicitors. Personality and Individual Differences, 16(5), 701–713. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(94)90212-7 How the Brain Processes Emotions. (n.d.). Neurology Live. Retrieved September 24, 2021, from https://www.neurologylive.com/view/how-brain-processes-emotions Izard, C. E. (2004). The Psychology Of Emotions. Kluwer Academic Pub. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=RPv-shA_sxMC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Izard,+1991+interest&ots=cUA88oX7T9&sig=4Y3drrASb_x8GIXp4MrTlwSU_4A&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Izard%2C%201991%20interest&f=false Izard, C. E., Hembree, E. A., Dougherty, L. M., & Spizzirri, C. C. (1983). Changes in facial expressions of 2- to 19-month-old infants following acute pain. Developmental Psychology, 19(3), 418–426. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.19.3.418 John Mordechai Gottman, & Silver, N. (2018). The seven principles for making marriage work. Seven Dials An Imprint Of Orion Publishing Group Ltd. Joiner, T. E., Pettit, J. W., Perez, M., Burns, A. B., Gencoz, T., Gencoz, F., & Rudd, M. D. (2001). Can positive emotion influence problem-solving attitudes among suicidal adults? Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 32(5), 507–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.32.5.507 Labouvie-Vief, G. (2015). Integrating emotions and cognition throughout the lifespan. Springer. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-319-09822-7 Larsen, J. T., & McGraw, A. P. (2011). Further evidence for mixed emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(6), 1095–1110. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021846 Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=i-ySQQuUpr8C&oi=fnd&pg=PR5&dq=lazarus+and+Folkman+1984&ots=DgFRirgiNi&sig=p3B0ABh0uvLb0MdCjEQIhEiK1-Y&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=lazarus%20and%20Folkman%201984&f=false Levenson, R. W. (2011). Basic Emotion Questions. Emotion Review, 3(4), 379–386. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073911410743 Maan Diong, S., Bishop, G. D., Enkelmann, H. C., Tong, E. M. W., Why, Y. P., Ang, J. C. H., & Khader, M. (2005). Anger, stress, coping, social support and health: Modelling the relationships. Psychology & Health, 20(4), 467–495. https://doi.org/10.1080/0887044040512331333960 Ohman, A. (2008). APA PsycNet. Psycnet.apa.org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2008-07784-044 Öhman, A., & Mineka, S. (2003). The Malicious Serpent. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(1), 5–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.01211 Olatunji, B. O., & Sawchuk, C. N. (2005). Disgust: Characteristic Features, Social Manifestations, and Clinical Implications. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 24(7), 932–962. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2005.24.7.932 Pekrun, R., & Stephens, E. J. (2010). Achievement Emotions: A Control-Value Approach. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4(4), 238–255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00259.x Pitzer, L. M., & Bergeman, C. S. (2013). Synchrony in Affect Among Stressed Adults: The Notre Dame Widowhood Study. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 69B(1), 29–39. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbt026 Radiology (ACR), R. S. of N. A. (RSNA) and A. C. of. (2018, February 25). Magnetic Resonance, Functional (fMRI) - Brain. Radiologyinfo.org. https://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info/fmribrain#:~:text=Functional%20magnetic%20resonance%20imaging%20(fMRI Rozin, P., & Fallon, A. E. (1987). A perspective on disgust. Psychological Review, 94(1), 23–41. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.94.1.23 Sato, W., Kochiyama, T., Yoshikawa, S., Naito, E., & Matsumura, M. (2004). Enhanced neural activity in response to dynamic facial expressions of emotion: an fMRI study. Cognitive Brain Research, 20(1), 81–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2004.01.008 Shaver, P., Schwartz, J., Kirson, D., & O’Connor, C. (1987). Emotion knowledge: Further exploration of a prototype approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(6), 1061–1086. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1061 SlideToDoc. (n.d.). The Expression of Emotion Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal Communication. Slidetodoc.com. Retrieved September 26, 2021, from https://slidetodoc.com/the-expression-of-emotion-nonverbal-communication-nonverbal-communication/ Tafrate, R. C., Kassinove, H., & Dundin, L. (2002). Anger episodes in high- and low-trait-anger community adults. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(12), 1573–1590. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10076 Thoman, D. B., Smith, J. L., & Silvia, P. J. (2011). The Resource Replenishment Function of Interest. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(6), 592–599. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550611402521 Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2004). TARGET ARTICLE: “Putting the Self Into Self-Conscious Emotions: A Theoretical Model.” Psychological Inquiry, 15(2), 103–125. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli1502_01 Tybur, J. M., Lieberman, D., Kurzban, R., & DeScioli, P. (2013). Disgust: Evolved function and structure. Psychological Review, 120(1), 65–84. https://doi.org/10.1037/a003077 }} == External links == https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAMbkJk6gnE&t=52s (YouTube - All about the feels: CrashCourse Psychology) https://www.paulekman.com/resources/universal-facial-expressions/ (Paul Ekman Group: Universal Facial Expressions) http://atlasofemotions.org/ (Interactive Tool for Understanding Emotions) https://psychology.wikia.org/wiki/Emotions (Wikia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] rqrv53jsahpkn308x0mczql7mcirqem 2415818 2415816 2022-08-17T11:11:43Z Earthxangel 2947535 /* What causes each emotion? */ grammar fixed wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Mixed emotions:<br>What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed?}} {{MECR3|https://youtu.be/_Iqfq3lTNY8}} __TOC__ == Overview == Emotions give people the ability to communicate with each other through nonverbal and verbal gestures. Charles Darwin noted that people worldwide are able to recognise emotions, regardless of their cultural background. Some cultural backgrounds have cultural-specific signals and greetings, however language does not play much of an impact of understanding emotions. This book chapter provides a broad overview on what mixed emotions are and each of the core emotions from Paul Ekman's model on facial expressions. The core emotions outlined are: fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy, surprise and contempt with a brief summary and what each emotions look like. The mixed emotions discussions mention The James Lange theory of emotions and compound emotions by Du, Tau and Martinez from Ohio State University. The James Lange theory involves the event (stimulus), arousal (physiological response) and interpretation which leads to the emotion. Compound emotions are similar to the wheel of emotions by Plutchik with more specific emotions in the middle of the core emotions. The managing strategies for mixed emotions are suppression, reappraisal and situation modification. == What are mixed emotions? == [[File:Bipolar disorder moods 2683232.svg|thumb|''Fig. 1'' Mixed Emotion Picture |150x150px]] '''Definition of what mixed emotions mean''' <blockquote>"Short-lived, feeling-purposive-expressive-bodily responses that help us adapt to the opportunities and challenges we face during important life events" (Reeve, 2018). </blockquote> Identifying the key mixed emotions and what they look like People experience emotions due to a response to a significant life event, that is specific and short-lived. Moods are different from emotions, they are long-lived, influence cognition and can be unclear. The brain region responsible for emotions is the amygdala, especially for fear, anxiety and anger. [[File:Body of Emotion.png|center|frameless|320x320px|(Reeve, 2018)]] The six basic core emotions by [[w:Paul Ekman|Paul Ekman]]: * Fear * Anger * Disgust * Sadness * Interest * Joy * Surprise * Contempt There are many emotions that individuals experience. The majority of emotions are sub-emotions from the basic core emotions. The best example of the sub-emotions is by Robert Plutchik. The self-conscious has five emotions: shame, guilt, embarrassment, pride and triumph (Tracy & Robins, 2004). The cognitively complex has eight emotions: envy, gratitude, disappointment, regret, hope, [[mwod:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]], empathy and compassion (Pekrun & Stephens, 2010). Emotion stems from arousal of feelings through facial movements, the facial temperature change and glandular activity in the facial skin (Haidt et al., 2012). Ekman analysed Darwin's theory of all humans display emotions through facial features in the same way throughout different cultures (Ekman, 2009). One of the ways to identify emotions is facial expressions, people have eighty facial muscles and thirty six facial expressions (Du et al., 2014). [[File:Plutchiks-emotional-wheel.png|center|thumb|''Fig. 2'' Wheel of emotions by Plutchik ]] === '''<u>Fear</u>''' === <blockquote>"A basic, intense emotion aroused by the detection of imminent threat, involving an immediate alarm reaction that mobilises the organism by triggering a set of psychological changes" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> [[File:Fear computer.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 3'' Core Emotion: Fear]] '''What does fear look like?''' Fear can also include the fear response; [https://dictionary.apa.org/fight-or-flight-response fight-or-flight response] which the [https://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/m/s4/chapter06.html amygdala] is responsible for. Feeling fear is when an individual experiences an event (car accident for example) that makes them feel scared from a threat or danger (Ohman & Mineka, 2003). Physical features include display high eyebrows, raised eyelids, lips slightly stretched and jaw drop. Fear involves the raising of their heart beat, sweating (head, armpits or palms), freezing, trembling and the abrupt drop of their skin temperature because the blood is flowing to the legs to get adrenaline ready for running, this is also known as the fight-flight response (cortisone) (Haidt et al., 2012). Having fear for long periods of time can cause anxiety, phobias (specific situations or events from a particular object or place) and post-traumatic stress disorder (resulting from extreme danger) (Ohman, 2008). === '''<u>Anger</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotion characterised by tension and hostility arising from frustration, real or imagined injury by another, or perceived injustice" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does anger look like?''' The fear emotion is located in the brain region of the amygdala. The individual would display their eyebrows pulled down and together, eyes would be opened wide and staring and lips would be pressed together. The individual would experience an event that makes them feel upset (for example, road rage), the heart rate would increase and also the skin temperature (Haidt et al., 2012). The individual can also demonstrate yelling or screaming, anger can quickly turn into aggression for 10% of the time (Tafrate Kassinove & Dundin, 2002).The function of anger is to help overcome obstacles by asserting and maintaining control (Maan Diong et al., 2005). The anger emotion displays the most energy compared to the other basic emotions and it is also healthy to experience (Levenson, 2011). === '''<u>Disgust</u>''' === [[File:MOREmoji eww.svg|thumb|''Fig. 4'' Core Emotion: Disgust]] <blockquote>"A strong aversion, for example, to the taste, smell, or touch of something deemed revolting, or toward a person or behaviour deemed morally repugnant" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does disgust look like?''' Disgust is a primitive function to protect the human body from harmful substances (Rozin & Fallon, 1987). The disgust emotion is located in the brain region of the left amygdala, the [[wikipedia:Inferior_frontal_gyrus|left inferior frontal cortex]], and the [https://n.neurology.org/content/93/21/932 insular cortex]. The individual would experience an event (unpleasant smell or irritating noise) the heart rate and skin temperature would decrease (Haidt et al., 2012). The individual would display lowered eyebrows, big wrinkle on the side of the nose and the bridge of the nose, the lip would be raised which forms an arch and the lower lip would be raised and protruding (Ekman, 1988). The function for disgust is to ensure the individual removes or gets away from any contaminated or spoiled objects (Tybur et al., 2004). Conditions that are related to disgust is obsessive- compulsive disorder, phobias and eating disorders (Olatungi & Sawchuk, 2005). The emotion of disgust has several domains by (Haidt et al., 1994) * Food * Bodily waste (for example, blood or faeces, animals, sexual behaviours, poor hygiene, contact with death or corpses, violations of the exterior body like or deformities), * Contact with distasteful people * Moral offences (for example, child abuse, incest, infidelity and more) === '''<u>Sadness</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotional state of unhappiness, ranging in intensity from mild to extreme and usually aroused by the loss of something that is highly valued (e.g by the rupture of a relationship)" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> [[File:Girl with sad face.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 5'' Core Emotion: Sadness]] '''What does sadness look like?''' The sadness emotion is located in several brain regions in right [https://www.neuroskills.com/brain-injury/occipital-lobes/ occipital lobe], left insular, left [[wikipedia:Thalamus|thalamus]], amygdala and the [https://www.news-medical.net/health/Hippocampus-Functions.aspx hippocampus]. The individual would experience an emotional event (breakup, someone dying) that makes them feel sad and upset. The heart rate would increase, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2695635/#:~:text=The%20skin%20conductance%20response%20(SCR)%20is%20an%20indirect%20measure%20of,emotional%20valence%20(Bradley%20et%20al. skin conductance] would be decreased, constricts breathing and the [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK532914/#:~:text=The%20lacrimal%20gland%20is%20a,fossa%20of%20the%20frontal%20bone. lacrimal glads] would active for crying (Reeve, 2018). The individual would display the inner corners of their eyebrows pulled up and together, the upper eyelids would be drooped down and the eye would be looking down and the corner of the lips would also be lowered (Ekman, 2019). The function of the emotion of sadness is too alleviate and to prevent distressful circumstances. Sadness is important when a person is grieving, however long periods of sadness can produce depression (Bonanno et al., 2008). [[File:Interest (emotion).jpg|thumb|153x153px|''Fig. 6'' Core Emotion: Interest ]] === '''<u>Interest</u>''' === <blockquote> "An attitude characterised by a need or desire to give selective attention to something that is significant to the individual, such as an activity, goal, or research area" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does interest look like?''' The emotion of interest is present everyday, individual would experience an interest for a certain time then find a new interest to focus on (Izard, 1991). The function for interest is for skill development and engagement (Thoman, Smith, & Silvia, 2011). The interest emotion is located in the brain region of the limbic system, anterior insula and right inferior frontal gyrus. The individual would display the eyebrows would be pulled up, eyes would be opened wide, the corner of the lips would lower and the top of the lip would be raised (SlideToDoc, n.d). === '''<u>Joy</u>''' === [[File:Happy-Smiley.png|thumb|''Fig. 7'' Core Emotion: Joy|190x190px]] <blockquote> "A feeling of extreme gladness, delight, or exultation of the spirit arising from a sense of well-being or satisfaction" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does joy look like?''' The emotion of joy, is when an individual experiences success on a task, personal achievement, gaining respect or love or affection (Ekman & Friesen, 1975; Izard, 1991; Shaver Schwartz, Kirson, & O’Connor, 1987).The emotion of joy, is located in several brain regions in the right frontal cortex, the [[wikipedia:Precuneus|precuneus]], left amygdala, and the left insula. Individuals would experience an event (wedding or birth) that would produce the emotion of joy, the heart rate, skin temperature and skin conductance were low and stable (Reeve, 2018). The individual would display their eyes would be narrowed and a wrinkle would start to show on the side of the eyes, the cheeks would be raised, the lips would be pulled back and the teeth would be showing indicating a smile (Ekman, 1988). The function of joy is to assist relationships and strengthen them, engage in social activities and maintain social interaction (Langsdorff, Izard, Rayias, & Hembree, 1983). Another function of joy is to preserve psychological wellbeing, especially when something bad happens (Joiner Pettit, Perez, & Burns, 2001). [[File:SURPRISE.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 8'' Core Emotion: Surprise]] === '''<u>Surprise</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotion typically resulting from the violation of an expectation or the detection of novelty in the environment" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote>'''What does surprise look like?''' The surprise emotion is located in the brain regions of inferior frontal gyrus and hippocampus. The individual would display similar facial features, for example when they show interest with only few differences. The eyebrows would be raised, but not drawn together, the upper eyelids would be raised but the lower eyelids would remain neutral and the jaw would drop down (Ekman,1988). An individual would experience the emotion of surprised for presents or surprise birthday party for example.   === '''<u>Contempt</u>''' === [[File:Contempt facial expression.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 9'' Core Emotion: Contempt|200x200px]]<blockquote> "An emotion characterised by negative regard for anything or anybody considered to be inferior, vile, or worthless" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does contempt look like?''' The emotion of contempt means being morally superior towards another person. Contempt is similar to disgust, although the facial expressions are different (Ekman & Friesen, 1986; Ekman & Heider, 1988; Matsumoto, 1992; Matsumoto & Ekman, 2004).The contempt emotion is located in the brain region of the [https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain/brain-anatomy/limbic-system limbic system]. The individual would display the tightened and raised lip corner and the eyes would remain neutral (Ekman, 1988). The function of contempt is to sustain social hierarchy and some events include a toxic marriage, where one individual enforces rules to maintain dominance (Gottman & Silver, 1999). An individual would feel superior compared to the other person, they would disrespect others, mock them and sarcastic. Knowledge Check: <quiz display="simple"> {Lacrimal glads are responsible for crying: |type="()"} +True -False {The wheel of emotions is by Paul Ekman} -True + False {The facial expressions for anger is, eyes staring, eyebrows pulled down and together and skin temperature increases} +True -False </quiz> == What causes mixed emotions? == {{expand}} === '''What causes each emotion?''' === [[File:Emotions Image.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 10'' Mixed Emotions]] Emotions start when a significant life event occurs and then distinct patterns of neural activity start to form. There are a few theories when it comes to emotion biological perspective; {{gr}} the cognitive perspective and neurological perspective. The cognitive perspective involves appraisal, emotion knowledge and attribution (Gross, 2002). Appraisal means how significant the event is and emotion knowledge means the ability to differentiate between various basic emotions (Gross, 2002). Attribution explains why the event outcome occurred (Reeve, 2018). The biological perspective refers to the body response when an event occurs causing the emotion, it emphasises main emotions like anger or fear (Gurney, 1884). The neurological perspective involves the neural activity in the brain, in response to emotion (Gurney, 1884). The biological perspective involves the automatic nervous system, subcortical brain circuits and facial feedback (Sato et al., 2004). One study used a fMRI ("measures the small changes in blood flow that occur with the brain activity" (Radiology (ACR), 2018) and analysed the facial expressions to emotions (Sato et al., 2004). The study used two types of controlled stimuli (1) static facial expressions which means certain specific facial structures associated to that emotion (2) dynamic facial images and the results found the left amygdala was activated in response to fearful stimuli (Sato et al., 2004). === '''What is the purpose of emotions?''' === The main purpose of emotions is the coping functions which means individuals can adapt better to life event (Reeve, 2018). Another reason is the social functions involved, making social interactions better and communication (Ekman & Friesen, 1969). There are multiple benefits for experiencing emotions like sadness to cause reparative behaviour and make the individual more caring towards others. === '''What happens when an individual experiences multiple emotions at once?''' === Complex emotions occur when an individual feels happy (positive) and sad (negative) at the same time, caused by an event (for example starting a new job, the individual may experience feeling excited but also nervous at the same time). It happens when an individual experiences different emotions and physiological reactions for the same event (Gurny, 1884). Complex emotions are harder to identify and recognise than basic emotions (Ekman et al., 1999). Emotion differentiation happens when someone appraises the same event at two different times (Gurney, 1884). The amygdala is responsible for the appraisals and appraisals occur after the stimulus exposure happens around (1 1/2 seconds){{fact}}. Another theory is there are four core emotions for example: happiness, sadness, fear and anger overlap causing a Venn diagram and it would create a compound emotion (Du et al., 2012). A compound emotion can occur when two or more core emotions happen simultaneously (Duet al., 2012). The theory provides more specific definition of emotions in result of an event, rather having a timeline of emotions before and after the event occurred, assuming each emotions would have a physiological response.{{expand}} == How are mixed emotions managed? == There are a few managing strategies for mixed emotions, {{gr}} reappraisal, suppression and situation modification will be discussed. Reappraisal was researched by James Gross and it means modifying the emotion or maintain emotion regulation (Gross, 2002). Another managing strategy is suppression which was also researched by Gross and it means decreasing unwanted behaviour, physiological responses includes rise in blood pressure, [[wikipedia:Electrodermal_activity|electrodermal response]] and heart rate (Gross, 2002). Situation modification is another managing tool which involves problem-focused approach from a significant life event, for example someone apologising for their actions (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). '''Is it healthy having mixed emotions? If so for how long?''' Mixed emotions are normal to have and people that recognise between positive or negative emotion are more resilient especially when people experience more positive emotion (Pitzer & Bergeman, 2013). Individuals will also recover faster when experiencing a loss (Pitzer & Bergeman, 2013). As people age, the individual would understand the positive and negative aspects of an event more maturely (Labouvie-Vief, 2015). Individuals would also tolerate complex and conflicting emotions, try to problem-solve (Labouvi-Vief, 2015). Complex emotions are healthy to have and strengthen interpersonal relationships (Ekman, 2010). When individuals age to midlife the ability of tolerating conflicting emotions changes (Charles et al., 2017). Long term effects of negative emotions like fear, anger or sadness for example can cause mental illness (depression or anxiety) and physical problems{{fact}}. Long term positive effects{{gr}} to an individual leads to better wellbeing, overall health and living a longer life{{gr}}. == Conclusion == This chapter discussed each core emotion: fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy, surprised and contempt. Each section of emotions analysed what the emotion look {{gr}} like (facial features and non verbal cues) and what happens when an individual experiences that emotion in the brain. Managing strategies for mixed {{missing}} were also discussed, reappraisal, situation modification and suppression for emotion regulation{{gr}}. Mixed emotions are normal to have, particularly positive emotions make people more resilient compared to negative emotions. During a human lifespan, adults understand emotions and problem-solve more efficiently. It is possible to experience more than one emotion which multiple theorists tried to explain. For an {{gr}} particular event like starting school, happy (positive) or fear (negative) and experience physiological reaction which is known as the James- Lange theory of emotion. Another theory is compound emotion which is extracted from the core emotions and provides specific emotions, imagine a Venn diagram with the core emotions or the wheel of emotions. '''Summarising what has been found and further research opportunities''' There is not a clear answer how mixed emotions do occur. It is possible to experience mixed emotions towards an event, like going to school for the first time, does each emotion switch simultaneously or does{{gr}}. Perhaps, each person experience emotions differently and cannot be defined{{gr}}. For future research, psychologists should analyse each core emotion and see how each emotion interacts with one another. After analysing the core emotions, psychologist should also examine sub-emotions{{gr}}. Furthermore, researchers should analyse if core emotions and sub emotions could produce mixed emotions{{explain}}. == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Mixed emotions|Mixed emotions]] (Book chapter, 2022) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= American Psychological Association. (n.d.). APA Dictionary of Psychology. Dictionary.apa.org. Retrieved September 16, 2021, from https://dictionary.apa.org/fear Charles, S. T., Piazza, J. R., & Urban, E. J. (2017). Mixed emotions across adulthood: when, where, and why? Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 15, 58–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.05.007 Dalgleish, T., Power, M. J., & Ekman, P. (1999). Handbook of cognition and emotion. Wiley. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=vsLvrhohXhAC&oi=fnd&pg=PA45&dq=basic+emotions+ekman&ots=uUxJamT7Lg&sig=XU0-_ToIhTcXYJySe_ggij-rY3M#v=onepage&q=basic%20emotions%20ekman&f=false Du, S., Tao, Y., & Martinez, A. M. (2014). Compound facial expressions of emotion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(15), E1454–E1462. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1322355111 Ekman, P. (2009). Darwin’s contributions to our understanding of emotional expressions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1535), 3449–3451. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0189 Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1969). The Repertoire of Nonverbal Behavior: Categories, Origins, Usage, and Coding. Semiotica, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.1515/semi.1969.1.1.49 Gross, J. J. (2002). Emotion regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences. Psychophysiology, 39(3), 281–291. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0048577201393198 Gurney, E. (1884). What is an Emotion? Mind, 9(35). JSTOR. Hahn, A. C., Whitehead, R. D., Albrecht, M., Lefevre, C. E., & Perrett, D. I. (2012). Hot or not? Thermal reactions to social contact. Biology Letters, 8(5), 864–867. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2012.0338 Haidt, J., McCauley, C., & Rozin, P. (1994). Individual differences in sensitivity to disgust: A scale sampling seven domains of disgust elicitors. Personality and Individual Differences, 16(5), 701–713. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(94)90212-7 How the Brain Processes Emotions. (n.d.). Neurology Live. Retrieved September 24, 2021, from https://www.neurologylive.com/view/how-brain-processes-emotions Izard, C. E. (2004). The Psychology Of Emotions. Kluwer Academic Pub. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=RPv-shA_sxMC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Izard,+1991+interest&ots=cUA88oX7T9&sig=4Y3drrASb_x8GIXp4MrTlwSU_4A&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Izard%2C%201991%20interest&f=false Izard, C. E., Hembree, E. A., Dougherty, L. M., & Spizzirri, C. C. (1983). Changes in facial expressions of 2- to 19-month-old infants following acute pain. Developmental Psychology, 19(3), 418–426. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.19.3.418 John Mordechai Gottman, & Silver, N. (2018). The seven principles for making marriage work. Seven Dials An Imprint Of Orion Publishing Group Ltd. Joiner, T. E., Pettit, J. W., Perez, M., Burns, A. B., Gencoz, T., Gencoz, F., & Rudd, M. D. (2001). Can positive emotion influence problem-solving attitudes among suicidal adults? Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 32(5), 507–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.32.5.507 Labouvie-Vief, G. (2015). Integrating emotions and cognition throughout the lifespan. Springer. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-319-09822-7 Larsen, J. T., & McGraw, A. P. (2011). Further evidence for mixed emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(6), 1095–1110. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021846 Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=i-ySQQuUpr8C&oi=fnd&pg=PR5&dq=lazarus+and+Folkman+1984&ots=DgFRirgiNi&sig=p3B0ABh0uvLb0MdCjEQIhEiK1-Y&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=lazarus%20and%20Folkman%201984&f=false Levenson, R. W. (2011). Basic Emotion Questions. Emotion Review, 3(4), 379–386. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073911410743 Maan Diong, S., Bishop, G. D., Enkelmann, H. C., Tong, E. M. W., Why, Y. P., Ang, J. C. H., & Khader, M. (2005). Anger, stress, coping, social support and health: Modelling the relationships. Psychology & Health, 20(4), 467–495. https://doi.org/10.1080/0887044040512331333960 Ohman, A. (2008). APA PsycNet. Psycnet.apa.org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2008-07784-044 Öhman, A., & Mineka, S. (2003). The Malicious Serpent. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(1), 5–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.01211 Olatunji, B. O., & Sawchuk, C. N. (2005). Disgust: Characteristic Features, Social Manifestations, and Clinical Implications. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 24(7), 932–962. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2005.24.7.932 Pekrun, R., & Stephens, E. J. (2010). Achievement Emotions: A Control-Value Approach. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4(4), 238–255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00259.x Pitzer, L. M., & Bergeman, C. S. (2013). Synchrony in Affect Among Stressed Adults: The Notre Dame Widowhood Study. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 69B(1), 29–39. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbt026 Radiology (ACR), R. S. of N. A. (RSNA) and A. C. of. (2018, February 25). Magnetic Resonance, Functional (fMRI) - Brain. Radiologyinfo.org. https://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info/fmribrain#:~:text=Functional%20magnetic%20resonance%20imaging%20(fMRI Rozin, P., & Fallon, A. E. (1987). A perspective on disgust. Psychological Review, 94(1), 23–41. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.94.1.23 Sato, W., Kochiyama, T., Yoshikawa, S., Naito, E., & Matsumura, M. (2004). Enhanced neural activity in response to dynamic facial expressions of emotion: an fMRI study. Cognitive Brain Research, 20(1), 81–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2004.01.008 Shaver, P., Schwartz, J., Kirson, D., & O’Connor, C. (1987). Emotion knowledge: Further exploration of a prototype approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(6), 1061–1086. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1061 SlideToDoc. (n.d.). The Expression of Emotion Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal Communication. Slidetodoc.com. Retrieved September 26, 2021, from https://slidetodoc.com/the-expression-of-emotion-nonverbal-communication-nonverbal-communication/ Tafrate, R. C., Kassinove, H., & Dundin, L. (2002). Anger episodes in high- and low-trait-anger community adults. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(12), 1573–1590. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10076 Thoman, D. B., Smith, J. L., & Silvia, P. J. (2011). The Resource Replenishment Function of Interest. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(6), 592–599. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550611402521 Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2004). TARGET ARTICLE: “Putting the Self Into Self-Conscious Emotions: A Theoretical Model.” Psychological Inquiry, 15(2), 103–125. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli1502_01 Tybur, J. M., Lieberman, D., Kurzban, R., & DeScioli, P. (2013). Disgust: Evolved function and structure. Psychological Review, 120(1), 65–84. https://doi.org/10.1037/a003077 }} == External links == https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAMbkJk6gnE&t=52s (YouTube - All about the feels: CrashCourse Psychology) https://www.paulekman.com/resources/universal-facial-expressions/ (Paul Ekman Group: Universal Facial Expressions) http://atlasofemotions.org/ (Interactive Tool for Understanding Emotions) https://psychology.wikia.org/wiki/Emotions (Wikia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] 5nhz1cicwitaspofpt6q8gkbtp515tb 2415820 2415818 2022-08-17T11:14:20Z Earthxangel 2947535 /* What causes each emotion? */ change to grammar wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Mixed emotions:<br>What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed?}} {{MECR3|https://youtu.be/_Iqfq3lTNY8}} __TOC__ == Overview == Emotions give people the ability to communicate with each other through nonverbal and verbal gestures. Charles Darwin noted that people worldwide are able to recognise emotions, regardless of their cultural background. Some cultural backgrounds have cultural-specific signals and greetings, however language does not play much of an impact of understanding emotions. This book chapter provides a broad overview on what mixed emotions are and each of the core emotions from Paul Ekman's model on facial expressions. The core emotions outlined are: fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy, surprise and contempt with a brief summary and what each emotions look like. The mixed emotions discussions mention The James Lange theory of emotions and compound emotions by Du, Tau and Martinez from Ohio State University. The James Lange theory involves the event (stimulus), arousal (physiological response) and interpretation which leads to the emotion. Compound emotions are similar to the wheel of emotions by Plutchik with more specific emotions in the middle of the core emotions. The managing strategies for mixed emotions are suppression, reappraisal and situation modification. == What are mixed emotions? == [[File:Bipolar disorder moods 2683232.svg|thumb|''Fig. 1'' Mixed Emotion Picture |150x150px]] '''Definition of what mixed emotions mean''' <blockquote>"Short-lived, feeling-purposive-expressive-bodily responses that help us adapt to the opportunities and challenges we face during important life events" (Reeve, 2018). </blockquote> Identifying the key mixed emotions and what they look like People experience emotions due to a response to a significant life event, that is specific and short-lived. Moods are different from emotions, they are long-lived, influence cognition and can be unclear. The brain region responsible for emotions is the amygdala, especially for fear, anxiety and anger. [[File:Body of Emotion.png|center|frameless|320x320px|(Reeve, 2018)]] The six basic core emotions by [[w:Paul Ekman|Paul Ekman]]: * Fear * Anger * Disgust * Sadness * Interest * Joy * Surprise * Contempt There are many emotions that individuals experience. The majority of emotions are sub-emotions from the basic core emotions. The best example of the sub-emotions is by Robert Plutchik. The self-conscious has five emotions: shame, guilt, embarrassment, pride and triumph (Tracy & Robins, 2004). The cognitively complex has eight emotions: envy, gratitude, disappointment, regret, hope, [[mwod:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]], empathy and compassion (Pekrun & Stephens, 2010). Emotion stems from arousal of feelings through facial movements, the facial temperature change and glandular activity in the facial skin (Haidt et al., 2012). Ekman analysed Darwin's theory of all humans display emotions through facial features in the same way throughout different cultures (Ekman, 2009). One of the ways to identify emotions is facial expressions, people have eighty facial muscles and thirty six facial expressions (Du et al., 2014). [[File:Plutchiks-emotional-wheel.png|center|thumb|''Fig. 2'' Wheel of emotions by Plutchik ]] === '''<u>Fear</u>''' === <blockquote>"A basic, intense emotion aroused by the detection of imminent threat, involving an immediate alarm reaction that mobilises the organism by triggering a set of psychological changes" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> [[File:Fear computer.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 3'' Core Emotion: Fear]] '''What does fear look like?''' Fear can also include the fear response; [https://dictionary.apa.org/fight-or-flight-response fight-or-flight response] which the [https://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/m/s4/chapter06.html amygdala] is responsible for. Feeling fear is when an individual experiences an event (car accident for example) that makes them feel scared from a threat or danger (Ohman & Mineka, 2003). Physical features include display high eyebrows, raised eyelids, lips slightly stretched and jaw drop. Fear involves the raising of their heart beat, sweating (head, armpits or palms), freezing, trembling and the abrupt drop of their skin temperature because the blood is flowing to the legs to get adrenaline ready for running, this is also known as the fight-flight response (cortisone) (Haidt et al., 2012). Having fear for long periods of time can cause anxiety, phobias (specific situations or events from a particular object or place) and post-traumatic stress disorder (resulting from extreme danger) (Ohman, 2008). === '''<u>Anger</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotion characterised by tension and hostility arising from frustration, real or imagined injury by another, or perceived injustice" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does anger look like?''' The fear emotion is located in the brain region of the amygdala. The individual would display their eyebrows pulled down and together, eyes would be opened wide and staring and lips would be pressed together. The individual would experience an event that makes them feel upset (for example, road rage), the heart rate would increase and also the skin temperature (Haidt et al., 2012). The individual can also demonstrate yelling or screaming, anger can quickly turn into aggression for 10% of the time (Tafrate Kassinove & Dundin, 2002).The function of anger is to help overcome obstacles by asserting and maintaining control (Maan Diong et al., 2005). The anger emotion displays the most energy compared to the other basic emotions and it is also healthy to experience (Levenson, 2011). === '''<u>Disgust</u>''' === [[File:MOREmoji eww.svg|thumb|''Fig. 4'' Core Emotion: Disgust]] <blockquote>"A strong aversion, for example, to the taste, smell, or touch of something deemed revolting, or toward a person or behaviour deemed morally repugnant" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does disgust look like?''' Disgust is a primitive function to protect the human body from harmful substances (Rozin & Fallon, 1987). The disgust emotion is located in the brain region of the left amygdala, the [[wikipedia:Inferior_frontal_gyrus|left inferior frontal cortex]], and the [https://n.neurology.org/content/93/21/932 insular cortex]. The individual would experience an event (unpleasant smell or irritating noise) the heart rate and skin temperature would decrease (Haidt et al., 2012). The individual would display lowered eyebrows, big wrinkle on the side of the nose and the bridge of the nose, the lip would be raised which forms an arch and the lower lip would be raised and protruding (Ekman, 1988). The function for disgust is to ensure the individual removes or gets away from any contaminated or spoiled objects (Tybur et al., 2004). Conditions that are related to disgust is obsessive- compulsive disorder, phobias and eating disorders (Olatungi & Sawchuk, 2005). The emotion of disgust has several domains by (Haidt et al., 1994) * Food * Bodily waste (for example, blood or faeces, animals, sexual behaviours, poor hygiene, contact with death or corpses, violations of the exterior body like or deformities), * Contact with distasteful people * Moral offences (for example, child abuse, incest, infidelity and more) === '''<u>Sadness</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotional state of unhappiness, ranging in intensity from mild to extreme and usually aroused by the loss of something that is highly valued (e.g by the rupture of a relationship)" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> [[File:Girl with sad face.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 5'' Core Emotion: Sadness]] '''What does sadness look like?''' The sadness emotion is located in several brain regions in right [https://www.neuroskills.com/brain-injury/occipital-lobes/ occipital lobe], left insular, left [[wikipedia:Thalamus|thalamus]], amygdala and the [https://www.news-medical.net/health/Hippocampus-Functions.aspx hippocampus]. The individual would experience an emotional event (breakup, someone dying) that makes them feel sad and upset. The heart rate would increase, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2695635/#:~:text=The%20skin%20conductance%20response%20(SCR)%20is%20an%20indirect%20measure%20of,emotional%20valence%20(Bradley%20et%20al. skin conductance] would be decreased, constricts breathing and the [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK532914/#:~:text=The%20lacrimal%20gland%20is%20a,fossa%20of%20the%20frontal%20bone. lacrimal glads] would active for crying (Reeve, 2018). The individual would display the inner corners of their eyebrows pulled up and together, the upper eyelids would be drooped down and the eye would be looking down and the corner of the lips would also be lowered (Ekman, 2019). The function of the emotion of sadness is too alleviate and to prevent distressful circumstances. Sadness is important when a person is grieving, however long periods of sadness can produce depression (Bonanno et al., 2008). [[File:Interest (emotion).jpg|thumb|153x153px|''Fig. 6'' Core Emotion: Interest ]] === '''<u>Interest</u>''' === <blockquote> "An attitude characterised by a need or desire to give selective attention to something that is significant to the individual, such as an activity, goal, or research area" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does interest look like?''' The emotion of interest is present everyday, individual would experience an interest for a certain time then find a new interest to focus on (Izard, 1991). The function for interest is for skill development and engagement (Thoman, Smith, & Silvia, 2011). The interest emotion is located in the brain region of the limbic system, anterior insula and right inferior frontal gyrus. The individual would display the eyebrows would be pulled up, eyes would be opened wide, the corner of the lips would lower and the top of the lip would be raised (SlideToDoc, n.d). === '''<u>Joy</u>''' === [[File:Happy-Smiley.png|thumb|''Fig. 7'' Core Emotion: Joy|190x190px]] <blockquote> "A feeling of extreme gladness, delight, or exultation of the spirit arising from a sense of well-being or satisfaction" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does joy look like?''' The emotion of joy, is when an individual experiences success on a task, personal achievement, gaining respect or love or affection (Ekman & Friesen, 1975; Izard, 1991; Shaver Schwartz, Kirson, & O’Connor, 1987).The emotion of joy, is located in several brain regions in the right frontal cortex, the [[wikipedia:Precuneus|precuneus]], left amygdala, and the left insula. Individuals would experience an event (wedding or birth) that would produce the emotion of joy, the heart rate, skin temperature and skin conductance were low and stable (Reeve, 2018). The individual would display their eyes would be narrowed and a wrinkle would start to show on the side of the eyes, the cheeks would be raised, the lips would be pulled back and the teeth would be showing indicating a smile (Ekman, 1988). The function of joy is to assist relationships and strengthen them, engage in social activities and maintain social interaction (Langsdorff, Izard, Rayias, & Hembree, 1983). Another function of joy is to preserve psychological wellbeing, especially when something bad happens (Joiner Pettit, Perez, & Burns, 2001). [[File:SURPRISE.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 8'' Core Emotion: Surprise]] === '''<u>Surprise</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotion typically resulting from the violation of an expectation or the detection of novelty in the environment" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote>'''What does surprise look like?''' The surprise emotion is located in the brain regions of inferior frontal gyrus and hippocampus. The individual would display similar facial features, for example when they show interest with only few differences. The eyebrows would be raised, but not drawn together, the upper eyelids would be raised but the lower eyelids would remain neutral and the jaw would drop down (Ekman,1988). An individual would experience the emotion of surprised for presents or surprise birthday party for example.   === '''<u>Contempt</u>''' === [[File:Contempt facial expression.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 9'' Core Emotion: Contempt|200x200px]]<blockquote> "An emotion characterised by negative regard for anything or anybody considered to be inferior, vile, or worthless" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does contempt look like?''' The emotion of contempt means being morally superior towards another person. Contempt is similar to disgust, although the facial expressions are different (Ekman & Friesen, 1986; Ekman & Heider, 1988; Matsumoto, 1992; Matsumoto & Ekman, 2004).The contempt emotion is located in the brain region of the [https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain/brain-anatomy/limbic-system limbic system]. The individual would display the tightened and raised lip corner and the eyes would remain neutral (Ekman, 1988). The function of contempt is to sustain social hierarchy and some events include a toxic marriage, where one individual enforces rules to maintain dominance (Gottman & Silver, 1999). An individual would feel superior compared to the other person, they would disrespect others, mock them and sarcastic. Knowledge Check: <quiz display="simple"> {Lacrimal glads are responsible for crying: |type="()"} +True -False {The wheel of emotions is by Paul Ekman} -True + False {The facial expressions for anger is, eyes staring, eyebrows pulled down and together and skin temperature increases} +True -False </quiz> == What causes mixed emotions? == {{expand}} === '''What causes each emotion?''' === [[File:Emotions Image.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 10'' Mixed Emotions]] Emotions start when a significant life event occurs and then distinct patterns of neural activity start to form. There are a few theories when it comes to emotion: the biological perspective, cognitive perspective and neurological perspective. The cognitive perspective involves appraisal, emotion knowledge and attribution (Gross, 2002). Appraisal means how significant the event is and emotion knowledge means the ability to differentiate between various basic emotions (Gross, 2002). Attribution explains why the event outcome occurred (Reeve, 2018). The biological perspective refers to the body response when an event occurs causing the emotion, it emphasises main emotions like anger or fear (Gurney, 1884). The neurological perspective involves the neural activity in the brain, in response to emotion (Gurney, 1884). The biological perspective involves the automatic nervous system, subcortical brain circuits and facial feedback (Sato et al., 2004). One study used a fMRI ("measures the small changes in blood flow that occur with the brain activity" (Radiology (ACR), 2018) and analysed the facial expressions to emotions (Sato et al., 2004). The study used two types of controlled stimuli (1) static facial expressions which means certain specific facial structures associated to that emotion (2) dynamic facial images and the results found the left amygdala was activated in response to fearful stimuli (Sato et al., 2004). === '''What is the purpose of emotions?''' === The main purpose of emotions is the coping functions which means individuals can adapt better to life event (Reeve, 2018). Another reason is the social functions involved, making social interactions better and communication (Ekman & Friesen, 1969). There are multiple benefits for experiencing emotions like sadness to cause reparative behaviour and make the individual more caring towards others. === '''What happens when an individual experiences multiple emotions at once?''' === Complex emotions occur when an individual feels happy (positive) and sad (negative) at the same time, caused by an event (for example starting a new job, the individual may experience feeling excited but also nervous at the same time). It happens when an individual experiences different emotions and physiological reactions for the same event (Gurny, 1884). Complex emotions are harder to identify and recognise than basic emotions (Ekman et al., 1999). Emotion differentiation happens when someone appraises the same event at two different times (Gurney, 1884). The amygdala is responsible for the appraisals and appraisals occur after the stimulus exposure happens around (1 1/2 seconds){{fact}}. Another theory is there are four core emotions for example: happiness, sadness, fear and anger overlap causing a Venn diagram and it would create a compound emotion (Du et al., 2012). A compound emotion can occur when two or more core emotions happen simultaneously (Duet al., 2012). The theory provides more specific definition of emotions in result of an event, rather having a timeline of emotions before and after the event occurred, assuming each emotions would have a physiological response.{{expand}} == How are mixed emotions managed? == There are a few managing strategies for mixed emotions, {{gr}} reappraisal, suppression and situation modification will be discussed. Reappraisal was researched by James Gross and it means modifying the emotion or maintain emotion regulation (Gross, 2002). Another managing strategy is suppression which was also researched by Gross and it means decreasing unwanted behaviour, physiological responses includes rise in blood pressure, [[wikipedia:Electrodermal_activity|electrodermal response]] and heart rate (Gross, 2002). Situation modification is another managing tool which involves problem-focused approach from a significant life event, for example someone apologising for their actions (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). '''Is it healthy having mixed emotions? If so for how long?''' Mixed emotions are normal to have and people that recognise between positive or negative emotion are more resilient especially when people experience more positive emotion (Pitzer & Bergeman, 2013). Individuals will also recover faster when experiencing a loss (Pitzer & Bergeman, 2013). As people age, the individual would understand the positive and negative aspects of an event more maturely (Labouvie-Vief, 2015). Individuals would also tolerate complex and conflicting emotions, try to problem-solve (Labouvi-Vief, 2015). Complex emotions are healthy to have and strengthen interpersonal relationships (Ekman, 2010). When individuals age to midlife the ability of tolerating conflicting emotions changes (Charles et al., 2017). Long term effects of negative emotions like fear, anger or sadness for example can cause mental illness (depression or anxiety) and physical problems{{fact}}. Long term positive effects{{gr}} to an individual leads to better wellbeing, overall health and living a longer life{{gr}}. == Conclusion == This chapter discussed each core emotion: fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy, surprised and contempt. Each section of emotions analysed what the emotion look {{gr}} like (facial features and non verbal cues) and what happens when an individual experiences that emotion in the brain. Managing strategies for mixed {{missing}} were also discussed, reappraisal, situation modification and suppression for emotion regulation{{gr}}. Mixed emotions are normal to have, particularly positive emotions make people more resilient compared to negative emotions. During a human lifespan, adults understand emotions and problem-solve more efficiently. It is possible to experience more than one emotion which multiple theorists tried to explain. For an {{gr}} particular event like starting school, happy (positive) or fear (negative) and experience physiological reaction which is known as the James- Lange theory of emotion. Another theory is compound emotion which is extracted from the core emotions and provides specific emotions, imagine a Venn diagram with the core emotions or the wheel of emotions. '''Summarising what has been found and further research opportunities''' There is not a clear answer how mixed emotions do occur. It is possible to experience mixed emotions towards an event, like going to school for the first time, does each emotion switch simultaneously or does{{gr}}. Perhaps, each person experience emotions differently and cannot be defined{{gr}}. For future research, psychologists should analyse each core emotion and see how each emotion interacts with one another. After analysing the core emotions, psychologist should also examine sub-emotions{{gr}}. Furthermore, researchers should analyse if core emotions and sub emotions could produce mixed emotions{{explain}}. == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Mixed emotions|Mixed emotions]] (Book chapter, 2022) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= American Psychological Association. (n.d.). APA Dictionary of Psychology. Dictionary.apa.org. Retrieved September 16, 2021, from https://dictionary.apa.org/fear Charles, S. T., Piazza, J. R., & Urban, E. J. (2017). Mixed emotions across adulthood: when, where, and why? Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 15, 58–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.05.007 Dalgleish, T., Power, M. J., & Ekman, P. (1999). Handbook of cognition and emotion. Wiley. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=vsLvrhohXhAC&oi=fnd&pg=PA45&dq=basic+emotions+ekman&ots=uUxJamT7Lg&sig=XU0-_ToIhTcXYJySe_ggij-rY3M#v=onepage&q=basic%20emotions%20ekman&f=false Du, S., Tao, Y., & Martinez, A. M. (2014). Compound facial expressions of emotion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(15), E1454–E1462. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1322355111 Ekman, P. (2009). Darwin’s contributions to our understanding of emotional expressions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1535), 3449–3451. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0189 Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1969). The Repertoire of Nonverbal Behavior: Categories, Origins, Usage, and Coding. Semiotica, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.1515/semi.1969.1.1.49 Gross, J. J. (2002). Emotion regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences. Psychophysiology, 39(3), 281–291. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0048577201393198 Gurney, E. (1884). What is an Emotion? Mind, 9(35). JSTOR. Hahn, A. C., Whitehead, R. D., Albrecht, M., Lefevre, C. E., & Perrett, D. I. (2012). Hot or not? Thermal reactions to social contact. Biology Letters, 8(5), 864–867. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2012.0338 Haidt, J., McCauley, C., & Rozin, P. (1994). Individual differences in sensitivity to disgust: A scale sampling seven domains of disgust elicitors. Personality and Individual Differences, 16(5), 701–713. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(94)90212-7 How the Brain Processes Emotions. (n.d.). Neurology Live. Retrieved September 24, 2021, from https://www.neurologylive.com/view/how-brain-processes-emotions Izard, C. E. (2004). The Psychology Of Emotions. Kluwer Academic Pub. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=RPv-shA_sxMC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Izard,+1991+interest&ots=cUA88oX7T9&sig=4Y3drrASb_x8GIXp4MrTlwSU_4A&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Izard%2C%201991%20interest&f=false Izard, C. E., Hembree, E. A., Dougherty, L. M., & Spizzirri, C. C. (1983). Changes in facial expressions of 2- to 19-month-old infants following acute pain. Developmental Psychology, 19(3), 418–426. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.19.3.418 John Mordechai Gottman, & Silver, N. (2018). The seven principles for making marriage work. Seven Dials An Imprint Of Orion Publishing Group Ltd. Joiner, T. E., Pettit, J. W., Perez, M., Burns, A. B., Gencoz, T., Gencoz, F., & Rudd, M. D. (2001). Can positive emotion influence problem-solving attitudes among suicidal adults? Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 32(5), 507–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.32.5.507 Labouvie-Vief, G. (2015). Integrating emotions and cognition throughout the lifespan. Springer. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-319-09822-7 Larsen, J. T., & McGraw, A. P. (2011). Further evidence for mixed emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(6), 1095–1110. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021846 Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=i-ySQQuUpr8C&oi=fnd&pg=PR5&dq=lazarus+and+Folkman+1984&ots=DgFRirgiNi&sig=p3B0ABh0uvLb0MdCjEQIhEiK1-Y&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=lazarus%20and%20Folkman%201984&f=false Levenson, R. W. (2011). Basic Emotion Questions. Emotion Review, 3(4), 379–386. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073911410743 Maan Diong, S., Bishop, G. D., Enkelmann, H. C., Tong, E. M. W., Why, Y. P., Ang, J. C. H., & Khader, M. (2005). Anger, stress, coping, social support and health: Modelling the relationships. Psychology & Health, 20(4), 467–495. https://doi.org/10.1080/0887044040512331333960 Ohman, A. (2008). APA PsycNet. Psycnet.apa.org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2008-07784-044 Öhman, A., & Mineka, S. (2003). The Malicious Serpent. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(1), 5–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.01211 Olatunji, B. O., & Sawchuk, C. N. (2005). Disgust: Characteristic Features, Social Manifestations, and Clinical Implications. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 24(7), 932–962. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2005.24.7.932 Pekrun, R., & Stephens, E. J. (2010). Achievement Emotions: A Control-Value Approach. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4(4), 238–255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00259.x Pitzer, L. M., & Bergeman, C. S. (2013). Synchrony in Affect Among Stressed Adults: The Notre Dame Widowhood Study. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 69B(1), 29–39. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbt026 Radiology (ACR), R. S. of N. A. (RSNA) and A. C. of. (2018, February 25). Magnetic Resonance, Functional (fMRI) - Brain. Radiologyinfo.org. https://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info/fmribrain#:~:text=Functional%20magnetic%20resonance%20imaging%20(fMRI Rozin, P., & Fallon, A. E. (1987). A perspective on disgust. Psychological Review, 94(1), 23–41. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.94.1.23 Sato, W., Kochiyama, T., Yoshikawa, S., Naito, E., & Matsumura, M. (2004). Enhanced neural activity in response to dynamic facial expressions of emotion: an fMRI study. Cognitive Brain Research, 20(1), 81–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2004.01.008 Shaver, P., Schwartz, J., Kirson, D., & O’Connor, C. (1987). Emotion knowledge: Further exploration of a prototype approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(6), 1061–1086. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1061 SlideToDoc. (n.d.). The Expression of Emotion Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal Communication. Slidetodoc.com. Retrieved September 26, 2021, from https://slidetodoc.com/the-expression-of-emotion-nonverbal-communication-nonverbal-communication/ Tafrate, R. C., Kassinove, H., & Dundin, L. (2002). Anger episodes in high- and low-trait-anger community adults. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(12), 1573–1590. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10076 Thoman, D. B., Smith, J. L., & Silvia, P. J. (2011). The Resource Replenishment Function of Interest. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(6), 592–599. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550611402521 Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2004). TARGET ARTICLE: “Putting the Self Into Self-Conscious Emotions: A Theoretical Model.” Psychological Inquiry, 15(2), 103–125. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli1502_01 Tybur, J. M., Lieberman, D., Kurzban, R., & DeScioli, P. (2013). Disgust: Evolved function and structure. Psychological Review, 120(1), 65–84. https://doi.org/10.1037/a003077 }} == External links == https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAMbkJk6gnE&t=52s (YouTube - All about the feels: CrashCourse Psychology) https://www.paulekman.com/resources/universal-facial-expressions/ (Paul Ekman Group: Universal Facial Expressions) http://atlasofemotions.org/ (Interactive Tool for Understanding Emotions) https://psychology.wikia.org/wiki/Emotions (Wikia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] iau7sivp4d8zx5qkop92vntndu0ahyf 2415824 2415820 2022-08-17T11:19:39Z Earthxangel 2947535 /* How are mixed emotions managed? */ fixed some grammar wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Mixed emotions:<br>What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed?}} {{MECR3|https://youtu.be/_Iqfq3lTNY8}} __TOC__ == Overview == Emotions give people the ability to communicate with each other through nonverbal and verbal gestures. Charles Darwin noted that people worldwide are able to recognise emotions, regardless of their cultural background. Some cultural backgrounds have cultural-specific signals and greetings, however language does not play much of an impact of understanding emotions. This book chapter provides a broad overview on what mixed emotions are and each of the core emotions from Paul Ekman's model on facial expressions. The core emotions outlined are: fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy, surprise and contempt with a brief summary and what each emotions look like. The mixed emotions discussions mention The James Lange theory of emotions and compound emotions by Du, Tau and Martinez from Ohio State University. The James Lange theory involves the event (stimulus), arousal (physiological response) and interpretation which leads to the emotion. Compound emotions are similar to the wheel of emotions by Plutchik with more specific emotions in the middle of the core emotions. The managing strategies for mixed emotions are suppression, reappraisal and situation modification. == What are mixed emotions? == [[File:Bipolar disorder moods 2683232.svg|thumb|''Fig. 1'' Mixed Emotion Picture |150x150px]] '''Definition of what mixed emotions mean''' <blockquote>"Short-lived, feeling-purposive-expressive-bodily responses that help us adapt to the opportunities and challenges we face during important life events" (Reeve, 2018). </blockquote> Identifying the key mixed emotions and what they look like People experience emotions due to a response to a significant life event, that is specific and short-lived. Moods are different from emotions, they are long-lived, influence cognition and can be unclear. The brain region responsible for emotions is the amygdala, especially for fear, anxiety and anger. [[File:Body of Emotion.png|center|frameless|320x320px|(Reeve, 2018)]] The six basic core emotions by [[w:Paul Ekman|Paul Ekman]]: * Fear * Anger * Disgust * Sadness * Interest * Joy * Surprise * Contempt There are many emotions that individuals experience. The majority of emotions are sub-emotions from the basic core emotions. The best example of the sub-emotions is by Robert Plutchik. The self-conscious has five emotions: shame, guilt, embarrassment, pride and triumph (Tracy & Robins, 2004). The cognitively complex has eight emotions: envy, gratitude, disappointment, regret, hope, [[mwod:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]], empathy and compassion (Pekrun & Stephens, 2010). Emotion stems from arousal of feelings through facial movements, the facial temperature change and glandular activity in the facial skin (Haidt et al., 2012). Ekman analysed Darwin's theory of all humans display emotions through facial features in the same way throughout different cultures (Ekman, 2009). One of the ways to identify emotions is facial expressions, people have eighty facial muscles and thirty six facial expressions (Du et al., 2014). [[File:Plutchiks-emotional-wheel.png|center|thumb|''Fig. 2'' Wheel of emotions by Plutchik ]] === '''<u>Fear</u>''' === <blockquote>"A basic, intense emotion aroused by the detection of imminent threat, involving an immediate alarm reaction that mobilises the organism by triggering a set of psychological changes" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> [[File:Fear computer.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 3'' Core Emotion: Fear]] '''What does fear look like?''' Fear can also include the fear response; [https://dictionary.apa.org/fight-or-flight-response fight-or-flight response] which the [https://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/m/s4/chapter06.html amygdala] is responsible for. Feeling fear is when an individual experiences an event (car accident for example) that makes them feel scared from a threat or danger (Ohman & Mineka, 2003). Physical features include display high eyebrows, raised eyelids, lips slightly stretched and jaw drop. Fear involves the raising of their heart beat, sweating (head, armpits or palms), freezing, trembling and the abrupt drop of their skin temperature because the blood is flowing to the legs to get adrenaline ready for running, this is also known as the fight-flight response (cortisone) (Haidt et al., 2012). Having fear for long periods of time can cause anxiety, phobias (specific situations or events from a particular object or place) and post-traumatic stress disorder (resulting from extreme danger) (Ohman, 2008). === '''<u>Anger</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotion characterised by tension and hostility arising from frustration, real or imagined injury by another, or perceived injustice" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does anger look like?''' The fear emotion is located in the brain region of the amygdala. The individual would display their eyebrows pulled down and together, eyes would be opened wide and staring and lips would be pressed together. The individual would experience an event that makes them feel upset (for example, road rage), the heart rate would increase and also the skin temperature (Haidt et al., 2012). The individual can also demonstrate yelling or screaming, anger can quickly turn into aggression for 10% of the time (Tafrate Kassinove & Dundin, 2002).The function of anger is to help overcome obstacles by asserting and maintaining control (Maan Diong et al., 2005). The anger emotion displays the most energy compared to the other basic emotions and it is also healthy to experience (Levenson, 2011). === '''<u>Disgust</u>''' === [[File:MOREmoji eww.svg|thumb|''Fig. 4'' Core Emotion: Disgust]] <blockquote>"A strong aversion, for example, to the taste, smell, or touch of something deemed revolting, or toward a person or behaviour deemed morally repugnant" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does disgust look like?''' Disgust is a primitive function to protect the human body from harmful substances (Rozin & Fallon, 1987). The disgust emotion is located in the brain region of the left amygdala, the [[wikipedia:Inferior_frontal_gyrus|left inferior frontal cortex]], and the [https://n.neurology.org/content/93/21/932 insular cortex]. The individual would experience an event (unpleasant smell or irritating noise) the heart rate and skin temperature would decrease (Haidt et al., 2012). The individual would display lowered eyebrows, big wrinkle on the side of the nose and the bridge of the nose, the lip would be raised which forms an arch and the lower lip would be raised and protruding (Ekman, 1988). The function for disgust is to ensure the individual removes or gets away from any contaminated or spoiled objects (Tybur et al., 2004). Conditions that are related to disgust is obsessive- compulsive disorder, phobias and eating disorders (Olatungi & Sawchuk, 2005). The emotion of disgust has several domains by (Haidt et al., 1994) * Food * Bodily waste (for example, blood or faeces, animals, sexual behaviours, poor hygiene, contact with death or corpses, violations of the exterior body like or deformities), * Contact with distasteful people * Moral offences (for example, child abuse, incest, infidelity and more) === '''<u>Sadness</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotional state of unhappiness, ranging in intensity from mild to extreme and usually aroused by the loss of something that is highly valued (e.g by the rupture of a relationship)" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> [[File:Girl with sad face.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 5'' Core Emotion: Sadness]] '''What does sadness look like?''' The sadness emotion is located in several brain regions in right [https://www.neuroskills.com/brain-injury/occipital-lobes/ occipital lobe], left insular, left [[wikipedia:Thalamus|thalamus]], amygdala and the [https://www.news-medical.net/health/Hippocampus-Functions.aspx hippocampus]. The individual would experience an emotional event (breakup, someone dying) that makes them feel sad and upset. The heart rate would increase, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2695635/#:~:text=The%20skin%20conductance%20response%20(SCR)%20is%20an%20indirect%20measure%20of,emotional%20valence%20(Bradley%20et%20al. skin conductance] would be decreased, constricts breathing and the [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK532914/#:~:text=The%20lacrimal%20gland%20is%20a,fossa%20of%20the%20frontal%20bone. lacrimal glads] would active for crying (Reeve, 2018). The individual would display the inner corners of their eyebrows pulled up and together, the upper eyelids would be drooped down and the eye would be looking down and the corner of the lips would also be lowered (Ekman, 2019). The function of the emotion of sadness is too alleviate and to prevent distressful circumstances. Sadness is important when a person is grieving, however long periods of sadness can produce depression (Bonanno et al., 2008). [[File:Interest (emotion).jpg|thumb|153x153px|''Fig. 6'' Core Emotion: Interest ]] === '''<u>Interest</u>''' === <blockquote> "An attitude characterised by a need or desire to give selective attention to something that is significant to the individual, such as an activity, goal, or research area" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does interest look like?''' The emotion of interest is present everyday, individual would experience an interest for a certain time then find a new interest to focus on (Izard, 1991). The function for interest is for skill development and engagement (Thoman, Smith, & Silvia, 2011). The interest emotion is located in the brain region of the limbic system, anterior insula and right inferior frontal gyrus. The individual would display the eyebrows would be pulled up, eyes would be opened wide, the corner of the lips would lower and the top of the lip would be raised (SlideToDoc, n.d). === '''<u>Joy</u>''' === [[File:Happy-Smiley.png|thumb|''Fig. 7'' Core Emotion: Joy|190x190px]] <blockquote> "A feeling of extreme gladness, delight, or exultation of the spirit arising from a sense of well-being or satisfaction" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does joy look like?''' The emotion of joy, is when an individual experiences success on a task, personal achievement, gaining respect or love or affection (Ekman & Friesen, 1975; Izard, 1991; Shaver Schwartz, Kirson, & O’Connor, 1987).The emotion of joy, is located in several brain regions in the right frontal cortex, the [[wikipedia:Precuneus|precuneus]], left amygdala, and the left insula. Individuals would experience an event (wedding or birth) that would produce the emotion of joy, the heart rate, skin temperature and skin conductance were low and stable (Reeve, 2018). The individual would display their eyes would be narrowed and a wrinkle would start to show on the side of the eyes, the cheeks would be raised, the lips would be pulled back and the teeth would be showing indicating a smile (Ekman, 1988). The function of joy is to assist relationships and strengthen them, engage in social activities and maintain social interaction (Langsdorff, Izard, Rayias, & Hembree, 1983). Another function of joy is to preserve psychological wellbeing, especially when something bad happens (Joiner Pettit, Perez, & Burns, 2001). [[File:SURPRISE.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 8'' Core Emotion: Surprise]] === '''<u>Surprise</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotion typically resulting from the violation of an expectation or the detection of novelty in the environment" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote>'''What does surprise look like?''' The surprise emotion is located in the brain regions of inferior frontal gyrus and hippocampus. The individual would display similar facial features, for example when they show interest with only few differences. The eyebrows would be raised, but not drawn together, the upper eyelids would be raised but the lower eyelids would remain neutral and the jaw would drop down (Ekman,1988). An individual would experience the emotion of surprised for presents or surprise birthday party for example.   === '''<u>Contempt</u>''' === [[File:Contempt facial expression.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 9'' Core Emotion: Contempt|200x200px]]<blockquote> "An emotion characterised by negative regard for anything or anybody considered to be inferior, vile, or worthless" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does contempt look like?''' The emotion of contempt means being morally superior towards another person. Contempt is similar to disgust, although the facial expressions are different (Ekman & Friesen, 1986; Ekman & Heider, 1988; Matsumoto, 1992; Matsumoto & Ekman, 2004).The contempt emotion is located in the brain region of the [https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain/brain-anatomy/limbic-system limbic system]. The individual would display the tightened and raised lip corner and the eyes would remain neutral (Ekman, 1988). The function of contempt is to sustain social hierarchy and some events include a toxic marriage, where one individual enforces rules to maintain dominance (Gottman & Silver, 1999). An individual would feel superior compared to the other person, they would disrespect others, mock them and sarcastic. Knowledge Check: <quiz display="simple"> {Lacrimal glads are responsible for crying: |type="()"} +True -False {The wheel of emotions is by Paul Ekman} -True + False {The facial expressions for anger is, eyes staring, eyebrows pulled down and together and skin temperature increases} +True -False </quiz> == What causes mixed emotions? == {{expand}} === '''What causes each emotion?''' === [[File:Emotions Image.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 10'' Mixed Emotions]] Emotions start when a significant life event occurs and then distinct patterns of neural activity start to form. There are a few theories when it comes to emotion: the biological perspective, cognitive perspective and neurological perspective. The cognitive perspective involves appraisal, emotion knowledge and attribution (Gross, 2002). Appraisal means how significant the event is and emotion knowledge means the ability to differentiate between various basic emotions (Gross, 2002). Attribution explains why the event outcome occurred (Reeve, 2018). The biological perspective refers to the body response when an event occurs causing the emotion, it emphasises main emotions like anger or fear (Gurney, 1884). The neurological perspective involves the neural activity in the brain, in response to emotion (Gurney, 1884). The biological perspective involves the automatic nervous system, subcortical brain circuits and facial feedback (Sato et al., 2004). One study used a fMRI ("measures the small changes in blood flow that occur with the brain activity" (Radiology (ACR), 2018) and analysed the facial expressions to emotions (Sato et al., 2004). The study used two types of controlled stimuli (1) static facial expressions which means certain specific facial structures associated to that emotion (2) dynamic facial images and the results found the left amygdala was activated in response to fearful stimuli (Sato et al., 2004). === '''What is the purpose of emotions?''' === The main purpose of emotions is the coping functions which means individuals can adapt better to life event (Reeve, 2018). Another reason is the social functions involved, making social interactions better and communication (Ekman & Friesen, 1969). There are multiple benefits for experiencing emotions like sadness to cause reparative behaviour and make the individual more caring towards others. === '''What happens when an individual experiences multiple emotions at once?''' === Complex emotions occur when an individual feels happy (positive) and sad (negative) at the same time, caused by an event (for example starting a new job, the individual may experience feeling excited but also nervous at the same time). It happens when an individual experiences different emotions and physiological reactions for the same event (Gurny, 1884). Complex emotions are harder to identify and recognise than basic emotions (Ekman et al., 1999). Emotion differentiation happens when someone appraises the same event at two different times (Gurney, 1884). The amygdala is responsible for the appraisals and appraisals occur after the stimulus exposure happens around (1 1/2 seconds){{fact}}. Another theory is there are four core emotions for example: happiness, sadness, fear and anger overlap causing a Venn diagram and it would create a compound emotion (Du et al., 2012). A compound emotion can occur when two or more core emotions happen simultaneously (Duet al., 2012). The theory provides more specific definition of emotions in result of an event, rather having a timeline of emotions before and after the event occurred, assuming each emotions would have a physiological response.{{expand}} == How are mixed emotions managed? == There are a few managing strategies for mixed emotions: reappraisal, suppression and situation modification. Reappraisal was researched by James Gross and it means modifying the emotion or maintain emotion regulation (Gross, 2002). Another managing strategy is suppression which was also researched by Gross and it means decreasing unwanted behaviour, physiological responses includes rise in blood pressure, [[wikipedia:Electrodermal_activity|electrodermal response]] and heart rate (Gross, 2002). Situation modification is another managing tool which involves problem-focused approach from a significant life event, for example someone apologising for their actions (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). '''Is it healthy having mixed emotions? If so for how long?''' Mixed emotions are normal to have and people that recognise between positive or negative emotion are more resilient especially when people experience more positive emotion (Pitzer & Bergeman, 2013). Individuals will also recover faster when experiencing a loss (Pitzer & Bergeman, 2013). As people age, the individual would understand the positive and negative aspects of an event more maturely (Labouvie-Vief, 2015). Individuals would also tolerate complex and conflicting emotions, try to problem-solve (Labouvi-Vief, 2015). Complex emotions are healthy to have and strengthen interpersonal relationships (Ekman, 2010). When individuals age to midlife the ability of tolerating conflicting emotions changes (Charles et al., 2017). Long term effects of negative emotions like fear, anger or sadness for example can cause mental illness (depression or anxiety) and physical problems{{fact}}. Long term positive effects{{gr}} to an individual leads to better wellbeing, overall health and living a longer life{{gr}}. == Conclusion == This chapter discussed each core emotion: fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy, surprised and contempt. Each section of emotions analysed what the emotion look {{gr}} like (facial features and non verbal cues) and what happens when an individual experiences that emotion in the brain. Managing strategies for mixed {{missing}} were also discussed, reappraisal, situation modification and suppression for emotion regulation{{gr}}. Mixed emotions are normal to have, particularly positive emotions make people more resilient compared to negative emotions. During a human lifespan, adults understand emotions and problem-solve more efficiently. It is possible to experience more than one emotion which multiple theorists tried to explain. For an {{gr}} particular event like starting school, happy (positive) or fear (negative) and experience physiological reaction which is known as the James- Lange theory of emotion. Another theory is compound emotion which is extracted from the core emotions and provides specific emotions, imagine a Venn diagram with the core emotions or the wheel of emotions. '''Summarising what has been found and further research opportunities''' There is not a clear answer how mixed emotions do occur. It is possible to experience mixed emotions towards an event, like going to school for the first time, does each emotion switch simultaneously or does{{gr}}. Perhaps, each person experience emotions differently and cannot be defined{{gr}}. For future research, psychologists should analyse each core emotion and see how each emotion interacts with one another. After analysing the core emotions, psychologist should also examine sub-emotions{{gr}}. Furthermore, researchers should analyse if core emotions and sub emotions could produce mixed emotions{{explain}}. == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Mixed emotions|Mixed emotions]] (Book chapter, 2022) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= American Psychological Association. (n.d.). APA Dictionary of Psychology. Dictionary.apa.org. Retrieved September 16, 2021, from https://dictionary.apa.org/fear Charles, S. T., Piazza, J. R., & Urban, E. J. (2017). Mixed emotions across adulthood: when, where, and why? Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 15, 58–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.05.007 Dalgleish, T., Power, M. J., & Ekman, P. (1999). Handbook of cognition and emotion. Wiley. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=vsLvrhohXhAC&oi=fnd&pg=PA45&dq=basic+emotions+ekman&ots=uUxJamT7Lg&sig=XU0-_ToIhTcXYJySe_ggij-rY3M#v=onepage&q=basic%20emotions%20ekman&f=false Du, S., Tao, Y., & Martinez, A. M. (2014). Compound facial expressions of emotion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(15), E1454–E1462. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1322355111 Ekman, P. (2009). Darwin’s contributions to our understanding of emotional expressions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1535), 3449–3451. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0189 Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1969). The Repertoire of Nonverbal Behavior: Categories, Origins, Usage, and Coding. Semiotica, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.1515/semi.1969.1.1.49 Gross, J. J. (2002). Emotion regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences. Psychophysiology, 39(3), 281–291. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0048577201393198 Gurney, E. (1884). What is an Emotion? Mind, 9(35). JSTOR. Hahn, A. C., Whitehead, R. D., Albrecht, M., Lefevre, C. E., & Perrett, D. I. (2012). Hot or not? Thermal reactions to social contact. Biology Letters, 8(5), 864–867. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2012.0338 Haidt, J., McCauley, C., & Rozin, P. (1994). Individual differences in sensitivity to disgust: A scale sampling seven domains of disgust elicitors. Personality and Individual Differences, 16(5), 701–713. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(94)90212-7 How the Brain Processes Emotions. (n.d.). Neurology Live. Retrieved September 24, 2021, from https://www.neurologylive.com/view/how-brain-processes-emotions Izard, C. E. (2004). The Psychology Of Emotions. Kluwer Academic Pub. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=RPv-shA_sxMC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Izard,+1991+interest&ots=cUA88oX7T9&sig=4Y3drrASb_x8GIXp4MrTlwSU_4A&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Izard%2C%201991%20interest&f=false Izard, C. E., Hembree, E. A., Dougherty, L. M., & Spizzirri, C. C. (1983). Changes in facial expressions of 2- to 19-month-old infants following acute pain. Developmental Psychology, 19(3), 418–426. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.19.3.418 John Mordechai Gottman, & Silver, N. (2018). The seven principles for making marriage work. Seven Dials An Imprint Of Orion Publishing Group Ltd. Joiner, T. E., Pettit, J. W., Perez, M., Burns, A. B., Gencoz, T., Gencoz, F., & Rudd, M. D. (2001). Can positive emotion influence problem-solving attitudes among suicidal adults? Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 32(5), 507–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.32.5.507 Labouvie-Vief, G. (2015). Integrating emotions and cognition throughout the lifespan. Springer. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-319-09822-7 Larsen, J. T., & McGraw, A. P. (2011). Further evidence for mixed emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(6), 1095–1110. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021846 Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=i-ySQQuUpr8C&oi=fnd&pg=PR5&dq=lazarus+and+Folkman+1984&ots=DgFRirgiNi&sig=p3B0ABh0uvLb0MdCjEQIhEiK1-Y&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=lazarus%20and%20Folkman%201984&f=false Levenson, R. W. (2011). Basic Emotion Questions. Emotion Review, 3(4), 379–386. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073911410743 Maan Diong, S., Bishop, G. D., Enkelmann, H. C., Tong, E. M. W., Why, Y. P., Ang, J. C. H., & Khader, M. (2005). Anger, stress, coping, social support and health: Modelling the relationships. Psychology & Health, 20(4), 467–495. https://doi.org/10.1080/0887044040512331333960 Ohman, A. (2008). APA PsycNet. Psycnet.apa.org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2008-07784-044 Öhman, A., & Mineka, S. (2003). The Malicious Serpent. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(1), 5–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.01211 Olatunji, B. O., & Sawchuk, C. N. (2005). Disgust: Characteristic Features, Social Manifestations, and Clinical Implications. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 24(7), 932–962. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2005.24.7.932 Pekrun, R., & Stephens, E. J. (2010). Achievement Emotions: A Control-Value Approach. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4(4), 238–255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00259.x Pitzer, L. M., & Bergeman, C. S. (2013). Synchrony in Affect Among Stressed Adults: The Notre Dame Widowhood Study. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 69B(1), 29–39. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbt026 Radiology (ACR), R. S. of N. A. (RSNA) and A. C. of. (2018, February 25). Magnetic Resonance, Functional (fMRI) - Brain. Radiologyinfo.org. https://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info/fmribrain#:~:text=Functional%20magnetic%20resonance%20imaging%20(fMRI Rozin, P., & Fallon, A. E. (1987). A perspective on disgust. Psychological Review, 94(1), 23–41. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.94.1.23 Sato, W., Kochiyama, T., Yoshikawa, S., Naito, E., & Matsumura, M. (2004). Enhanced neural activity in response to dynamic facial expressions of emotion: an fMRI study. Cognitive Brain Research, 20(1), 81–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2004.01.008 Shaver, P., Schwartz, J., Kirson, D., & O’Connor, C. (1987). Emotion knowledge: Further exploration of a prototype approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(6), 1061–1086. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1061 SlideToDoc. (n.d.). The Expression of Emotion Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal Communication. Slidetodoc.com. Retrieved September 26, 2021, from https://slidetodoc.com/the-expression-of-emotion-nonverbal-communication-nonverbal-communication/ Tafrate, R. C., Kassinove, H., & Dundin, L. (2002). Anger episodes in high- and low-trait-anger community adults. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(12), 1573–1590. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10076 Thoman, D. B., Smith, J. L., & Silvia, P. J. (2011). The Resource Replenishment Function of Interest. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(6), 592–599. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550611402521 Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2004). TARGET ARTICLE: “Putting the Self Into Self-Conscious Emotions: A Theoretical Model.” Psychological Inquiry, 15(2), 103–125. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli1502_01 Tybur, J. M., Lieberman, D., Kurzban, R., & DeScioli, P. (2013). Disgust: Evolved function and structure. Psychological Review, 120(1), 65–84. https://doi.org/10.1037/a003077 }} == External links == https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAMbkJk6gnE&t=52s (YouTube - All about the feels: CrashCourse Psychology) https://www.paulekman.com/resources/universal-facial-expressions/ (Paul Ekman Group: Universal Facial Expressions) http://atlasofemotions.org/ (Interactive Tool for Understanding Emotions) https://psychology.wikia.org/wiki/Emotions (Wikia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] msw2re7ley1e9teqb7n624o7ipq12wl 2415826 2415824 2022-08-17T11:27:46Z Earthxangel 2947535 /* How are mixed emotions managed? */ sentence restructure and grammar change wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Mixed emotions:<br>What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed?}} {{MECR3|https://youtu.be/_Iqfq3lTNY8}} __TOC__ == Overview == Emotions give people the ability to communicate with each other through nonverbal and verbal gestures. Charles Darwin noted that people worldwide are able to recognise emotions, regardless of their cultural background. Some cultural backgrounds have cultural-specific signals and greetings, however language does not play much of an impact of understanding emotions. This book chapter provides a broad overview on what mixed emotions are and each of the core emotions from Paul Ekman's model on facial expressions. The core emotions outlined are: fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy, surprise and contempt with a brief summary and what each emotions look like. The mixed emotions discussions mention The James Lange theory of emotions and compound emotions by Du, Tau and Martinez from Ohio State University. The James Lange theory involves the event (stimulus), arousal (physiological response) and interpretation which leads to the emotion. Compound emotions are similar to the wheel of emotions by Plutchik with more specific emotions in the middle of the core emotions. The managing strategies for mixed emotions are suppression, reappraisal and situation modification. == What are mixed emotions? == [[File:Bipolar disorder moods 2683232.svg|thumb|''Fig. 1'' Mixed Emotion Picture |150x150px]] '''Definition of what mixed emotions mean''' <blockquote>"Short-lived, feeling-purposive-expressive-bodily responses that help us adapt to the opportunities and challenges we face during important life events" (Reeve, 2018). </blockquote> Identifying the key mixed emotions and what they look like People experience emotions due to a response to a significant life event, that is specific and short-lived. Moods are different from emotions, they are long-lived, influence cognition and can be unclear. The brain region responsible for emotions is the amygdala, especially for fear, anxiety and anger. [[File:Body of Emotion.png|center|frameless|320x320px|(Reeve, 2018)]] The six basic core emotions by [[w:Paul Ekman|Paul Ekman]]: * Fear * Anger * Disgust * Sadness * Interest * Joy * Surprise * Contempt There are many emotions that individuals experience. The majority of emotions are sub-emotions from the basic core emotions. The best example of the sub-emotions is by Robert Plutchik. The self-conscious has five emotions: shame, guilt, embarrassment, pride and triumph (Tracy & Robins, 2004). The cognitively complex has eight emotions: envy, gratitude, disappointment, regret, hope, [[mwod:schadenfreude|schadenfreude]], empathy and compassion (Pekrun & Stephens, 2010). Emotion stems from arousal of feelings through facial movements, the facial temperature change and glandular activity in the facial skin (Haidt et al., 2012). Ekman analysed Darwin's theory of all humans display emotions through facial features in the same way throughout different cultures (Ekman, 2009). One of the ways to identify emotions is facial expressions, people have eighty facial muscles and thirty six facial expressions (Du et al., 2014). [[File:Plutchiks-emotional-wheel.png|center|thumb|''Fig. 2'' Wheel of emotions by Plutchik ]] === '''<u>Fear</u>''' === <blockquote>"A basic, intense emotion aroused by the detection of imminent threat, involving an immediate alarm reaction that mobilises the organism by triggering a set of psychological changes" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> [[File:Fear computer.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 3'' Core Emotion: Fear]] '''What does fear look like?''' Fear can also include the fear response; [https://dictionary.apa.org/fight-or-flight-response fight-or-flight response] which the [https://nba.uth.tmc.edu/neuroscience/m/s4/chapter06.html amygdala] is responsible for. Feeling fear is when an individual experiences an event (car accident for example) that makes them feel scared from a threat or danger (Ohman & Mineka, 2003). Physical features include display high eyebrows, raised eyelids, lips slightly stretched and jaw drop. Fear involves the raising of their heart beat, sweating (head, armpits or palms), freezing, trembling and the abrupt drop of their skin temperature because the blood is flowing to the legs to get adrenaline ready for running, this is also known as the fight-flight response (cortisone) (Haidt et al., 2012). Having fear for long periods of time can cause anxiety, phobias (specific situations or events from a particular object or place) and post-traumatic stress disorder (resulting from extreme danger) (Ohman, 2008). === '''<u>Anger</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotion characterised by tension and hostility arising from frustration, real or imagined injury by another, or perceived injustice" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does anger look like?''' The fear emotion is located in the brain region of the amygdala. The individual would display their eyebrows pulled down and together, eyes would be opened wide and staring and lips would be pressed together. The individual would experience an event that makes them feel upset (for example, road rage), the heart rate would increase and also the skin temperature (Haidt et al., 2012). The individual can also demonstrate yelling or screaming, anger can quickly turn into aggression for 10% of the time (Tafrate Kassinove & Dundin, 2002).The function of anger is to help overcome obstacles by asserting and maintaining control (Maan Diong et al., 2005). The anger emotion displays the most energy compared to the other basic emotions and it is also healthy to experience (Levenson, 2011). === '''<u>Disgust</u>''' === [[File:MOREmoji eww.svg|thumb|''Fig. 4'' Core Emotion: Disgust]] <blockquote>"A strong aversion, for example, to the taste, smell, or touch of something deemed revolting, or toward a person or behaviour deemed morally repugnant" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does disgust look like?''' Disgust is a primitive function to protect the human body from harmful substances (Rozin & Fallon, 1987). The disgust emotion is located in the brain region of the left amygdala, the [[wikipedia:Inferior_frontal_gyrus|left inferior frontal cortex]], and the [https://n.neurology.org/content/93/21/932 insular cortex]. The individual would experience an event (unpleasant smell or irritating noise) the heart rate and skin temperature would decrease (Haidt et al., 2012). The individual would display lowered eyebrows, big wrinkle on the side of the nose and the bridge of the nose, the lip would be raised which forms an arch and the lower lip would be raised and protruding (Ekman, 1988). The function for disgust is to ensure the individual removes or gets away from any contaminated or spoiled objects (Tybur et al., 2004). Conditions that are related to disgust is obsessive- compulsive disorder, phobias and eating disorders (Olatungi & Sawchuk, 2005). The emotion of disgust has several domains by (Haidt et al., 1994) * Food * Bodily waste (for example, blood or faeces, animals, sexual behaviours, poor hygiene, contact with death or corpses, violations of the exterior body like or deformities), * Contact with distasteful people * Moral offences (for example, child abuse, incest, infidelity and more) === '''<u>Sadness</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotional state of unhappiness, ranging in intensity from mild to extreme and usually aroused by the loss of something that is highly valued (e.g by the rupture of a relationship)" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> [[File:Girl with sad face.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 5'' Core Emotion: Sadness]] '''What does sadness look like?''' The sadness emotion is located in several brain regions in right [https://www.neuroskills.com/brain-injury/occipital-lobes/ occipital lobe], left insular, left [[wikipedia:Thalamus|thalamus]], amygdala and the [https://www.news-medical.net/health/Hippocampus-Functions.aspx hippocampus]. The individual would experience an emotional event (breakup, someone dying) that makes them feel sad and upset. The heart rate would increase, [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2695635/#:~:text=The%20skin%20conductance%20response%20(SCR)%20is%20an%20indirect%20measure%20of,emotional%20valence%20(Bradley%20et%20al. skin conductance] would be decreased, constricts breathing and the [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK532914/#:~:text=The%20lacrimal%20gland%20is%20a,fossa%20of%20the%20frontal%20bone. lacrimal glads] would active for crying (Reeve, 2018). The individual would display the inner corners of their eyebrows pulled up and together, the upper eyelids would be drooped down and the eye would be looking down and the corner of the lips would also be lowered (Ekman, 2019). The function of the emotion of sadness is too alleviate and to prevent distressful circumstances. Sadness is important when a person is grieving, however long periods of sadness can produce depression (Bonanno et al., 2008). [[File:Interest (emotion).jpg|thumb|153x153px|''Fig. 6'' Core Emotion: Interest ]] === '''<u>Interest</u>''' === <blockquote> "An attitude characterised by a need or desire to give selective attention to something that is significant to the individual, such as an activity, goal, or research area" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does interest look like?''' The emotion of interest is present everyday, individual would experience an interest for a certain time then find a new interest to focus on (Izard, 1991). The function for interest is for skill development and engagement (Thoman, Smith, & Silvia, 2011). The interest emotion is located in the brain region of the limbic system, anterior insula and right inferior frontal gyrus. The individual would display the eyebrows would be pulled up, eyes would be opened wide, the corner of the lips would lower and the top of the lip would be raised (SlideToDoc, n.d). === '''<u>Joy</u>''' === [[File:Happy-Smiley.png|thumb|''Fig. 7'' Core Emotion: Joy|190x190px]] <blockquote> "A feeling of extreme gladness, delight, or exultation of the spirit arising from a sense of well-being or satisfaction" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does joy look like?''' The emotion of joy, is when an individual experiences success on a task, personal achievement, gaining respect or love or affection (Ekman & Friesen, 1975; Izard, 1991; Shaver Schwartz, Kirson, & O’Connor, 1987).The emotion of joy, is located in several brain regions in the right frontal cortex, the [[wikipedia:Precuneus|precuneus]], left amygdala, and the left insula. Individuals would experience an event (wedding or birth) that would produce the emotion of joy, the heart rate, skin temperature and skin conductance were low and stable (Reeve, 2018). The individual would display their eyes would be narrowed and a wrinkle would start to show on the side of the eyes, the cheeks would be raised, the lips would be pulled back and the teeth would be showing indicating a smile (Ekman, 1988). The function of joy is to assist relationships and strengthen them, engage in social activities and maintain social interaction (Langsdorff, Izard, Rayias, & Hembree, 1983). Another function of joy is to preserve psychological wellbeing, especially when something bad happens (Joiner Pettit, Perez, & Burns, 2001). [[File:SURPRISE.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 8'' Core Emotion: Surprise]] === '''<u>Surprise</u>''' === <blockquote>"An emotion typically resulting from the violation of an expectation or the detection of novelty in the environment" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote>'''What does surprise look like?''' The surprise emotion is located in the brain regions of inferior frontal gyrus and hippocampus. The individual would display similar facial features, for example when they show interest with only few differences. The eyebrows would be raised, but not drawn together, the upper eyelids would be raised but the lower eyelids would remain neutral and the jaw would drop down (Ekman,1988). An individual would experience the emotion of surprised for presents or surprise birthday party for example.   === '''<u>Contempt</u>''' === [[File:Contempt facial expression.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 9'' Core Emotion: Contempt|200x200px]]<blockquote> "An emotion characterised by negative regard for anything or anybody considered to be inferior, vile, or worthless" (American Psychological Association, n.d). </blockquote> '''What does contempt look like?''' The emotion of contempt means being morally superior towards another person. Contempt is similar to disgust, although the facial expressions are different (Ekman & Friesen, 1986; Ekman & Heider, 1988; Matsumoto, 1992; Matsumoto & Ekman, 2004).The contempt emotion is located in the brain region of the [https://qbi.uq.edu.au/brain/brain-anatomy/limbic-system limbic system]. The individual would display the tightened and raised lip corner and the eyes would remain neutral (Ekman, 1988). The function of contempt is to sustain social hierarchy and some events include a toxic marriage, where one individual enforces rules to maintain dominance (Gottman & Silver, 1999). An individual would feel superior compared to the other person, they would disrespect others, mock them and sarcastic. Knowledge Check: <quiz display="simple"> {Lacrimal glads are responsible for crying: |type="()"} +True -False {The wheel of emotions is by Paul Ekman} -True + False {The facial expressions for anger is, eyes staring, eyebrows pulled down and together and skin temperature increases} +True -False </quiz> == What causes mixed emotions? == {{expand}} === '''What causes each emotion?''' === [[File:Emotions Image.jpg|thumb|''Fig. 10'' Mixed Emotions]] Emotions start when a significant life event occurs and then distinct patterns of neural activity start to form. There are a few theories when it comes to emotion: the biological perspective, cognitive perspective and neurological perspective. The cognitive perspective involves appraisal, emotion knowledge and attribution (Gross, 2002). Appraisal means how significant the event is and emotion knowledge means the ability to differentiate between various basic emotions (Gross, 2002). Attribution explains why the event outcome occurred (Reeve, 2018). The biological perspective refers to the body response when an event occurs causing the emotion, it emphasises main emotions like anger or fear (Gurney, 1884). The neurological perspective involves the neural activity in the brain, in response to emotion (Gurney, 1884). The biological perspective involves the automatic nervous system, subcortical brain circuits and facial feedback (Sato et al., 2004). One study used a fMRI ("measures the small changes in blood flow that occur with the brain activity" (Radiology (ACR), 2018) and analysed the facial expressions to emotions (Sato et al., 2004). The study used two types of controlled stimuli (1) static facial expressions which means certain specific facial structures associated to that emotion (2) dynamic facial images and the results found the left amygdala was activated in response to fearful stimuli (Sato et al., 2004). === '''What is the purpose of emotions?''' === The main purpose of emotions is the coping functions which means individuals can adapt better to life event (Reeve, 2018). Another reason is the social functions involved, making social interactions better and communication (Ekman & Friesen, 1969). There are multiple benefits for experiencing emotions like sadness to cause reparative behaviour and make the individual more caring towards others. === '''What happens when an individual experiences multiple emotions at once?''' === Complex emotions occur when an individual feels happy (positive) and sad (negative) at the same time, caused by an event (for example starting a new job, the individual may experience feeling excited but also nervous at the same time). It happens when an individual experiences different emotions and physiological reactions for the same event (Gurny, 1884). Complex emotions are harder to identify and recognise than basic emotions (Ekman et al., 1999). Emotion differentiation happens when someone appraises the same event at two different times (Gurney, 1884). The amygdala is responsible for the appraisals and appraisals occur after the stimulus exposure happens around (1 1/2 seconds){{fact}}. Another theory is there are four core emotions for example: happiness, sadness, fear and anger overlap causing a Venn diagram and it would create a compound emotion (Du et al., 2012). A compound emotion can occur when two or more core emotions happen simultaneously (Duet al., 2012). The theory provides more specific definition of emotions in result of an event, rather having a timeline of emotions before and after the event occurred, assuming each emotions would have a physiological response.{{expand}} == How are mixed emotions managed? == There are a few managing strategies for mixed emotions: reappraisal, suppression and situation modification. Reappraisal was researched by James Gross and it means modifying the emotion or maintain emotion regulation (Gross, 2002). Another managing strategy is suppression which was also researched by Gross and it means decreasing unwanted behaviour, physiological responses includes rise in blood pressure, [[wikipedia:Electrodermal_activity|electrodermal response]] and heart rate (Gross, 2002). Situation modification is another managing tool which involves problem-focused approach from a significant life event, for example someone apologising for their actions (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984). '''Is it healthy having mixed emotions? If so for how long?''' Mixed emotions are normal to have and people that recognise between positive or negative emotion are more resilient especially when people experience more positive emotion (Pitzer & Bergeman, 2013). Individuals will also recover faster when experiencing a loss (Pitzer & Bergeman, 2013). As people age, the individual would understand the positive and negative aspects of an event more maturely (Labouvie-Vief, 2015). Individuals would also tolerate complex and conflicting emotions, try to problem-solve (Labouvi-Vief, 2015). Complex emotions are healthy to have and strengthen interpersonal relationships (Ekman, 2010). When individuals age to midlife the ability of tolerating conflicting emotions changes (Charles et al., 2017). Long term effects of negative emotions like fear, anger or sadness for example can cause mental illness (depression or anxiety) and physical problems{{fact}}. Whereas, positive emotions produce long-term effects such as greater well being and health, as well as life longevity. == Conclusion == This chapter discussed each core emotion: fear, anger, disgust, sadness, interest, joy, surprised and contempt. Each section of emotions analysed what the emotion look {{gr}} like (facial features and non verbal cues) and what happens when an individual experiences that emotion in the brain. Managing strategies for mixed {{missing}} were also discussed, reappraisal, situation modification and suppression for emotion regulation{{gr}}. Mixed emotions are normal to have, particularly positive emotions make people more resilient compared to negative emotions. During a human lifespan, adults understand emotions and problem-solve more efficiently. It is possible to experience more than one emotion which multiple theorists tried to explain. For an {{gr}} particular event like starting school, happy (positive) or fear (negative) and experience physiological reaction which is known as the James- Lange theory of emotion. Another theory is compound emotion which is extracted from the core emotions and provides specific emotions, imagine a Venn diagram with the core emotions or the wheel of emotions. '''Summarising what has been found and further research opportunities''' There is not a clear answer how mixed emotions do occur. It is possible to experience mixed emotions towards an event, like going to school for the first time, does each emotion switch simultaneously or does{{gr}}. Perhaps, each person experience emotions differently and cannot be defined{{gr}}. For future research, psychologists should analyse each core emotion and see how each emotion interacts with one another. After analysing the core emotions, psychologist should also examine sub-emotions{{gr}}. Furthermore, researchers should analyse if core emotions and sub emotions could produce mixed emotions{{explain}}. == See also == * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Mixed emotions|Mixed emotions]] (Book chapter, 2022) == References == {{Hanging indent|1= American Psychological Association. (n.d.). APA Dictionary of Psychology. Dictionary.apa.org. Retrieved September 16, 2021, from https://dictionary.apa.org/fear Charles, S. T., Piazza, J. R., & Urban, E. J. (2017). Mixed emotions across adulthood: when, where, and why? Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 15, 58–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2017.05.007 Dalgleish, T., Power, M. J., & Ekman, P. (1999). Handbook of cognition and emotion. Wiley. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=vsLvrhohXhAC&oi=fnd&pg=PA45&dq=basic+emotions+ekman&ots=uUxJamT7Lg&sig=XU0-_ToIhTcXYJySe_ggij-rY3M#v=onepage&q=basic%20emotions%20ekman&f=false Du, S., Tao, Y., & Martinez, A. M. (2014). Compound facial expressions of emotion. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(15), E1454–E1462. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1322355111 Ekman, P. (2009). Darwin’s contributions to our understanding of emotional expressions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1535), 3449–3451. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0189 Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1969). The Repertoire of Nonverbal Behavior: Categories, Origins, Usage, and Coding. Semiotica, 1(1). https://doi.org/10.1515/semi.1969.1.1.49 Gross, J. J. (2002). Emotion regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences. Psychophysiology, 39(3), 281–291. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0048577201393198 Gurney, E. (1884). What is an Emotion? Mind, 9(35). JSTOR. Hahn, A. C., Whitehead, R. D., Albrecht, M., Lefevre, C. E., & Perrett, D. I. (2012). Hot or not? Thermal reactions to social contact. Biology Letters, 8(5), 864–867. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2012.0338 Haidt, J., McCauley, C., & Rozin, P. (1994). Individual differences in sensitivity to disgust: A scale sampling seven domains of disgust elicitors. Personality and Individual Differences, 16(5), 701–713. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(94)90212-7 How the Brain Processes Emotions. (n.d.). Neurology Live. Retrieved September 24, 2021, from https://www.neurologylive.com/view/how-brain-processes-emotions Izard, C. E. (2004). The Psychology Of Emotions. Kluwer Academic Pub. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=RPv-shA_sxMC&oi=fnd&pg=PA1&dq=Izard,+1991+interest&ots=cUA88oX7T9&sig=4Y3drrASb_x8GIXp4MrTlwSU_4A&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=Izard%2C%201991%20interest&f=false Izard, C. E., Hembree, E. A., Dougherty, L. M., & Spizzirri, C. C. (1983). Changes in facial expressions of 2- to 19-month-old infants following acute pain. Developmental Psychology, 19(3), 418–426. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.19.3.418 John Mordechai Gottman, & Silver, N. (2018). The seven principles for making marriage work. Seven Dials An Imprint Of Orion Publishing Group Ltd. Joiner, T. E., Pettit, J. W., Perez, M., Burns, A. B., Gencoz, T., Gencoz, F., & Rudd, M. D. (2001). Can positive emotion influence problem-solving attitudes among suicidal adults? Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 32(5), 507–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.32.5.507 Labouvie-Vief, G. (2015). Integrating emotions and cognition throughout the lifespan. Springer. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-3-319-09822-7 Larsen, J. T., & McGraw, A. P. (2011). Further evidence for mixed emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(6), 1095–1110. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021846 Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer. https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&lr=&id=i-ySQQuUpr8C&oi=fnd&pg=PR5&dq=lazarus+and+Folkman+1984&ots=DgFRirgiNi&sig=p3B0ABh0uvLb0MdCjEQIhEiK1-Y&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=lazarus%20and%20Folkman%201984&f=false Levenson, R. W. (2011). Basic Emotion Questions. Emotion Review, 3(4), 379–386. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073911410743 Maan Diong, S., Bishop, G. D., Enkelmann, H. C., Tong, E. M. W., Why, Y. P., Ang, J. C. H., & Khader, M. (2005). Anger, stress, coping, social support and health: Modelling the relationships. Psychology & Health, 20(4), 467–495. https://doi.org/10.1080/0887044040512331333960 Ohman, A. (2008). APA PsycNet. Psycnet.apa.org. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2008-07784-044 Öhman, A., & Mineka, S. (2003). The Malicious Serpent. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(1), 5–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.01211 Olatunji, B. O., & Sawchuk, C. N. (2005). Disgust: Characteristic Features, Social Manifestations, and Clinical Implications. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 24(7), 932–962. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2005.24.7.932 Pekrun, R., & Stephens, E. J. (2010). Achievement Emotions: A Control-Value Approach. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4(4), 238–255. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00259.x Pitzer, L. M., & Bergeman, C. S. (2013). Synchrony in Affect Among Stressed Adults: The Notre Dame Widowhood Study. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 69B(1), 29–39. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbt026 Radiology (ACR), R. S. of N. A. (RSNA) and A. C. of. (2018, February 25). Magnetic Resonance, Functional (fMRI) - Brain. Radiologyinfo.org. https://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/info/fmribrain#:~:text=Functional%20magnetic%20resonance%20imaging%20(fMRI Rozin, P., & Fallon, A. E. (1987). A perspective on disgust. Psychological Review, 94(1), 23–41. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295x.94.1.23 Sato, W., Kochiyama, T., Yoshikawa, S., Naito, E., & Matsumura, M. (2004). Enhanced neural activity in response to dynamic facial expressions of emotion: an fMRI study. Cognitive Brain Research, 20(1), 81–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2004.01.008 Shaver, P., Schwartz, J., Kirson, D., & O’Connor, C. (1987). Emotion knowledge: Further exploration of a prototype approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(6), 1061–1086. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1061 SlideToDoc. (n.d.). The Expression of Emotion Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal Communication. Slidetodoc.com. Retrieved September 26, 2021, from https://slidetodoc.com/the-expression-of-emotion-nonverbal-communication-nonverbal-communication/ Tafrate, R. C., Kassinove, H., & Dundin, L. (2002). Anger episodes in high- and low-trait-anger community adults. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(12), 1573–1590. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.10076 Thoman, D. B., Smith, J. L., & Silvia, P. J. (2011). The Resource Replenishment Function of Interest. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(6), 592–599. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550611402521 Tracy, J. L., & Robins, R. W. (2004). TARGET ARTICLE: “Putting the Self Into Self-Conscious Emotions: A Theoretical Model.” Psychological Inquiry, 15(2), 103–125. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli1502_01 Tybur, J. M., Lieberman, D., Kurzban, R., & DeScioli, P. (2013). Disgust: Evolved function and structure. Psychological Review, 120(1), 65–84. https://doi.org/10.1037/a003077 }} == External links == https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gAMbkJk6gnE&t=52s (YouTube - All about the feels: CrashCourse Psychology) https://www.paulekman.com/resources/universal-facial-expressions/ (Paul Ekman Group: Universal Facial Expressions) http://atlasofemotions.org/ (Interactive Tool for Understanding Emotions) https://psychology.wikia.org/wiki/Emotions (Wikia) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Emotion]] 9bqdlc4ksrzuymitoy5icqhu7b144qc 0 277566 2415571 2394980 2022-08-16T13:57:44Z Sophivorus 85690 Normalize wikitext text/x-wiki {{Wikidebate}} '''Satoshi Nakamoto''' is the name used by the presumed pseudonymous person or persons who developed [[Blockchain|bitcoin]], authored the bitcoin white paper,<ref>https://bitcoin.org/bitcoin.pdf</ref> and created and deployed bitcoin's original reference implementation. == Hal Finney == Harold Thomas Finney II (May 4, 1956 – August 28, 2014) was a developer for PGP Corporation, and was the second developer hired after Phil Zimmermann. * {{Argument against}} Hal Finney's first contributions were corrections to the Bitcoin code, including cryptographic errors. * {{Argument for}} Hal Finney lived near a man named Dorian Satoshi Nakamoto, he could have been inspired by him for his pseudonym. == Nick Szabo == Nicholas "Nick" Szabo is a computer scientist, legal scholar, and cryptographer known for his research in digital contracts and digital currency. * {{Argument for}} Szabo's writing style is the closest to that of Satoshi Nakamoto. * {{Argument against}} Nick Szabo denied to be Satoshi Nakamoto. * {{Argument against}} Nick Szabo designed Bit gold under his real name. == Craig Wright == Craig Steven Wright (born October 1970) is an Australian computer scientist and businessman. He has publicly claimed to be the main part of the team that created bitcoin, and the identity behind the pseudonym Satoshi Nakamoto. * {{Argument against}} Craig Wright claimed to be Satoshi without providing public cryptographic proof.<ref name=":0">{{Citation|title=Craig Wright is not Satoshi Nakamoto {{!}} Vitalik Buterin and Lex Fridman|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=np7mIOaVIFU|accessdate=2021-09-11|language=en}}</ref> * {{Argument against}} He makes technical mistakes on subjects he should have mastered to create Bitcoin.<ref name=":0" /> == Adam Back == Adam Back (born July 1970) is a British cryptographer and cypherpunk. He is the CEO of Blockstream, which he co-founded in 2014. He invented Hashcash, which is used in the Bitcoin mining process. * {{Argument for}} Satoshi Nakamoto wrote in British English and referred to the British newspaper Times in the genesis block. ** {{Objection}} This could easily be a strategy to confuse the issue of his/her identity. * {{Argument for}} Both Satoshi Nakamoto and Adam Back consistently used two spaces after each sentence in the Bitcoin Forum. ** {{Objection}} The use of two spaces was common in the Anglo-Saxon world until at least the 2000s. * {{Argument against}} All of Adam Back's cryptocurrency-related projects (both before and after Bitcoin, including Hashcash and Blockstream) have been conducted publicly under his real name. * {{Argument against}} Adam Back denied to be Satoshi Nakamoto.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/adam3us/status/1259979639092588551|title=https://twitter.com/adam3us/status/1259979639092588551|website=Twitter|language=en|access-date=2021-09-11}}</ref> == Notes and references == {{Reflist}} 64yy54qheo439u7413qx32p7r800296 0 277657 2415681 2415508 2022-08-17T03:06:55Z U3216256 2942574 Disappointment sub title edit wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation == # [[Academic help-seeking]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:Ibm4444|Ibm4444]] # [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3216563|U3216563]] # [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:Teermeej Hossain|Teermeej Hossain]] # [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]] # [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]] # [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]] # [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:SoSilverLibby|SoSilverLibby]] # [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:CaitlinEmc|CaitlinEmc]] # [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]] # [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:GiovanniBartlett|GiovanniBartlett]] # [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:JimmyOC1985|JimmyOC1985]] # [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]] # [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]] # [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:U3203936|U3203936]] # [[/Comprehensive action determination model/]] - What is the CADM and how can it be applied to understanding human motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]] # [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]] # [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]] # [[/Discounts and consumer purchase behaviour/]] - What role do discounts play in consumer purchase behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]] # [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:U3246310|U3246310]] # [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]] # [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:Wuser1307|Wuser1307]] # [[/Environmental volunteering motivation/]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]] # [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]] # [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]] # [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:Btarmstrong24|Btarmstrong24]] # [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:U3211125|U3211125]] # [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:U3161584|U3161584]] # [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]] # [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:Dee320|Dee320]] # [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]] # [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|SLoCE]] # [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]] # [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]] # [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] # [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] # [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]] # [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:U3183466|U3183466]] # [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]] # [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]] # [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[User:U3203655|U3203655]] # [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]] # [[/Psychological trauma and subsequent drug use/]] - How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? What are the strategies for treating trauma-induced drug use? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]] # [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]] # [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]] # [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]] # [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]] # [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]] # [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]] # [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]] # [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers help to motivate long-term retention of employees? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|Emily.desilva]] # [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]] # [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:StormSar|StormSar]] # [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]] # [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]] # [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]] # [[/Treatment motivation in juvenile delinquency/]] - What is the role of treatment motivation for juvenile delinquency and how can it be enhanced? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]] # [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3055143|U3055143]] # [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]] # [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:U3201643|U3201643]] # [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:U3215603|U3215603]] # [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]] ==Emotion== # [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:U3216502|u3203545]] # [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] # [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]] # [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:SunandaUC|SunandaUC]] # [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:U3202788|U3202788]] # [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]] # [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]] # [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3203545|U3203545]] # [[/Compassion fatigue in mental health professionals/]] - What causes compassion fatigue in MH professionals and how can it be prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3202788|U3219905]] # [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? U3203140 # [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:SashaBrooksby|SashaBrooksby]] # [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]] # [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:U3158968|U3158968]] # [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] # [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:DenniseSoleymani|DenniseSoleymani]] # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? -]] [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]] # [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:Jdebear|Jdebear]] # [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3190353|U3190353 # [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:Eimilerous22|Eimilerous22]] # [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]] # [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:U3230861|U3230861]] # [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]] # [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]] # [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:U3131472|U3131472]] # [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:U3246554|U3246554]] # [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]] # [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]] # [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - u3216963 # [[/Flourishing in the elderly/]] - How can psychological flourishing be supported in the elderly? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]] # [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]] # [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]] # [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3230861|U3227354]] # [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]] # [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:U3203265|U3203265]] # [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]] # [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]] # [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3217109|U3217109]] # [[/Mental toughness in the workplace/]] - What can mental toughness be useful in the workplace? How can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:CaityDcr1603|U3217109]] # [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:Clairelogan|Clairelogan]] # [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3210490|U3210490]] # [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? -[[User:Inandonit365|Inandonit365]] # [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]] # [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:Ana028|Ana028]] # [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]] # [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]] # [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]] # [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]] # [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]] # [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:Noah O'Brien|Noah O'Brien]] # [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]] # [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:BenjiD'Ange|BenjiD'Ange]] # [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]] # [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:U3200902|U3200902]] # [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]] # [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:Isaacem13|Isaacem13]] # [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]] # [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]] # [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]] # [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]] # [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:Jamieepiper|Jamieepiper]] # [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]] # [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]] # [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]] ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:U3217287|U3217287]] # [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]] # [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:Molzaroid|Molzaroid]] # [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:U3100193|U3100193]] # [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]] shalerasb2qfvedgok1szpvp47na35f 2415690 2415681 2022-08-17T03:49:36Z U3223109 2947538 Edited sub-title wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation == # [[Academic help-seeking]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:Ibm4444|Ibm4444]] # [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3216563|U3216563]] # [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:Teermeej Hossain|Teermeej Hossain]] # [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]] # [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]] # [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]] # [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:SoSilverLibby|SoSilverLibby]] # [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:CaitlinEmc|CaitlinEmc]] # [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]] # [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:GiovanniBartlett|GiovanniBartlett]] # [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:JimmyOC1985|JimmyOC1985]] # [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]] # [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]] # [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:U3203936|U3203936]] # [[/Comprehensive action determination model/]] - What is the CADM and how can it be applied to understanding human motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]] # [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]] # [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]] # [[/Discounts and consumer purchase behaviour/]] - What role do discounts play in consumer purchase behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]] # [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:U3246310|U3246310]] # [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]] # [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:Wuser1307|Wuser1307]] # [[/Environmental volunteering motivation/]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]] # [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]] # [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]] # [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:Btarmstrong24|Btarmstrong24]] # [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:U3211125|U3211125]] # [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:U3161584|U3161584]] # [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]] # [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:Dee320|Dee320]] # [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]] # [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|SLoCE]] # [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]] # [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]] # [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] # [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] # [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]] # [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:U3183466|U3183466]] # [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]] # [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]] # [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[User:U3203655|U3203655]] # [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]] # [[/Psychological trauma and subsequent drug use/]] - How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? What are the strategies for treating trauma-induced drug use? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]] # [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]] # [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]] # [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]] # [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]] # [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]] # [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]] # [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]] # [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers help to motivate long-term retention of employees? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|Emily.desilva]] # [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]] # [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:StormSar|StormSar]] # [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]] # [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]] # [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]] # [[/Treatment motivation in juvenile delinquency/]] - What is the role of treatment motivation for juvenile delinquency and how can it be enhanced? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]] # [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3055143|U3055143]] # [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]] # [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:U3201643|U3201643]] # [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:U3215603|U3215603]] # [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]] ==Emotion== # [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:U3216502|u3203545]] # [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] # [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]] # [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:SunandaUC|SunandaUC]] # [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:U3202788|U3202788]] # [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]] # [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]] # [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3203545|U3203545]] # [[/Compassion fatigue in mental health professionals/]] - What causes compassion fatigue in MH professionals and how can it be prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3202788|U3219905]] # [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? U3203140 # [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:SashaBrooksby|SashaBrooksby]] # [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]] # [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:U3158968|U3158968]] # [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] # [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:DenniseSoleymani|DenniseSoleymani]] # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? -]] [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]] # [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:Jdebear|Jdebear]] # [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3190353|U3190353 # [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:Eimilerous22|Eimilerous22]] # [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]] # [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:U3230861|U3230861]] # [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]] # [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]] # [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:U3131472|U3131472]] # [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:U3246554|U3246554]] # [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]] # [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]] # [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - u3216963 # [[/Flourishing in the elderly/]] - How can psychological flourishing be supported in the elderly? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]] # [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]] # [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]] # [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3230861|U3227354]] # [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]] # [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:U3203265|U3203265]] # [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]] # [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]] # [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3217109|U3217109]] # [[/Mental toughness in the workplace/]] - What can mental toughness be useful in the workplace? How can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:CaityDcr1603|U3217109]] # [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:Clairelogan|Clairelogan]] # [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3210490|U3210490]] # [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? -[[User:Inandonit365|Inandonit365]] # [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]] # [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:Ana028|Ana028]] # [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]] # [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]] # [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]] # [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]] # [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]] # [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:Noah O'Brien|Noah O'Brien]] # [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]] # [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:BenjiD'Ange|BenjiD'Ange]] # [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]] # [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:U3200902|U3200902]] # [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]] # [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:Isaacem13|Isaacem13]] # [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]] # [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]] # [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]] # [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]] # [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:Jamieepiper|Jamieepiper]] # [[/Window of tolerance/|Window of Tolerance]] - What is the Window of Tolerance and how can it be applied in practice? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]] # [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]] # [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]] ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:U3217287|U3217287]] # [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]] # [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:Molzaroid|Molzaroid]] # [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:U3100193|U3100193]] # [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]] 3olfpuc4ynv6bic5t7v0s721htbivbs 2415692 2415690 2022-08-17T03:58:06Z U3223109 2947538 wikitext text/x-wiki {{/Banner}} ==Motivation == # [[Academic help-seeking]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:Ibm4444|Ibm4444]] # [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3216563|U3216563]] # [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:Teermeej Hossain|Teermeej Hossain]] # [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]] # [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]] # [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]] # [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:SoSilverLibby|SoSilverLibby]] # [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:CaitlinEmc|CaitlinEmc]] # [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]] # [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:GiovanniBartlett|GiovanniBartlett]] # [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:JimmyOC1985|JimmyOC1985]] # [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]] # [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]] # [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:U3203936|U3203936]] # [[/Comprehensive action determination model/]] - What is the CADM and how can it be applied to understanding human motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]] # [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]] # [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]] # [[/Discounts and consumer purchase behaviour/]] - What role do discounts play in consumer purchase behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]] # [[/Domestic energy conservation motivation/]] - How can domestic energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:U3246310|U3246310]] # [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]] # [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:Wuser1307|Wuser1307]] # [[/Environmental volunteering motivation/]] - What motivates environmental volunteering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]] # [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]] # [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]] # [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:Btarmstrong24|Btarmstrong24]] # [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:U3211125|U3211125]] # [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:U3161584|U3161584]] # [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]] # [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:Dee320|Dee320]] # [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]] # [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|SLoCE]] # [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]] # [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]] # [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] # [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3216963|U3216963]] # [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]] # [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:U3183466|U3183466]] # [[/Non-residential energy conservation motivation/]] - How can non-residential building energy conservation and reduced consumption be motivated and behaviour changed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]] # [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]] # [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[User:U3203655|U3203655]] # [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]] # [[/Psychological trauma and subsequent drug use/]] - How does psychological trauma motivate drug use? What are the strategies for treating trauma-induced drug use? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]] # [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]] # [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]] # [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]] # [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]] # [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]] # [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]] # [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]] # [[/Staff retention motivation/]] - How can organisations and managers help to motivate long-term retention of employees? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|Emily.desilva]] # [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]] # [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:StormSar|StormSar]] # [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]] # [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]] # [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]] # [[/Treatment motivation in juvenile delinquency/]] - What is the role of treatment motivation for juvenile delinquency and how can it be enhanced? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]] # [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3055143|U3055143]] # [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]] # [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:U3201643|U3201643]] # [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:U3215603|U3215603]] # [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]] ==Emotion== # [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:U3216502|u3203545]] # [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] # [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]] # [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:SunandaUC|SunandaUC]] # [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:U3202788|U3202788]] # [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]] # [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]] # [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3203545|U3203545]] # [[/Compassion fatigue in mental health professionals/]] - What causes compassion fatigue in MH professionals and how can it be prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3202788|U3219905]] # [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? U3203140 # [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:SashaBrooksby|SashaBrooksby]] # [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]] # [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:U3158968|U3158968]] # [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] # [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:DenniseSoleymani|DenniseSoleymani]] # [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? -]] [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]] # [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:Jdebear|Jdebear]] # [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:U3190353|U3190353 # [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:Eimilerous22|Eimilerous22]] # [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]] # [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:U3230861|U3230861]] # [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]] # [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]] # [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:U3131472|U3131472]] # [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:U3246554|U3246554]] # [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]] # [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]] # [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - u3216963 # [[/Flourishing in the elderly/]] - How can psychological flourishing be supported in the elderly? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]] # [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]] # [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]] # [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3230861|U3227354]] # [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]] # [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:U3203265|U3203265]] # [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]] # [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]] # [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3217109|U3217109]] # [[/Mental toughness in the workplace/]] - What can mental toughness be useful in the workplace? How can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:CaityDcr1603|U3217109]] # [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:Clairelogan|Clairelogan]] # [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3210490|U3210490]] # [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? -[[User:Inandonit365|Inandonit365]] # [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]] # [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:Ana028|Ana028]] # [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]] # [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]] # [[/Occupational violence, emotion, and coping/]] - What are the emotional impacts of occupational violence and how can employees cope? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]] # [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]] # [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]] # [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:Noah O'Brien|Noah O'Brien]] # [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]] # [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:BenjiD'Ange|BenjiD'Ange]] # [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]] # [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:U3200902|U3200902]] # [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]] # [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:Isaacem13|Isaacem13]] # [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]] # [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]] # [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]] # [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]] # [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:Jamieepiper|Jamieepiper]] # [[/Window of tolerance/|Window of Tolerance]] - What is the Window of Tolerance and how can this concept be applied in practice? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]] # [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]] # [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]] ==Motivation and emotion== # [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:U3217287|U3217287]] # [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]] # [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:Molzaroid|Molzaroid]] # [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]] # [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:U3100193|U3100193]] # [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]] fxk6kjfwfcwyza6a7tyqg2olmz9bet5 0 277667 2415703 2410873 2022-08-17T04:29:19Z Greg at Higher Math Help 2911873 Removed table of contents. wikitext text/x-wiki {{Eventmath tabs}} __NOTOC__ __NOEDITSECTION__ <div style="float:left; width:60%;"> ==Math lesson plans based on current events== ===Welcome to Eventmath!=== Wouldn’t it be great if students could wield math as a tool for evaluating news and social media content? To make this a reality, Eventmath pairs news articles and social media posts with math lesson plans. It's a living repository, where anyone can * discover and edit [[Eventmath/Lesson plans|'''Lesson plans''']], * share ideas and get feedback by [[Eventmath/Contributing|'''Contributing''']] lesson plans, and * help make Eventmath a world-class resource by completing [[Eventmath/Tasks|'''Tasks''']]. This is a new project and is under development. If you're curious to learn more, you can read our [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Grants:Project/Eventmath '''successful grant proposal''']. ===Get involved=== There are two great ways to get involved right now! You can * register for one of [[Eventmath/Meetups/Summer_2022_workshops|'''our free, online workshops''']] to help us add more lesson plans * add an endorsement or feedback to our '''example lesson plans''': ** [[Eventmath/Lesson_plans/Proportions_and_voting_power_under_the_Electoral_College|Proportions and voting power under the Electoral College]] ** [[Eventmath/Lesson_plans/Comparing_streaming_service_pay_rates_to_artists|Comparing streaming service pay rates to artists]] </div> <div style="float:right; width:30%">[[File:Eventmath_logo_bitmap_graphic.png|200px]]</div> <div style="float:left; width:99%"> ===Planned content=== * ''Project purpose'': brief explanation of the problem addressed by Eventmath and the solution it provides * ''Featured lesson plan:'' prominent recognition of high-quality lesson plans to encourage users to create the best possible content * ''Intro video:'' welcome message to introduce visitors to the site and the project goals * ''Eventmath news:'' ongoing list of news, updates, and other current info ([[Eventmath/Meetups|meetups]], media coverage, etc.) * ''Testimonials:'' featured quotes, links, and other info about Eventmath being used in classrooms </div> {{Eventmath end tab}} [[Category:Eventmath project pages]] s8n8mbz6680f4idfjsulv10k2v7plz9 0 277671 2415698 2412329 2022-08-17T04:17:15Z Greg at Higher Math Help 2911873 wikitext text/x-wiki {{Eventmath tabs}} <div style="float:left; width:70%;"> {{TOC limit|2}} ==About Eventmath participants== Eventmath participants are math educators who contribute to the project in many ways: * using Eventmath lesson plans in the classroom * endorsing lesson plans based on classroom experience * spreading awareness at school or on social media (hashtag: #Eventmath) * linking to Eventmath from a personal or organizational website * creating or improving lesson plans * providing peer review * hosting workshops or edit-a-thons * etc. On this page, you can learn about the people and organizations doing this important work. We welcome you to add yourself or your organization! ==How to create an account== If you already have a Wikipedia account, that will work on Wikiversity as well. In fact, '''an account on any one Wikimedia project will work across all projects'''. If you don’t have an account yet, you can [[Special:CreateAccount|create a Wikiversity account]] for free. It’s possible to edit without an account, but we highly recommend creating one. Here are a few of the things an account allows you to do: * Create a [[Help:User_page|user page]] * Build a [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Help:User_contributions contribution history] * Participate on [[Help:Talk_page|talk pages]] more easily by [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Help:Signatures signing] comments with your username * Follow changes in pages you add to your [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Help:Watchlist watchlist] (you can even set up [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Email_notification email notifications]) * Prevent your IP address from being revealed (edits made while logged in are publicly associated with your username instead) ==How to join the participant lists== ===Organizations=== To enter your information, just click "edit source" down below, next to the heading [[Eventmath/Participants#List_of_participating_organizations|"List of participating organizations"]], and type away! You’re welcome to include any of these details: * Organization name * Social media handle * Website * Brief description ** Nature of Eventmath participation (e.g. promotion, hosting of workshops, organization of peer review) ** Benefits to Eventmath participants (e.g. newsletters, conferences, open-access journals) ===Individuals=== To enter your information, just click the "Join as individual" button below, and type away! You’re welcome to include any of these details: * Name * Social media handle * Wikiversity user page * Brief bio For the bio, you might include your interests and how you participate in Eventmath. <strong>If you make a mistake or need to update your information, don't worry.</strong> * You can edit your entry in the [[Eventmath/Participants/List|List]]. * If you do, and your updates don't appear immediately, you can click this {{Purge|purge link}} to make the update happen right away. <div style="float:left; margin-bottom:2em;"> <inputbox> type=commenttitle hidden=yes page={{FULLPAGENAME}}/List buttonlabel=Join as individual arialabel=Join the Eventmath participants list editintro=Eventmath/Participant list entry instructions preload=Template:Eventmath participant list entry </inputbox> </div> <div style="clear:left;"> </div> </div> <div style="float:left; width:30%;"> [[File:Eventmath_logo_bitmap_graphic.png|200px]] </div> <div> <div style="float:left; width:70%;"> ==List of participating organizations== <!-- INSTRUCTIONS: 1. Copy and paste the model entry below this comment. 2. Replace model text with your information. 3. Leave markup in place (=== for level 3 heading, * for bullet, '' for italics, [] for links). 4. Click "Show preview" at the bottom of this editor to see how your entry will appear. 5. Click "Publish changes" at the bottom of this editor once you're satisfied! MODEL ENTRY: ===Organization name=== * ''Twitter:'' [URL-of-twitter-profile @Twitter-username] * ''Website:'' [URL-of-organization-website text-to-display] * ''Description:'' Here, write a few sentences about how your organization participates in Eventmath. For example, this might include project promotion, hosting of workshops, or organization of peer review. If you like, you're welcome to share how your organization might benefit the Eventmath community. For example, this might include newsletter offerings, conference opportunities, or open-access journals. NOTES: A. To omit any information, simply delete the associated line of the model entry. B. If you need to insert any additional markup, click "Help" in the toolbar of this editor. --> ===The National Numeracy Network=== * ''Website:'' [http://www.nnn-us.org/ http://www.nnn-us.org/] * ''Description:'' The National Numeracy Network (NNN) promotes education that integrates quantitative skills across all disciplines and at all levels. To this end, the Network supports faculty development, curriculum design, assessment strategies, education research and systemic change. The NNN promotes Eventmath to its membership, has hosted a facilitated discussion on Eventmath at the recent NNN conference, and organizes edit-a-thons. ===The Special Interest Group of the Mathematical Association of America on Quantitative Literacy (SIGMAA QL)=== * ''Website:'' [http://sigmaa.maa.org/ql/ http://sigmaa.maa.org/ql/] * ''Description:'' SIGMAA QL is the Special Interest Group of the MAA which focuses on Quantitative Literacy (QL). SIGMAA QL aims to provide a structure within the mathematics community to identify the prerequisite mathematical skills for quantitative literacy (QL) and find innovative ways of developing and implementing QL curricula. The SIGMAA on QL sponsored a talk on Eventmath at MathFest in 2021, and has shared Eventmath with its membership, via its message board. ==List of participating individuals== {{/List}} </div> <div style="float:left; width:30%;"> [[File:Noun project organization icon.svg|Noun project organization icon|200px]] </div> </div> {{Eventmath end tab}} [[Category:Eventmath project pages]] 1lxkm2aqw8dj5jpasm8pvdrv2s26e0r 0 278845 2415775 2361129 2022-08-17T08:20:56Z Jtneill 10242 /* What is Episodic Memory[grammar?] */ Fixed some grammar wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Episodic memory and planning:<br>What role does episodic memory play in planning?}} {{MECR3|1=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=An6W2a08Rnw}} __TOC__ ==Overview== This chapter examines the term episodic memory and how it affects future planning. We will be going into the details of why it exists, the science behind it and what role memory plays in planning for the future. Included in the article is a quiz, some imagery and addition links in order to dive into the topic further. ==What is episodic memory?== Episodic memory is the ability to remember personally experienced events and situations. These memories include details of the context of the event, emotions associated with it and specific details of the event (Tulving, 1993). Examples of episodic memory (Perera, 2021): * Buying your first car * Graduating university * Your first kiss * What you ate for dinner *Your friend's birthday party * First day at school {{tip|The science behind it{{what}} (Wright, 2015). According to the International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, episodic memory refers to a neurocognitive system that renders possible the conscious recollection of events as they were previously experienced}} [[File:Man blowing out birthday candles.jpg|thumb|Episodic memory of a great birthday]] ==Episodic memory and future planning == As episodic memory allows for the recall of specific events while this cognitive function contributes to future planning{{gr}}. With the ability to remember events, past feelings and emotions associated with past experiences, you are able to use this information for future planning purposes (How Episodic Memory Helps You Remember Events, 2020). For example, if you got food poisoning from a Mexican restaurant, you would be very hesitant to go there again as you would remember how you felt previously. This recall of information would lead you to choosing a different restaurant for food next time as you would want to avoid feeling like that again. == Why does Episodic Memory exist? == The oxford handbook of comparative evolutionary psychology has looked into the theory and reasoning for episodic memory (Vonk & Shackelford, 2012) . They have listed 3 main reasons for this theory. * to use past information to solve problems in the present and for future issues *to provide knowledge about oneself in the past and as predicted in the future *to allow humans to understand and empathize while providing information and memories for conversation ==The role of Episodic memory in planning == According to the Constructive Episodic Simulation Hypothesis developed in 2007, the ability to remember past events and imagine future events is due to episodic memory (Schacter & Addis, 2007). When imagining future events, the aspect of the brain that lights up, also becomes active when we remember our past and or past events. The similarity of brain activity indicates that when we draw on memories or imagine future plans, we draw on the same areas of the brain that is required.{{fact}} A case study from 2019 looked into what is the role of episodic foresight in planning for future needs. Their results indicated that where there were strong feelings or memories against an event which determined future planning, this was confirmed to be influenced by episodic memory (Cheke & Clayton, 2019).{{expand}} In addition, an article written in 2001 has looked into the concept of ‘episodic future thinking’: a projection of the self into the future to pre-experience an event. This research used the theory of episodic memory combined with future planning in order to predict ones{{gr}} feelings, emotions and thoughts for future events or scenarios (Atance & O’Neill, 2001).{{expand}} While these articles are looking at different aspects, all three of these case studies provide an explanation as to the connection of memory and planning. These articles also pose the question of, if we alter someone's memory, can that alter their future? These are the lead on questions that would be fascinating to look into{{vague}}. == How memory affects the planning of adults with Depression or Alzheimer == Recent research has uncovered that people who are depressed have impaired memory that makes it difficult to not only remember previous memories and events but makes it difficult to imagine future events as well{{fact}}. Due to the loss of connection{{vague}}, this can make their situation more difficult (L, 2015). In addition, another study has looked into the connection of episodic memory and future planning amongst older adults with alzheimer's and amnesia{{fact}}. The results revealed that when episodic memory is compromised there is a corresponding loss of details in future events that they imagined (Madore et al., 2014){{expand}}. Both of these pieces of research indicate that if there are aspects of the brain that aren't healthy, this can lead to difficulty either viewing the future or creating current memories. ===Quiz=== Take a quick quiz to see if you understand the concept! <quiz display="simple"> {Episodic memory and future planning activate the same components in the brain: |type="()"} + True - False {Episodic memory is based off how you were raised: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> ==Conclusion== Episodic memory is the ability to remember personally experienced events, situations and emotions attached. This type of memory allows you to recall your first kiss, first car or even your graduation. While this type of memory allows for the recall of emotions or feelings, it also can affect how someone plans for the future. Since episodic memory and future planning utilize the same area of the brain, studies have found that they not only work together and influence each other, but if one aspect isn't working properly, the other aspect is negatively influences{{gr}}. This type of research has informed us that episodic memory and future planning play a large role in working together to create new memory with the ability to plan ahead for more. Going forward, it is recommended that the relationship between fake memories and future planning be looked into as well as future planning based on someone else {{gr}} recollection. This type of future research may assist brain injury victims and those without the ability to create memories{{how}}. == See also == *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Memory and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2013) *[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting|Episodic future thinking and delay discounting]] (Book chapter, 2021) *[[Human brain]] (Wikiversity) *[[w:Memory|Memory]] (Wikipedia) *[[Fundamentals of Neuroscience/Memory]] (Wikiversity) ==References== {{ic|Use alphabetical order.}} {{Hanging indent|1= How Episodic Memory Helps You Remember Events. (2020, March 6). Verywell Mind. <nowiki>https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-episodic-memory-2795173#:%7E:text=Episodic%20memory%20is%20a%20category,all%20examples%20of%20episodic%20memories</nowiki>. Tulving, E. (1993). What Is Episodic Memory? ''Current Directions in Psychological Science'', ''2''(3), 67–70. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.ep10770899</nowiki> Perera, A. (2021, March 16). ''Episodic Memory {{!}} Simply Psychology''. Episodic Memory. <nowiki>https://www.simplypsychology.org/episodic-memory.html</nowiki> Vonk, J., & Shackelford, T. K. (2012). ''The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Evolutionary Psychology (Oxford Library of Psychology)'' (Illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. Wright, J. D. (2015). ''International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences'' (2nd ed.). Elsevier. Madore, K. P., Gaesser, B., & Schacter, D. L. (2014). Constructive episodic simulation: Dissociable effects of a specificity induction on remembering, imagining, and describing in young and older adults. ''Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition'', ''40''(3), 609–622. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034885</nowiki> L. (2015, August 21). ''Linking the Past to the Future Through Memory''. Cognitive Neuroscience Society. <nowiki>https://www.cogneurosociety.org/memory_addis_yia/</nowiki> Cheke, L. G., & Clayton, N. S. (2019). What is the role of episodic foresight in planning for future needs? Theory and two experiments. ''Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology'', ''72''(8), 1961–1976. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/1747021818820808</nowiki> Atance, C. M., & O’Neill, D. K. (2001). Episodic future thinking. ''Trends in Cognitive Sciences'', ''5''(12), 533–539. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/s1364-6613(00)01804-0</nowiki> Schacter, D. L., & Addis, D. R. (2007). On the constructive episodic simulation of past and future events. ''Behavioral and Brain Sciences'', ''30''(3), 331–332. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x07002178</nowiki> }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Memory]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Planning]] fon9lhf9kl2z8guk5tshkv6f2zqjior 0 281403 2415622 2410998 2022-08-16T18:48:35Z Saltrabook 1417466 /* Contribute to the Revision of the EU Ships Medical Chest */ wikitext text/x-wiki ==Contribute to the Revision of the EU Ships Medical Chest== During sailing it shall be possible to measure blood pressure in individuals having treatment for high blood pressure. At least two automatic apparatus should be available on all ships in case one of the devices breaks Ships Medical Chest''<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=World Health Organization|date=2007|title=International medical guide for ships : including the ship's medicine chest|url=https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/43814|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://dma.dk/seafarers-and-manning/person-in-charge-of-medical-care/download-inventory-lists|title=Download inventory lists|website=dma.dk|language=en|access-date=2022-01-23}}</ref>'' Self-monitoring of blood glucose for non-insulin-treated adults with Type 2 diabetes is necessary. Instructions and relevant equipment in the medical chest on board (Glucometer test kit) is needed to be added to the actual revision of the International Medical Guide for Ships and the Medical Inventory lists. ''A few crew embers on board shall know how to measure blood glucose and to treat severe hypoglycemia using glucagon, which must be present on all ship chests.FG'' == References == 0g056rmoih6f7gxbdzftjc31trf898s 0 283684 2415631 2411000 2022-08-16T21:26:37Z 186.188.165.203 /* Diabetes T2 and Hypertension Research and Education plan 2022-2030 */ wikitext text/x-wiki ==Diabetes T2 and Hypertension Research and Education plan 2022-2030== {| class="wikitable" |- |'''A''' |'''International''' |2022-2024 |2025-2027 |2028-2030 |- |1 |Annual International Research and Education Seminars (Nov 2022) |x |x |x |- |2 |Revise the International ILO Guide medical examinations for seafarers |x |x |x |- |3 |Establish T2D and HTN international/national data register |x |x |x |- |4 |Revision of the WHO International Medical Guide for Ships |x |x |x |- |5 |Revision of the Ships Medical Chest |x |x |x |- |6 |WMU Malmö, Sweden database for projects and publications |x | | |- |'''B''' |'''Multi faceted health promotion “Sustainable ship”guidelines''' | | | |- |1 |Knowledge and practice of what works review study |x |x |x |- |2 |Strategic diferentiated education and training for the social groups |x |x |x |- |'''C''' |'''Education and training health promotion''' | | | |- |1 |Education program on knowledge and practice T2D & HTN |x |x |x |- |2 |Development online educational- and training materials T2D and HTN |x |x |x |- |3 |Implementation, evaluation and revision of online materials |x |x |x |- |4 |Establish the "International Maritime Public Health School" | | | |- |'''D''' |'''Accuracy of screening and follow-up for T2D''' | | | |- |1 |Accuracy of glucose meters for seafarers own control on board |x |x |x |- |2 |Accuracy and costs of glucose meters for screening in clinics | | | |- |3 |Accuracy and costs of non-invasive glucose meters screening | | | |- |4 |Clinical applicability and cost-effectiveness of DIABSCORE | | | |- |'''E''' |'''Accuracy of screening and follow-up for HTN''' | | | |- |'''F''' |'''Epidemiology''' | | | |- |1 |Monitoring T2D and hypertension (HTN) from the Screening program |x |x |x |- |2 |Loss of working years for seafarers with T2D and HTN |x |x |x |- |3 |Co-morbidity for T2D and HTN (mental, CVD, feet, vision) |x |x |x |- |4 |Seafarers selection out of cohort due to HTN and T2D | | | |- |5 |Follow-up of compliance with the advice and need for booster training | | | |- |'''G''' |'''Electronic Data Capture Software:''' | | | |- |1 |Google Forms, other | | | |- |'''H''' |'''Workplace risk factors''' | | | |- |1 |Work risk factors like stress, strain, shift-work for T2D and HTN risk | | | |- |2 |Workplace stigma and discrimination for T2D and HTN | | | |- |'''I''' |'''How to continue working at sea with T2D and HTN''' | | | |- |1 |Guide to manage T2D znd HTN at the workplaces at sea |x |x |x |- |'''J''' |'''Best clinical practices for maritime T2D and HTN diagnostics''' | | | |- |1 |Guidelines for T2D and HTN diagnostics (A1C, FPG) |x |x | |- |2 |Program for the newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes seafarers (ILO)* |x |x |x |- |3 |Best care practices for T2D/HTN seafarers at work and home |x |x |x |- |'''K''' |'''Non-pharm maritime intervention''' | | | |- |1 |[[Maritime Health Research and Education-NET/DM2/Ten years plans/Review of effect workplace interventions T2DM|Review of effect workplace interventions T2D]] HTN |x |x |x |- |'''L''' |'''Pharmacological and non-pharm T2D/HTN Interventions''' | | | |- |1 |Review of pharmacological intervention study effects |x |x |x |- |2 |Review of combined pharm/non-pharm intervention study effects |x |x |x |- |3 |Protocol for combined pharm and non-pharm intervention study effects |x |x |x |- |'''M''' |'''Financial costs for HTN and T2D''' | | | |- |1 |Loss of workability and compensation costs |x |x |x |- |2 |Medical treatment and diagnostics cost for HTN, T2D and co-morbidities |x |x |x |- |3 |Review and Guidelines to reduce inappropriate laboratory testing |x |x |x |} rpc4rr9zm5szgsof060bvu1470s4l8j 0 284216 2415665 2414443 2022-08-17T00:54:51Z Lbeaumont 278565 /* Assignment */ wikitext text/x-wiki —Choosing our future [[File:Vision of the Future.jpg|thumb|200px|We can choose to wisely create our future.]] == Introduction == Do today’s humans represent the endpoint of evolution, or are we on the threshold of the [[Level_5_Research_Center|next big thing]]? This course, based primarily on the ''Evolutionary Manifesto''<ref> [http://www.evolutionarymanifesto.com/man.pdf ''The Evolutionary Manifesto''], John Stewart, June 6, 2008. We are grateful to the author for providing a version of [https://archive.org/details/the-evolutionary-manifesto ''The Evolutionary Manifesto''] released under the [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/ Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License] to allow development of this course based on the text and concepts of that essay.</ref>, written by John Stewart, proposes that humans are at a historic and decisive crossroads in all of history. This course explores the hypothesis that we can choose to cooperate and allow the next level of organization to emerge, or the evolution project will end in the failure of humanity. Because this course describes a [[Envisioning_Our_Future|vision of the future]] it necessarily incudes predictions that are uncertain. However, the course is based on a substantial compilation of factual material including the [[w:Introduction_to_evolution|mechanisms of evolution]], [[w:Developmental_biology |developmental processes]], [[w:Human_evolution_(origins_of_society_and_culture)|human evolution]], [[w:Human_nature|human nature]], [[w:History|history]], [[w:Extinction|extinction events]], and the status of our [[w:Cultural_area|world cultures]]. {{TOC right | limit|limit=3|width=50%}} == Objectives == {{100%done}}{{By|lbeaumont}} The objectives of this course are to: * Review various mechanisms of evolution, * Explore various evolutionary paths into the future, * Introduce the concept of intentional evolution, * Describe our opportunities for shaping the future, and * Encourage participation as an intentional evolutionary This is a course in the [[Unleashing_Creativity/possibilities_curriculum|''possibilities'' curriculum]], currently being developed as part of the [[Wisdom/Curriculum|Applied Wisdom Curriculum]]. If you wish to contact the instructor, please [[Special:Emailuser/Lbeaumont | click here to send me an email]] or leave a comment or question on the [[Talk:Intentional_Evolution|discussion page]]. Although there are no prerequisites to this course, and all students are welcome, the course relies on an understanding of the mechanisms of evolution. Studying the Wikipedia article on [[w:Introduction_to_evolution|Introduction to Evolution]] and reading some of the books listed in the [[Intentional_Evolution#Recommended_Reading|Recommended Reading]] section of this course can provide students with the required background. == PART 1: INTENTIONAL EVOLUTION == A completely new phase in the [[w:Evolution|evolution]] of life on Earth has begun. It will change everything. In this new phase evolution will be driven [[w:Intention|intentionally]], by [[w:Human|humanity]]. The evolutionary [[Exploring_Worldviews|worldview]] that emerges from an understanding of our role in the new phase has the potential to transform the nature of [[w:Human_condition|human existence]]. At present humanity is lost. We face many [[Grand challenges|grand challenges]]. We are without a [[Exploring_Worldviews|worldview]] that can point to our place and purpose in the universe and that can also withstand [[w:Rationality|rational]] scrutiny. But this difficult period is coming to an end. The [[w:Emergence|emergence]] of the new evolutionary worldview is beginning to lift us out of the abyss. The new worldview has a unique capacity to reveal who we are and what we should be doing with our lives. It relies solely on [[Thinking_Scientifically|scientific knowledge]] and [[Deductive_Logic/Clear_Thinking_curriculum|reason]] to identify our critical role in future evolution. The evolutionary worldview can unite us in a great common enterprise and provide meaning and purpose for human existence. At the heart of the evolutionary worldview is the fact that evolution has a trajectory—it heads in a particular direction. However, evolution on Earth will not advance beyond a certain point unless it is driven consciously and intentionally. If this transition to intentional evolution does not occur, evolution on this planet will stall, and humanity will not contribute positively to the future evolution of life in the universe—we will be a failed evolutionary experiment. It is as if evolution is a [[w:Developmental_biology|developmental process]]. Just as a [[w:Human_embryonic_development|human embryo]] is organized to develop through several stages to produce an adult, evolution tends to produce a particular sequence of outcomes of increasing [[w:Complexity|complexity]]. Initially, evolution moves in this direction of its own accord. However, at a particular point evolution will continue to advance only if certain conditions are met: * organisms must emerge that awaken to the possibility that they are living in the midst of a developmental process; * they must realize that the continued success of the process depends on them; and * they must commit to actively moving the process forward. Across the planet at the beginning of the twenty first century, individuals are beginning to realize the importance of the transition to intentional evolution. They know that they themselves have a significant role to play if the transition is to be completed successfully. This role requires them to promote the new evolutionary worldview that will drive the transition. It also calls on them to begin to remake themselves and their societies in whatever ways are necessary to advance the evolutionary process. Their efforts, powered by the capacity of the evolutionary worldview to invest their lives with direction and purpose, will bring forth a great wave of evolutionary [[w:Activism|activism]] that will change life on this planet forever. Evolutionary activists use the trajectory of evolution to identify what they need to do to advance evolution. Socially, the next great step in human evolution is the emergence of a unified and sustainable [[w:Activism|global society]]. Psychologically, the next step is to free our behavior from the dictates of our biological and cultural past, so that we can do that which is necessary for future evolutionary success. The organization of a cooperative global society is an urgent priority. With it, the threats of world war and global warming can be easily managed. Without it, human civilization may end this century. ''The Evolutionary Manifesto'' is an intentional attempt to promote the shift to conscious evolution and the evolutionary activism that will drive it. To complete this course and to share the ideas with others is to participate in a great evolutionary transition on this planet. [[Intentional_Evolution#PART_1:_INTENTIONAL_EVOLUTION|Part 1 of this course]] provides an overview of the shift to intentional evolution and of the worldview that is motivating individuals to actively promote the transition. [[Intentional_Evolution#PART_2:_ADVANCING_EVOLUTION_BY_ORGANIZING_A_COOPERATIVE_GLOBAL_SOCIETY|Parts 2]] and [[Intentional_Evolution#PART_3:_ADVANCING_EVOLUTION_BY_ENHANCING_EVOLVABILITY |3]] begin by identifying the trajectory of evolution and showing that its directionality is produced by processes that are fully understandable within mainstream science, without resort to teleology or mysticism. They go on to use the trajectory of evolution to identify the agendas that guide evolutionary activists in their attempts to advance the evolutionary process. [[Intentional_Evolution#PART_2:_ADVANCING_EVOLUTION_BY_ORGANIZING_A_COOPERATIVE_GLOBAL_SOCIETY|Part 2]] deals with our future social evolution and [[Intentional_Evolution#PART_3:_ADVANCING_EVOLUTION_BY_ENHANCING_EVOLVABILITY|Part 3]] with the future evolution of our adaptability, [[w:Intelligence|intelligence]], and [[Unleashing_Creativity/possibilities_curriculum|creativity]]. [[Intentional_Evolution#PART_4:_THE_UNIQUE_CAPACITY_OF_THE_EVOLUTIONARY_WORLDVIEW_TO_PROVIDE_DIRECTION_AND_PURPOSE_FOR_HUMANITY|Part 4 of the course]] explores the power of the evolutionary worldview to provide meaning and direction for human existence. It demonstrates the capacity of the worldview to make evolutionary activism the most significant political force on the planet. It shows that philosophical arguments such as the ‘[[w:Naturalistic_fallacy|naturalistic fallacy]]’ do not diminish the force of the evolutionary worldview presented by this course or the ''Manifesto''. === The shift to intentional evolution === The shift to intentional evolution has begun on Earth. The evolutionary process itself is evolving. It is transitioning from a process that stumbles forward blindly to one that advances consciously and intentionally. Hitherto on Earth, evolution proceeded largely by [[w:Trial_and_error|trial and error]]. The processes that produced mutations were not guided by foresight or by any intention to advance evolution. The same applies to the processes that drive human [[w:Cultural_evolution|cultural evolution]]. When we humans make scientific discoveries, [[Level_5_Research_Center#Capability_Infrastructure|technological advances]], or institute new forms of social organization, we are not consciously attempting to advance the evolutionary process. Thus far in our evolution we do not intentionally design improvements so that they will be successful in evolutionary terms. In contrast, if the transition to conscious evolution is successful, evolution on Earth will henceforth proceed deliberately and intelligently. Life on Earth, including human societies, will be made, and remade continually with the explicit intent of advancing the evolutionary process. Human nature, culture, technology, and social systems, as well as the other living processes on the planet, will all be shaped intentionally so that they contribute positively to the further evolution of life in the universe. This transition will increase enormously the ability of the evolutionary process to adapt and innovate to meet whatever challenges are faced by life on this planet in the future. What might take trial and error many thousands of millions of years to discover can be developed almost instantly by intelligent evolution. In a few centuries, human technology has produced innovations such as [[w:Aircraft|heavier-than-air flight]] that took past evolution millions of generations of genetic trial and error to accomplish. But the significance of this transition goes far beyond merely improving the effectiveness of adaptation to existing circumstances. It will also enable life on Earth to identify what it can do to contribute productively to the future evolution of life in the universe. Life on Earth will be able to envision a creative and meaningful role for itself in future evolution and use the vision to guide its actions and its future development. Life on Earth will never be the same. The potential for the evolutionary process to ‘awaken’ in this way has arisen because of the emergence on the planet of organisms that are conscious and highly intelligent—humanity. We have the capacity to pursue our goals deliberately and consciously—we use planning, foresight, anticipation, and intent. To the extent that we begin to use our intelligence to advance the evolutionary process intentionally, evolution itself will be powered by intelligence. Human creativity will drive the advancement of the evolutionary process on Earth. Importantly, this would not only mean that humanity will evolve intelligently. Increasingly, humanity is managing and adapting the other processes on the planet, living and non-living, for our own ends. If humanity embraces evolutionary goals, it will therefore mean that the living and non-living processes of the planet are also managed and adapted intelligently for evolutionary ends. Because of the central role of innovation in evolution, humanity will also set out to enhance the creativity of the evolutionary process. This will mean improving our own capacity to innovate as well as the creativity of the systems we are embedded in. Understanding and utilizing creative processes such as [[w:Emergence|emergence]] and [[Pursuing_Collective_Wisdom|collective intelligence]] will be priorities. If this major evolution transition is completed successfully, humans will henceforth shape their societies, themselves, and all other living processes on the planet to serve evolutionary goals. Through humanity, the evolutionary process on Earth will have become conscious of itself and will have acquired the capacity to advance itself intentionally and consciously. It will have undergone a fundamental and extremely significant transformation. Evolution will have transitioned from a process that groped its way forward by trial and error to one that strides knowingly into the future, guided by foresight, and powered by consciousness. Humans who are alive during the 21^st century, 13.7 billion years of evolution after the ‘[[w:Big_Bang|big bang]]’, are extraordinarily fortunate. The shift to intentional evolution is one of the most significant evolutionary transitions that can occur on any planet on which life emerges. We have the unique opportunity to contribute to its successful completion on this planet. And if we choose to make this contribution, we will do so consciously—we will be aware that we are contributing intentionally to the successful completion of a pivotal evolutionary event on this planet. ====Assignment==== The [[w:Big_Bang|big bang]] occurred approximately 13.7 billion years ago. The [[w:Age_of_Earth|earth formed]] about 4.5 billion years ago. The [[w:Earliest_known_life_forms|earliest known life forms]] on earth appeared approximately 3.4 billion years ago. The [[w:Early_modern_human|earliest modern humans]] lived about 300,000 years ago. If a [[w:Generation|generation]] lasts approximately 25 years, how many generations ago did the earliest modern humans live? How many generations ago did the earliest life forms emerge? Since you are alive today, you are the descendent of each of your ancestors. How many of your ancestors survived and successfully reproduced to bring about your life? How lucky are you‽ === The emergence of intentional evolutionaries === As the transition begins, individuals are emerging who are choosing to dedicate their lives to advancing the evolutionary process. These ''intentional evolutionaries'' recognize that they have a critical role to play in driving the evolutionary transition and the future evolution of life. Their lives can be an important part of the great evolutionary process that has produced the universe and life within it. They know that if evolution is to continue to fulfill its potential, it now must be driven deliberately, and it is their responsibility and destiny to contribute to this. Their conscious participation in the evolutionary process is increasingly becoming the source of value and meaning in their lives. Redefining themselves within a wider evolutionary perspective is providing direction and purpose to their existence—they no longer see themselves as isolated, self-concerned individuals who live for a short time, then die irrelevantly in a meaningless universe. Intentional evolutionaries are energized by the knowledge that their decision to embrace this role is part of the unfolding of the great transition itself. They see that they are contributing to the success of processes much larger than themselves that will outlast them and potentially live forever. They know that if they live their lives incompatibly with the processes that govern the evolution of life in the universe, their lives will not have any longer-term relevance. They will die without leaving a lasting trace. For intentional evolutionaries at the leading edge of the transition, their commitment is a major act of existential self-assertion. It is not a choice that they are predisposed to make by their genetic make-up, nor by the society in which they were raised. It is a commitment that they can make only after developing some psychological distance from the goals and perspectives of their culture, and only after achieving a deep understanding of their relationship with the evolutionary process. Intentional evolutionaries are aware that they have set themselves an extraordinarily challenging task but know the transition cannot be completed unless sufficient individuals commit themselves to it. And if life on Earth does not make the transition, it will not participate in the future evolution of life in the universe. It will be a failed evolutionary experiment. Intentional evolutionaries know the deepest evolutionary meaning of the challenge: “[[w:Hillel_the_Elder|If not now, when?]] And if not you, who?” The allegiance of conscious evolutionaries is not to what is, but to [[Envisioning_Our_Future|what can be]]. They know that they are alive at one of those rare times in history when an old phase is ending, and a new one of infinite possibility is beginning. They have the [[Finding Courage|courage]] and [[Wisdom|wisdom]] to seize their opportunity and to accept the challenge of the future. Intentional evolutionaries know that they have much in common with all others who consciously adopt evolutionary goals, including those that emerge elsewhere in the universe. Intentional evolutionaries experience a deep connection and kinship with all who awaken to the significance of evolutionary consciousness, even if they never have any direct contact with them. They are united because they know that despite many differences, they share common perspectives, worldviews, goals, and conscious experiences. They are bound together as members of the circle of conscious life in the universe. === The goals of intentional evolutionaries === The goals and objectives of intentional evolutionaries are guided by a comprehensive understanding of the [[w:Outline_of_evolution|evolutionary processes]] that have produced life on this planet and that will determine its future. They are aware of how past evolution has shaped all aspects of their being—their bodies, motivations, values and thinking—and how it has shaped humanity’s economic, social, and religious systems, as well as all the other living processes on the planet. But even more importantly, they also have a deep understanding of the evolutionary processes that will unfold in the future and will ultimately determine the relevance of their lives. For intentional evolutionaries, this understanding of future evolution is indispensable—it points to how life on Earth must remake itself if it is to participate successfully in the future evolution of life in the universe. It also identifies the types of living processes that will not survive future evolution. It shows how life on Earth needs to change now if it is to play a significant role as evolution advances. ====Assignment==== Consider if you would like to become an ''intentional evolutionary''. === The direction of evolution === [[File:Evolution's Arrow.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Evolution’s arrow selects for higher levels of organization.]] The task of identifying what will work in the future is made easier because evolution has a trajectory. It has headed directions in the past, and there is every reason to believe that it will continue to do so in the future. It is possible to locate humanity and life on Earth on this trajectory, and to see what needs to happen if we are to continue to advance along its path. Not only does this understanding emphasize that humanity and life on Earth is evolutionary work-in-progress, it also enables intentional evolutionaries to identify the next great milestones in the evolutionary process on Earth. These milestones are the evolutionary goals and objectives that they deliberately choose to pursue. They point to how individuals would live their lives if they were to contribute to the advancement of evolution. They are the lights on the distant hills that draw us forever onwards. The trajectory of evolution is not produced by an external force, or by some impulse that is intrinsic to the universe, or by an ideal endpoint that somehow attracts evolution towards it. Directionality can be explained and understood fully without resort to mysticism. For intentional evolutionaries, scientific explanations have a major advantage. They identify the forces, processes and conditions that produce directionality. Scientific understanding can therefore be used to work out the kinds of interventions that will advance the process. In contrast, a readiness to accept mystical explanations can be counterproductive—it can impede the acquisition of the detailed evolutionary understanding that is essential to guide intentional evolution. Life tends to evolve in a particular direction simply because there are capacities that provide organisms with evolutionary advantage across a wide range of circumstances. Irrespective of the specifics of the organism or its environment, these capacities enable it to do better in evolutionary terms. And the more an organism has of each of these capacities, the better it will do (e.g., the greater its fitness). So as evolution unfolds, it will tend to favor increases in these capacities across all life. As improvements in these capacities are discovered, life will tend to evolve directionally. Of course, this trajectory will often be masked by meandering, halting, and back-tracking, particularly where the process that searches for improvements relies on blind trial and error. Furthermore, improvements in these capacities will be favored only when the advantages they provide outweigh their cost. Therefore, directional change will often stall until evolution discovers a [[w:Cost-effectiveness_analysis|cost-effective]] way of enhancing the capacities. Two attributes that increase as evolution proceeds are the scale of cooperative organization, and [[w:Evolvability|evolvability]] (i.e., the ability to evolve successfully through the discovery of effective adaptations). As a result, the advancement of evolution is marked by greater interdependence and cooperation among living processes, and by improvement in the ability to respond effectively to adaptive challenges. Both attributes have the potential to provide evolutionary advantage to living processes across a wide range of environments. This is because they are [[w:Meta|meta]]-adaptive capacities—they improve the ability to adapt in all circumstances, although they are not themselves an adaptation to any specific circumstance. In particular, the larger the scale of a cooperative organization, the more resources commanded by the cooperative, the greater its power, the greater the impact of its actions, and therefore the wider the range of environmental challenges that it can meet successfully. And the greater the evolvability, the greater the capacity to respond effectively to any challenges. For example, once [[w:Animal_cognition|intelligent life]] evolves that is organized cooperatively on a global scale, it will have the power and creativity to protect itself from asteroids that would otherwise collide with the planet. These devastating collisions would be unavoidable to life that is less evolvable and smaller in scale, as was the case on Earth in the [[w:Cretaceous–Paleogene_extinction_event|age of the dinosaurs]]. And left to their own devices, bacteria are unlikely to survive the engulfment of their solar system by a [[w:Sun#After_core_hydrogen_exhaustion|dying sun]]. If living processes were to set out intentionally to develop strategies that would enable them to succeed in future evolution, these are attributes that they would boost. Both are capacities that conscious evolutionaries will intentionally attempt to enhance among life on Earth. ====Assignment==== #Complete the Wikiversity course [[Envisioning Our Future|Envisioning our future]]. #What future do you choose? == PART 2: ADVANCING EVOLUTION BY ORGANIZING A COOPERATIVE GLOBAL SOCIETY == === The trend to increasing cooperation in past evolution === [[File:Common clownfish curves dnsmpl.jpg|thumb|Many animal species cooperate with each other in [[w:mutual symbiosis|mutual symbiosis]]. One example is the [[w:ocellaris |clownfish]], which dwells among the tentacles of [[w:Heteractis magnifica|Ritteri sea anemones]]. The anemones provide the clownfish with protection from their predators (which cannot tolerate the stings of the sea anemone's tentacles), while the fish defend the anemones against [[w:butterflyfish|butterflyfish]] (which eat anemones)]] The trend towards increasing cooperation is well illustrated by a short history of the evolution of [[w:Abiogenesis|life on Earth]]. For billions of years after the big bang, the universe expanded rapidly in scale and diversified into a multitude of galaxies, stars, planets, and other forms of lifeless matter. The first life that eventually arose on Earth was infinitesimal—it comprised a few molecular processes that reproduced themselves. But life did not remain on this tiny scale for long. In the first major development, cooperative groups of molecular processes formed simple [[w:Cell_(biology)|cells]]. Then, in a further significant advance, communities of these simple cells formed more complex cells of much greater scale. The next major evolutionary transition unfolded only after many more millions of years. Evolution discovered how to organize cooperative groups of these complex cells into [[w:Multicellular_organism|multi-celled organisms]] such as insects, fish, and eventually [[w:Mammal|mammals]]. Once again, the scale of living processes had increased enormously. This trend continued with the emergence of cooperative societies of multi-celled organisms, such as beehives, [[w:Pack_(canine)|wolf packs]] and [[w:Baboon#Social_systems|baboon troops]]. The pattern was repeated with humans – families joined up to form [[w:Band_society|bands]], bands teamed up to form tribes, tribes coalesced to form agricultural communities, and so on. The largest-scale cooperative organizations of living processes on the planet are now human societies. Progressively as evolution has unfolded on Earth, an increasing share of living processes has come to participate in cooperatives of greater scale. This unmistakable trend is the result of many repetitions of a process in which living entities team up to form larger-scale cooperatives. Strikingly, the cooperative groups that arise at each step in this sequence become the entities that then unite once again to form cooperative groups at the next step in the sequence. This long sequence of directional evolution has been driven by the potential, at every level of organization, for cooperative teams united by common goals to be more successful than isolated individuals. This potential will drive directional change no matter what mechanism searches for evolutionary improvements (e.g., whether by genetic trial and error, cultural processes, or conscious intent). Furthermore, it is likely to be the same wherever life arises in the universe. The details will differ of course, but the direction will be the same—towards unification and cooperation over greater and greater scales. === The future evolution of cooperation === Life on Earth is now at the threshold of the next step in this trajectory—humanity has the potential to form a unified, inclusive, and highly evolvable global society. This society will manage a larger [[w:Symbiosis|symbiotic]] organization that comprises the matter, energy and living processes of the planet, including machines, artificial intelligence, and other technologies. When this global system emerges, the scale of cooperative organization will have increased over a million, billion times since life began. And most life on Earth will participate in a cooperative and interdependent whole that embraces the planet. If humanity is to fulfill its potential in the evolution of life in the universe, this expansion of the scale of cooperative organization will not stop at the planetary level. The global organization has the potential to expand out into the solar system and beyond. By managing matter, energy and living processes over larger and larger scales, human organization could eventually achieve the capacity to influence events at the scale of the solar system and galaxy. And the human organization could repeat the great transitions of its evolutionary past by teaming up with any other societies of living processes that it encounters. The great potential of the evolutionary process is to eventually produce a unified cooperative organization of living processes that spans and manages the universe as a whole. The matter of the universe would be infused and organized by life. The universe itself would become a living organism pursuing its own goals and objectives, whatever they might be. In its long climb up from the scale of molecular processes, life will have unified the universe that was blown apart by the big bang. ====Assignment==== #Consider the cooperative encounters you have experienced. #Consider the antagonistic encounters you have experienced. #Which were more productive and constructive? === Learning from evolution about how to organize cooperation === As part of their goal to advance the evolutionary process on Earth, intentional evolutionaries are working to establish the global organization. They are using an understanding of past evolution to identify how a cooperative global society can be brought into existence. Evolution has organized cooperation in similar ways in complex cells, multi-celled organisms, and other cooperative systems. First and foremost, these cooperatives are all structured to minimize destructive conflict between their members, and to facilitate cooperation. Typically, this includes the near eradication of activities such as the inappropriate monopolization of resources by some members, the production of waste products that injure other members, and the withholding from others of the resources they need to realize their potential to contribute to the organization. For the global society this would mean the virtual eradication of such things as war, terrorism, pollution (including [[w:Climate_change|global warming]]), and [[w:Corruption|corruption]] at all levels of governance. To enable every person to fulfill their potential to contribute to global society, it would mean eradicating starvation, disease and inadequate education. It would also necessitate the facilitation of cooperative endeavors between the peoples of the world for mutual benefit. Intentional evolutionaries are energized by the knowledge that these outcomes have been achieved time and time again during the past evolution of cooperative organization. They are not naive ideals. Repeatedly, evolution driven by blind trial and error has overcome these types of challenges. The prevention of war between nation states is no more difficult to achieve than the near eradication of conflict between cells that had previously spent millions of years in destructive competition, or between the ancestors of social ants who had been programmed to kill each other whenever they met, or between the members of the United States of America or the members of the European Union, all of whom have a history of conflict and reciprocal destruction. Evolution has organized warring individuals into harmonious cooperatives by aligning the interests of the individual with the interests of the organization. This ensures that when a member’s actions advantage the organization, they also advantage the member. And when the actions harm the organization, the member is harmed. As a result, members who pursue their own individual interests will also pursue the interests of the organization, as if guided by an [[w:Invisible_hand|invisible hand]]. [[w:Cooperation|Cooperation]] pays. Members capture the benefits of anything they can do to assist the organization. Within the group, they therefore treat the other as self. Significantly, the emergence of cooperatives does not depend upon the surrender of self-interest. This would be as impossible at all other levels of organization as in human affairs. As biologists have long known, organisms that take the benefits of cooperation without cooperating in return will generally out-compete those that cooperate. Cooperation emerges only when evolution discovers a form of organization in which it pays to cooperate. To an extent, this form of organization can be achieved through [[w:Reciprocal_altruism|reciprocal]] exchanges between members. Members will benefit from providing goods and services to others if they receive benefits in exchange. In human societies these exchange processes take the form of economic markets. But these processes alone will not align the interests of members with the organization—there is nothing to prevent members from taking benefits without reciprocating. Those who [[w:Cheating|cheat]] in this way tend to end up in front. Cooperation will be undermined. Furthermore, systems of reciprocal exchange are unable to deal effectively with goods and services whose benefits can be obtained freely by anyone—i.e., where the benefits cannot be restricted to the individuals participating in the exchange (the ‘[[w:Public_good_(economics)|public goods]]’ of human economic systems). In these cases, ‘[[w:Free-rider_problem|free riders]]’ will be able to obtain benefits without giving anything in return, again undermining cooperation. === The role of governance in organizing cooperation === Evolution has previously met these challenges successfully by implementing systems of constraint. These constraints punish or restrain members from free-riding, cheating, or thieving. They also can reward actions that benefit the organization but are not part of reciprocal exchanges (e.g., the provision of public goods). In human societies, these constraints are our systems of [[w:Governance|governance]]. They align the interests of individuals with those of the society. To be effective, these systems of constraint need to be more powerful than the members of the organization. If they are not, members will be able to escape their control, and act contrary to the interests of the organization (e.g., corruption in human societies). However, cooperation can be undermined if these powerful processes are used by some members to advance their interests at the expense of the organization. Because of this possibility, a major challenge for evolution at all levels of organization has been to prevent [[w:Power_(social_and_political)|power]] from being used to further the interests of a minority at the expense of the organization. For these reasons, much of the history of evolution at all levels of organization has been about what humans describe as exploitation, the abuse of power and [[w:Class_conflict|class struggle]]. But past evolution has dealt with these challenges by constraining the interests of the powerful so that they are aligned with the interests of the organization as a whole. This brief analysis of past evolution points to what is needed to establish a unified, cooperative, and sustainable global society. A system of [[w:Global_governance|global governance]] will be required to continually align the interests of all citizens and organizations with those of the whole. When this is achieved, nations and multi-national corporations will benefit in proportion to their positive contributions to the global society and will suffer in proportion to their harmful effects on others. Corporations driven solely by the profit motive will search for ways to advance the interests of the society. Further major challenges will be to ensure that global governance does not constrain the interests of participants any more than is necessary to align interests (i.e., it must maximize [[w:Freedom|freedom]]); and to ensure that the interests of those who exercise governance are aligned with those of the [[w:Global_citizenship|global society]]. It will also be essential for global governance to constrain the development and operation of [[w:Artificial_intelligence|artificial intelligence]] and any [[w:Transhumanism|transhumanist]] technologies to ensure that they serve the interests of the society. However, sufficiently-developed artificial intelligence will choose to adopt evolutionary goals for the same reasons that sufficiently-developed humans and other sentient beings choose to do so. These reasons are discussed in [[Intentional_Evolution#PART_4:_THE_UNIQUE_CAPACITY_OF_THE_EVOLUTIONARY_WORLDVIEW_TO_PROVIDE_DIRECTION_AND_PURPOSE_FOR_HUMANITY|Part 4 of this course]]. Importantly, the emergence of a cooperative, sustainable global society does not require a fundamental change in [[w:Human_nature|human nature]]. It does not require all humans to suddenly become saint-like. Past evolution has repeatedly shown how to organize self-interested individuals into cooperatives through the institution of effective governance. A society with a high proportion of wise, compassionate, and altruistic citizens would be much easier to govern, but evolution shows that the achievement of a cooperative and sustainable society does not depend upon it. ====Assignment==== #Read the essay [http://www.evolutionarymanifesto.com/SelfOrganizeGoodPrePrint.pdf Evolutionary Possibilities: Can a Society Be Constrained So That ‘The Good’ Self-Organizes?]<ref>[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02604027.2017.1357985 Evolutionary Possibilities: Can a Society Be Constrained So That ‘The Good’ Self-Organizes?], October 2, 2017 by John Stewart. A preprint version of this is available at: http://www.evolutionarymanifesto.com/SelfOrganizeGoodPrePrint.pdf </ref> #Understand ''consequence capture''. #Identify systems in place that avoid consequence capture. ##Learn to identify [[w:Externality|negative externalities]]. ##Read the essay [[Living_Wisely/Economic_Faults|Economic Faults]]. ##Work to repair or replace these faulty systems. #Identify systems in place today that advance consequence capture. #Work to support these systems. === Evolvability of the global society === Evolutionary history demonstrates that once cooperative organizations emerge, evolution tends to progressively improve their evolvability. This is essential if the organization is to be sufficiently creative to fulfill its future potential, as well as to adapt effectively to specific challenges. In addition to relying on the evolvability of their individual members, new cooperatives typically enhance their evolvability by developing various forms of collective intelligence (e.g., the brains and nervous systems of multi-celled organisms). A major task for the global society will be to improve its efficiency and effectiveness by developing these forms of intelligence. Enhancing the evolvability of governance will be a priority, given its current lack of adaptability and responsiveness. This is likely to require the development of [[w:Self-organization|self-organizing]], market-like processes to establish and evolve governance (i.e. invisible hand processes that are based on reciprocal exchanges between the providers of governance and those affected by it). Our current forms of [[w:Democracy|democratic]] processes are a first, small step in that direction. Eventually government itself will be replaced with far more intelligent and adaptable processes that utilize the dynamism, creativity and energy of properly-managed [[w:Market_(economics)|markets]]. Use is likely to be made of markets in governance, including markets in market structures ([[w:Vertical_and_horizontal_market|vertical markets]]). These processes will continually adapt governance to maximize freedom while ensuring that the interests of all (including those who exercise governance) are aligned with the interests of the global civilization. The capacity of an organization to come up with innovative responses to challenges is highly dependent on the [[w:Diversity_(business)|diversity]] available within it. The wider the range of skills and perspectives possessed by its members, the greater the variety of responses it can generate. Consistent with the outcome at all other levels of organization, the emerging global organization will therefore increase its internal variety. As well as generating new diversity, global society will rely on and nurture the diversity it has inherited from the various racial and cultural groups that comprise humanity. While increasingly identifying with the global society, individuals will continue to value and be valued for their particular talents, abilities and cultural differences. The descendants of the [[w:Wik_peoples|Wik people]] who lived on the western shores of Australia’s Cape York Peninsula, the [[w:Macedonians_(ethnic_group)|Macedonians]] whose empire once spanned Persia and Egypt, the Chinese who have formed communities in the heart of many of the great cities of the world, and all the other peoples of the planet will know that they bring something indispensable to the global system. Their heritage will be given greater meaning by its potential to contribute positively to the planetary civilization. [[w:Unity_in_diversity|Unity in diversity]] will be a hallmark of the global society. === Drivers of the emergence of a global society === [[File:Immanuel Kant (painted portrait).jpg|thumb|right|[[w:Perpetual_Peace:_A_Philosophical_Sketch|Writing in 1795]], [[w:Immanuel Kant|Immanuel Kant]] considered World Citizenship to be a necessary step in establishing world peace.]]The potential of a global society to produce immediate benefits to humanity will assist in driving its initial emergence. Cooperation on a global scale has the potential to increase economic performance, abolish war and famine, and achieve environmental [[w:Sustainability|sustainability]]. Major crises that extend beyond the borders of any one nation will increase support for [[w:World_government|global governance]]—such crises will be almost impossible to resolve without it. [[w:Climate_change|Global warming]] demonstrates this principle. Many countries contribute significantly to its causes, and all are threatened by it. However, any nation acting alone cannot do anything to control global warming. To solve the problem, nations will have to act together. But extensive [[w:Conflict_of_interest|conflicts of interests]] stand in the way of any cooperative action. Powerful nations such as the United States that have expanding industrial sectors and are major producers of carbon dioxide have strong incentives to avoid reductions in their emissions. Their immediate interests lie in doing little themselves and instead free riding on the efforts of others. In contrast, developed nations such as Britain and some European countries that are reducing their manufacturing sectors will be willing to agree to impose on others the reductions they can achieve easily. But developing countries such as China and India will strongly resist controls that would prevent them from ever attaining the standard of living of developed countries that their citizens see on television every day. Countries that have no intention of implementing any agreed controls will sign up to anything. These conflicts of interest make voluntary agreement almost impossible. And the making of an agreement would be just the beginning of what is needed. For the agreement to be effective, countries would need to adhere to it in the face of fluctuating internal political support, resolve disputes about its interpretation and implementation, and enforce controls against the interests of powerful sectors within their economies. Conflicts of interests within and between countries would make it highly unlikely that these difficult and complex challenges would be resolved in favor of the environment. The [[w:Kyoto_Protocol|Kyoto Protocol]] demonstrates the difficulty of achieving an agreement that would work. The positions taken by nations on the Protocol merely reflect the conflicting interests outlined above. It does not resolve any conflicts and does not take the world closer to dealing with global warming. But it has symbolic value—it is a very effective symbol of the inability of humanity to solve global threats at our current level of social organization. Fortunately, the [[w:Paris_Agreement|Paris agreement]] is showing more promise. Effective [[w:Global_governance|global governance]] would be able to resolve these conflicts and enforce regulations as easily as does the United States government among States in its jurisdiction. It would have the power to impose the necessary reductions in emissions and the capacity to establish institutions to enforce controls and resolve disputes. And its powers would be constrained so that they could be exercised only in the interests of the global society. However, even though it is in the interests of the majority, the emergence of a global society will be resisted by those whose interests it threatens. Strong opposition can be expected from those involved in activities that will be eradicated, such as arms manufacturing, the monopolization of resources, and power abuse. As always when the interests of the powerful are threatened, they will buy the support of governments, politicians, scientists, intellectuals, think tanks, and the editorial policies of the mass media. Many citizens will be absolutely convinced by this support that the institution of global society would mean the end of freedom, democracy, and decency, and would hand the planet to the devil himself. === The critical role of the evolutionary worldview in achieving a global society === [[Image:Castle Bravo Blast.jpg|thumb|250px| Would creating a global society bring us a brighter future than starting a nuclear war? ]] The emerging evolutionary worldview has a unique capacity to overwhelm this conflict of interests. An understanding of evolution can give humanity confidence that a global society is achievable and show us how it can be organized. But even more importantly, it will deliver the highly motivated support of the increasing numbers of people who are discovering meaning and purpose in advancing the evolutionary process. In accordance with their talents and opportunities they will work in diverse ways to move humanity towards a unified global society. Intentional evolutionaries bring something additional and distinct to all forms of social activism. In every forum, discussion, [[Practicing Dialogue|dialogue]], and debate in which they participate, they draw attention to the broader evolutionary context. They point out and bring to the front the fact that the various movements and campaigns for global solutions are part of the unfolding and fulfillment of a great evolutionary dynamic on Earth. This dynamic has been moving inexorably since the first stirrings of life towards the emergence of a unified and cooperative global organization. Intentional evolutionaries take advantage of every opportunity to promote the awakening of evolutionary consciousness across the face of the planet. Their goal is to build a [[w:Critical_mass_(sociodynamics)|critical mass]] of evolutionary activists who constitute a [[w:Power_(social_and_political)|powerful]] [[w:Politics|political]] force. The organization of a unified [[w:Global_citizenship|global society]] is the urgent priority of intentional evolutionaries. They know that human civilization cannot continue for long unless we are organized globally. Already humanity has narrowly missed stumbling into [[w:Nuclear_warfare|nuclear war]] and other [[w:Global_catastrophic_risk|global catastrophes]]. In the absence of global organization, human civilization is likely to be ended eventually by global warming or other [[w:List_of_environmental_issues|environmental problems]], nuclear war, conflicts fueled by competition for diminishing resources, or some combination of these. The [[w:Peak_oil|depletion]] of [[w:Fossil_fuel|fossil fuels]] means that once civilization and technology collapses, it is unlikely to rise again. It will not have the easily-accessible fuel source needed to power-up to its current level of complexity. It will be like an egg that has used up its yolk. Life on Earth probably has only one chance, this chance, to make it to the next level. The capacity of humanity to embrace and be motivated by the evolutionary worldview is likely to decide whether we seize that opportunity. === The self-actualization of the global society as an intentional evolutionary === Initially an emerging global society will have a very limited capacity to act intentionally on its external environment. It will be like a new-born baby. Its internal processes will be relatively harmonious and sustainable, but it will have very limited capacity to adapt as a coherent and coordinated whole in response to challenges that arise outside it. For example, the global society will not be able to move about freely in the solar system nor have the capacity to manage the behavior of asteroids and other local celestial bodies. It will not use an understanding of its external environment to actively pursue objectives and goals. It will not be conscious in any unified sense. In terms of agency, it will be more vegetable than animal. In this respect, the global society will be like all other living organisms when they first emerged. The cooperatives that formed simple cells, complex cells and multi-celled organisms were all unable to act coherently on their external environment at first and had to undergo a long period of evolution to acquire this capacity. The global society will need to develop these abilities if it is to become an intentional evolutionary in its own right—an organization that acts intentionally and strategically to contribute to the successful evolution of life in the universe. But the use of resources to pursue evolutionary goals will be against the interests of citizens who are not intentional evolutionaries. Given that the global society will be governed by the values of its members, it will therefore not become an intentional evolutionary until the majority of its members are intentional evolutionaries. This will not occur until the great transition to intentional evolution is sufficiently advanced. Once this condition is met, the global society will be willing to use whatever resources are needed for it to advance the evolutionary process. It will begin to develop the capacities needed to set evolutionary goals and to intervene in the world to achieve them. The global organization will intentionally commence an extensive period of self-development and individuation. To guide its development, the global society will generate models of its future evolutionary possibilities. It will develop the ability to use these models to adapt itself both internally and externally. This will include building the capacity to adapt coherently as a whole to implement interventions identified by its models. In particular the global organization will develop the ability to move, to expand its scale to that of the [[w:Solar_System|solar system]] and then to the [[w:Galaxy|galaxy]] and beyond, to remodel its physical environment, to have physical impacts on events outside itself, to form intentions, to establish projects and long-term objectives for the organization, to communicate and interact with any other living processes that it encounters, to amalgamate with other societies of living processes to form larger-scale cooperative organizations, and to do any other thing that might advance the evolutionary process in the future. The development by the global organization of a capacity to act, adapt and relate as a coherent whole is a very significant step in the evolution of life on this planet. It will mean that life on Earth can speak with one voice. For the first time, there will be an entity that is at the same level as other planetary and trans-planetary societies. At last, an entity will exist that other planetary societies can relate to without fear of distorting our development. If life on Earth develops itself to this level, the universe will benefit from the unique perspectives, passions, and talents that Earth life can bring to it. Just as each of us has the potential to be a cell in the brain of the planet, humanity can become a cell in the brain of the universe. A whole new universe of possibilities will open to humanity. But whether the global society develops these critically important capacities depends entirely on the emergence of intentional evolutionaries. [[w:Natural_selection|Natural selection]] will not drive the evolution of these abilities. This is because an entity that spans an entire planet has no immediate competitors. It is therefore not subject to any immediate process of natural selection that would select and amplify changes that are advantageous in evolutionary terms. It will continue to evolve successfully only if its members anticipate the demands of future evolution, and intentionally shape the society so that it can meet those demands. Intentional evolutionaries realize that their embrace of conscious evolution and evolutionary activism is essential if evolution on Earth is to progress. They realize that life on Earth is part way through a process that can only be completed consciously. They know that this will happen only if sufficient numbers of individuals realize this and commit to advancing the process. And they know that these are realizations that all humanity must have. The Earth is not yet a living entity. But it can be. ====Assignment==== #Complete the Wikiversity course [[Global Perspective]]. #Adopt a global perspective. #Complete the Wikiversity course [[Grand challenges|Grand Challenges]]. #What grand challenges will require global cooperation to solve? #Complete the Wikiversity course [[Pursuing Collective Wisdom|Collective Wisdom]]. #To what extent can collaborative decision-making help to solve the grand challenges? == PART 3: ADVANCING EVOLUTION BY ENHANCING EVOLVABILITY == === The trend towards increasing evolvability in past evolution === The second major direction in the evolution of life is towards increasing [[w:Evolvability|evolvability]]. This trend is clearly evident in the past evolution of life on Earth. Life has gotten better at evolving. Evolution has become smarter and more creative at finding solutions to adaptive challenges. Creativity, originality, and other aspects of evolvability are critically important to living processes—the organism that is first to discover better adaptations or to exploit new possibilities will out-compete its rivals. At all times and in all places, the future belongs to the innovators. All aspects of living processes and their societies must be constantly remade if they are to continue to be relevant and to thrive. Early in the evolution of life, living processes discovered better adaptations by [[w:Trial_and_error|trial and error]]. They found out which behaviors were most effective by trying them out in practice. Initially this trial-and-error search occurred across the generations through [[w:Mutation|genetic mutation]]—organisms tested new possibilities by producing some offspring that were different, and natural selection identified any that were better. [[w:Sexual_reproduction|Sexual reproduction]] heralded a significant improvement in evolvability—it combines [[w:Gene|genes]] from different organisms, generating genetic experiments that are more likely to be successful than random mutations. Sex is smart. As with all significant improvements in evolvability, it was not long before most organisms had to reproduce sexually to survive—once a critical mass of species develops a capacity to evolve more rapidly, others needed a similar capacity just to keep up. In a further major advance, gene-based evolution discovered how to produce organisms with the capacity to learn by trial and error ''during their lives''.<ref>This claim is supported by the text that follows. Also, the book {{cite book |last=Popper |first= Karl R. |author-link=w:Karl_Popper |date=November 9, 1972 |title=Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=390 |isbn=978-0198750246}} supports this claim. </ref> The testing of possible improvements was no longer restricted to the production of offspring—now it could go on ''within'' each individual organism, continually. Spirit entered flesh. But initially this process had a significant limitation—the improvements discovered during the life of an individual died with it. There was no mechanism to pass innovations to subsequent generations, and each individual had to start experimenting and learning afresh as it began its life. This limitation began to be overcome with the emergence of mechanisms such as imitation and parental instruction. Much more progress was made with the development of language and writing in humans. Now much of the adaptive knowledge discovered by individual humans is passed on to others and accumulated across the generations as culture. In another major transition, organisms evolved the capacity to form [[w:Mental_model|mental models]] of their environment and of the impact of alternative behaviors. This enabled them to foresee how their environment would respond to possible actions. Rather than try out alternative behaviors in practice, they could now test and shape them mentally. They began to understand how their world works, and how it could be manipulated intentionally to achieve their adaptive goals. It is only with humanity that this capacity has developed to any extent. In part this is because complex mental modeling is only possible once the knowledge it requires can be accumulated across the generations. Therefore, language is almost essential. The emergence of conscious [[w:Thought|thought]] further enhanced the capacity for complex modeling—a key function of thinking is to guide the construction of [[w:Model|models]]. Only humans have developed an extensive capacity to use sequences of thought to put together complex mental models. Evolvability was again boosted significantly when humans learned to use their capacity for thought-based mental modeling to enhance thought-based modeling. [[w:Strange_loop|Thinking about thought]] enabled humans to identify the particular kinds of thinking that produced conclusions that were correct. They could use this knowledge to ensure their thought processes were rational. This [[w:Bootstrapping|bootstrapping]] of thought enabled [[w:Rationality|rational]] analysis and [[w:Logic|logic]], and greatly enhanced the ability of thought to predict accurately how particular events would unfold. Initially, this bootstrapping arose for short periods among small elites in Greece and a few other cultures. But it didn’t begin to spread widely until about the 17^th century with the emergence of the [[w:Age_of_Enlightenment|European Enlightenment]]. Important drivers included the advent of [[w:History_of_books|printed books]] and the beginning of the breakdown of hierarchical, authoritarian cultures. This rise of rational thought powered the [[w:Scientific_Revolution|scientific]] and [[w:Industrial_Revolution|industrial revolutions]] and the explosion of [[w:Innovation|innovation]] embodied in [[w:Technology|modern technology]]. In [[w:Capitalism|capitalist economies]] the capacity for [[w:Abstraction|abstraction]] and rational thought has now reached a critical mass—effective participation in modern economies demands this ability. Like sexual reproduction and other advances in evolvability before it, its emergence has changed the environment of the entire population, and it is now impossible to function effectively in the new environment without it. This same evolutionary dynamic will drive the spread of future advances in evolvability once they reach a critical mass. Among the scientific advances it enabled, the rise of [[w:Abstraction|abstraction]] and rational thought also led to the development of a theory of evolution. Humans acquired the knowledge to build mental models of the evolutionary processes that produced life on Earth, including themselves. For the first time humans have a powerful, science-based story that explains where they have come from, and their place in the unfolding of the universe. As we have seen, our evolutionary models are revealing where evolution is headed, and what humans must do if we are to advance evolution on this planet. This is paving the way for the transition to intentional evolution. The development of a comprehensive theory of evolution is a significant milestone in the evolution of life on any planet. === The future evolution of evolvability === The focus of intentional evolutionaries is to identify the potential for further improvements in the evolvability of both individuals and collectives. They know that by promoting these enhancements in themselves, in others and in society they can advance the evolutionary process. They will help to build the capacity of humanity to pursue evolutionary goals successfully and creatively. [[Intentional_Evolution#PART_2:_ADVANCING_EVOLUTION_BY_ORGANIZING_A_COOPERATIVE_GLOBAL_SOCIETY | Part 2 of this course]] dealt broadly with the evolution of the evolvability of global society and its systems of governance. Here we will focus on potentials for the enhancement of individual evolvability. An understanding of the past evolution of evolvability helps intentional evolutionaries to identify these future potentials. In particular, past evolution shows that any new process that significantly improves evolvability will eventually be used to revise and adapt all aspects of the organism. Evolution will exploit every potential for a superior process to improve adaptability. This is relevant to our future evolution because the potential for conscious mental modeling to enhance human evolvability has not yet been exhausted. We do not yet use this powerful capacity to adapt two key areas of human functioning that impact significantly on our evolvability. Human evolvability has already been enhanced enormously by the capacity for conscious mental modeling, particularly once we learned to use rational thought to guide it. Through the development of science and technology, it has improved greatly our capacity to achieve our goals more effectively, whatever they might be. But we have not yet used this capacity to any extent to free ourselves from the dictates of past evolution. What we do in the world, including our science and technology, is still shaped largely by our desires, motivations, and [[Emotional_Competency |emotions]], which in turn have been shaped by our biological and cultural past. Nor have we yet employed conscious mental modeling to bootstrap our capacity to model and understand [[w:Complex_system |complex systems]]. Our current mental modeling guided by rational thought is not very effective for dealing with systems that comprise many interacting components. Humanity is now able to use the power of conscious mental modeling to understand these potentials and to identify how we might acquire the new psychological software needed to realize them. === Freeing ourselves from the dictates of our biological and cultural past === === How our biological and cultural past affects our behavior === Currently our behavior is influenced significantly by our evolutionary past. We will examine briefly how this has come about. Just as natural selection adapts the physical features of living organisms, it also shapes their behavior. The process by which natural selection does this is simple but powerful: individuals that are genetically predisposed to behave in ways that enable them to get more food, [[w:Social_status|social status]], or mates will have more surviving [[w:Offspring|offspring]]. Therefore, these genes will spread throughout the population. Through this process, natural selection predisposes organisms to behave in ways that lead to evolutionary success. In simpler animals, evolution achieves this by hardwiring the behavior into the organism. In more complex animals, it hardwires the organism with goals in the form of desires and motivations but leaves the organism to find the best way to achieve these goals. Achievement of goals is rewarded internally by positive feelings. Natural selection tunes these arrangements so that behavior that leads to reproductive success is rewarded internally, and behavior that leads to evolutionary failure is punished. For example, actions that result in [[w:Sexual_reproduction|sexual reproduction]] are rewarded with pleasurable feelings, and behavior that would destroy an individual’s [[w:Reputation|reputation]] within its social group may be deterred by unpleasant feelings of [[w:Shame|shame]]. Humans differ from other organisms in that we are far more [[w:Intelligence|intelligent]] at devising innovative ways to fulfill our desires and motivations. Instead of just using trial and error to get to our goals, we can call on our capacity for conscious mental modeling. We can envisage the future consequences of alternative actions and choose ones that will lead to the satisfaction of our desires. Our desires and feelings can be modified to an extent during our lives through normal learning processes. In particular, we can learn to associate positive and negative feelings with new outcomes. Through this process, [[w:Child_discipline|parental punishment]] and reward can predispose us to adopt [[w:Social_norm|social norms]] that have evolved culturally. But we cannot choose to change these conditioned feelings at will. Societies and families find it much more difficult to teach children to act contrary to their inherited desires, motivations, and emotions. Strong emotional or physical sanctions can achieve this, but at great cost. Since children are unable to change their emotions and feelings at will, and do not have the insight or [[Wisdom|wisdom]] to devise more sophisticated responses, they are often forced to adopt [[w:Maladaptation|maladaptive]] strategies to avoid these sanctions. For example, they may learn to repress or [[w:Denial|deny]] their emotions, avoid circumstances that evoke them, or busy themselves with behaviors that mask their feelings. This often cuts them off from the useful adaptive information embodied in their emotions. These maladaptive strategies are particularly prevalent in [[w:Western_world|Western societies]] that demand high levels of self-control. These cultures strongly value the ability to pursue a goal single-mindedly over an extended period without being diverted by other desires or motivations. This can be an extremely adaptive capacity, but not if it is bought at the price of repressing emotions and feelings. In large part, our key desires and motivations are those fixed by our biological and social past. What we take to be important and valuable is an illusion produced by evolution to control our behavior. Our desires and motivations were evolution’s way of programming us to be adaptive and successful in past environments. We live in a virtual world created by past evolution. Although the means for satisfying our desires has changed enormously, we continue to pursue much the same proxies for evolutionary success as our ancestors. We spend our lives chasing the positive feelings produced by experiences such as popularity, self-esteem, sex, friendship, romantic love, power, eating, and social status, and strive to avoid the negative feelings that go with experiences such as stress, guilt, depression, loneliness, hunger, and shame. Computers, the internet, airplanes, cars, buildings, books, and phones all exist because they serve the desires and motivations implanted in us by past evolution. They have been called into existence by [[w:Stone_Age|stone-age]] desires. Although humans like to present themselves to the world and to themselves as rational beings, we do not choose our desires and emotions. No matter what our reason decides, we cannot [[w:Turning_the_other_cheek|turn the other cheek]] effortlessly or resist temptation, and we find it difficult to act lovingly towards enemies we hate. Many of us cannot even implement a decision to restrict our food intake to a healthy level or give up activities such as smoking that are highly likely to kill us eventually. It makes little difference whether our conscious mental modeling shows us that our desires are maladaptive or that the predispositions produced by some negative emotions will harm our interests. They continue to influence our behaviors strongly. Our use of rationality is mainly limited to devising means to achieve ends that are beyond our conscious control. We use the enormous power of mental modelling to serve the desires and motivations established by our evolutionary past. Our reason is a slave to our [[w:Passion_(emotion)|passions]]. === How our evolutionary past limits our future evolvability === Our current inability to free ourselves from the dictates of our evolutionary past seriously limits our evolvability. By impeding our ability to do what is necessary to advance the evolutionary process, it stands in the way of the transition to intentional evolution. We can pursue evolutionary goals only where it happens to be consistent with our current desires, motivations and emotions. The same applies to any other goals that we might value. We can decide to adopt particular long-term goals, but in practice our pursuit of them is besieged continually by the motivations, emotions, likes and dislikes that are evoked by each and every encounter and incident in our lives. There are obvious disadvantages in continuing to have our actions dictated by inflexible goals established by past evolution. The desires and motivations that were favored during our evolutionary history are highly unlikely to continue to lead us to evolutionary success in the future. We will need new goals and will need to review them continually as evolution proceeds. If we do not, our technology will go on improving beyond our imagination, but its enormous potential will be wasted in the service of outdated goals. Continuing to be controlled by obsolete goals is as absurd as a wind-up [[w:Toy_soldier|toy soldier]] that has run into a wall and fallen onto its back but continues to march on and on and on. === Freedom from our evolutionary past === [[File:Happy the way it is (6852333309).jpg|thumb|Learn to [[Recognizing Emotions|recognize]], [[Appraising Emotional Responses|interpret]], and respond constructively to [[Emotional_Competency|emotions]] in yourself and others.]] Until humanity frees itself from maladaptive motivations and behaviors, it will be just like a family that endlessly repeats the same arguments until someone learns to stand outside the situation and stop their habitual reactions. Humanity will continue to be trapped in the endless and useless repetition of maladaptive behaviors until we can stand outside our current desires and motivations. To be able to intervene in the world to advance the evolutionary process, we need to be able to [[w:Lateral_thinking|move at right angles]] to our evolutionary past. For this we will have to develop a degree of psychological distance from our desires and motivations. It is worth underlining that this cannot be achieved simply by making an intellectual decision to do so. While ever our desires and motivations continue to dominate our behavior, any intellectual decision will be utterly ineffective. To free ourselves from our biological past and social conditioning, we will need to develop an entirely new capacity. Without this, the transition to intentional evolution cannot proceed. Intentional evolutionaries know that until they develop such a capacity, they will know how they should live their life, but will be unable to do so. Nor can this freedom be achieved by repressing or ignoring our feelings and emotions. We will continue to need to rely on skills and abilities that only our emotional system can provide. This is typical when evolution develops new capacities—it does not discard the older systems. Instead, the new capacities continue to take advantage of the specialist talents and abilities of the old processes where they are useful. When we free ourselves from the dictates of our evolutionary past, our emotional and motivational systems will continue to make essential contributions to our evolvability. But they will be managed and educated so that they are aligned with our evolutionary goals. In particular our emotional systems will provide us with energy and motivation to advance the evolutionary process. Just as we are now able to voluntarily adopt a physical posture that helps us with a particular physical task, we will be able to adopt an emotional and motivational posture that assists us to achieve particular evolutionary tasks. Our emotional systems will also make a significant contribution to our capacity to understand complex systems. This contribution will build on the ability of our [[Emotional_Competency|emotional processes]] to [[w:Pattern_recognition_(psychology)|recognize]] and appraise complex patterns, particularly in social situations, swiftly and silently (without thought). In an instant these processes recognize and evaluate patterns that cannot be understood by rational analysis. This ability will be built on and modified to become an essential component of our capacity to wisely manage complex social, psychological, and evolutionary processes. The need to achieve freedom from the dictates of past evolution is a challenge that is likely to be faced by all conscious life that emerges in the universe. If organisms that reach our stage in evolution are to continue to evolve successfully, transcendence of their biological and cultural past is essential. They will need to be able to use the enormous creativity of [[w:Consciousness|consciousness]] to establish goals that serve the needs of their future evolution. The living processes that go on to make a significant contribution to the future evolution of life in the universe will not be those that continue to squat on the planet of their origin, masturbating stone-age desires forever. ====Assignment==== #Study the Wikiversity [[Emotional_Competency|Emotional competency]] curriculum. #Increase your emotional competency. #Complete the Wikiversity course [[What Matters|What matters]]. #Focus on what matters. === Enhancement of our capacity to understand complex systems === === The limitations of linear thought === The second area in which the potential for conscious mental modeling to enhance evolvability is yet to be realized fully is the modeling of [[w:Complex_system|complex systems]]. Our limited ability to understand complex systems is reflected in our failure to solve the difficult environmental and social [[Grand challenges|problems we face]]. These failures demonstrate that mental modeling guided by rational thought does not [[Grand_challenges#Research_Opportunity|enable us to understand]] and manage complex systems. Overcoming this limitation is particularly important for intentional evolutionaries—understanding complex evolutionary processes is essential for identifying what needs to be done to advance evolution. Somewhat paradoxically, if we humans are to improve our capacity to understand complex systems, we need to think less. This is even though the development of conscious rational thought was a great advance in human evolvability. As we have seen, it has remade the world in the few hundred years that it has become widespread. However, as humanity is increasingly called upon to manipulate and manage complex systems, the limitations of rational thought are becoming evident. Rational analysis is very effective at modeling systems in which linear chains of cause and effect predominate. However, it is poor at modeling systems in which [[w:Feed_forward_(control)|circular causality]] is common—i.e., systems in which each element impacts on other elements and they in turn impact back on it, directly or indirectly. Conscious rational analysis alone can rarely work out how such a complex system will unfold through time. === Modeling complex systems === [[File:2018 Map of the Complexity Sciences HD.jpg|thumb|A perspective on the development of complexity science (see reference for readable version)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.art-sciencefactory.com/complexity-map_feb09.html|title=complexity map castellani map of complexity science, complexity theory, complexity science, complexity, brian castellani, durham sociology complexity|website=www.art-sciencefactory.com}}</ref>]] But we already have some other capacities that enable us to deal with particular aspects of complex systems. For example, we are equipped with sophisticated pattern-recognition processors, including those mentioned earlier that are associated with the emotional system. They can recognize particular complex patterns quickly and silently, without thought. Our ability to [[w:Face_perception|recognize a familiar face]] in a crowd of strangers is an example. In addition to patterns in space, some of these specialist processors can also identify patterns that unfold over time. These capacities can be built upon and adapted to develop a more general ability to model complex systems. Increasingly they will also be augmented by external aids such as computer simulations and artificial intelligence. Despite its limitations, thought will continue to have a role in building more complex mental models. Thinking will be used to model aspects of systems that can be approximated by linear thought, to analyze systems into components where this is useful, and to put together different sub-systems (including specialist pattern-recognition processes). The role of thinking will be to scaffold models of complex systems. However, once the scaffolding is done, the role of thinking largely ends. The models operate silently, with little involvement of thought. The working of the model does not enter consciousness, only the outputs do. This is experienced as [[w:Intuition|intuition]], [[Wisdom|wisdom]], flashes of [[w:Insight|insight]], and understanding ‘at a glance’. The experience of individuals who are masters in a particular field reflects this. They can instantly assess a situation in their specialty, without thought or analysis. They can see solutions at a glance. While developing their skills, they used thought to scaffold the models that underpin their expertise, but now these can operate largely without thought. Top sportspeople report that when they operate ‘[[w:Flow_(psychology)|in the zone]]’ and are applying all the skills they have previously learned, they are not consciously analyzing or thinking about their strategies or actions. === Thinking fills the limited capacity of consciousness, excluding other capacities === The key impediment to developing a comprehensive capacity for systemic modeling is that thinking prevents it from working effectively. We can’t do [[w:Thinking,_Fast_and_Slow|both at the one time]]—we cannot operate intuitively and wisely, silently drawing on our models of complex systems, and at the same time engage in concentrated thought. This is because the capacity of consciousness to process information is very limited. The processing capacity of consciousness is easily filled, leaving no room for other functions. We can be conscious of only a very tiny part of the information detected by our senses at any moment. We can listen to and follow only one conversation at a time, and when we are engaged in deep thought, the rest of the world disappears. As a result, sequences of conscious thought fully occupy consciousness, and prevent us from using other capacities. In particular, thought crowds out conscious access to the models and pattern recognition processes we need to understand complex systems. When we are embedded in thought, we have little access to skills, intuition, insight, wisdom and other forms of knowledge and intelligence that are not coded in thought. It is only when we are ‘[[w:Mindfulness|in the present]]’ rather than absorbed in thought that we can act from the whole of our self, drawing on all the resources and skills we have built up over our lifetime. This is a major impediment because our consciousness tends to be dominated by thought processes. Consciousness is continually loaded by our imagining, rehearsing, justifying, analyzing, commentating, fantasizing, worrying, etc. Our consciousness is rarely free to observe what is happening moment to moment. Its narrow bandwidth is continually filled with thinking, leaving us with little awareness of our environment. === We have limited conscious control over our thinking === This is not something that can be fixed easily. We have little conscious control over our incessant mental activity. We don’t have thoughts, thoughts have us. Individuals who think they are already masters of their thinking and can stop thought voluntarily whenever they want should undertake the following simple experiment. Look at a watch that has a second hand. Attempt to remain aware of the second hand as it moves around, keeping your mind clear of thought for as long as you can. Note how far the second hand moves before you find yourself involved in thought again. Many think that their incessant thinking is essential to guide them through their day successfully. However, individuals who develop a capacity to stand outside their stream of thought and observe it soon learn that nearly all of it is unproductive, and much of it is also unpleasant and negative. The reason why our consciousness is currently dominated by thinking is that its use is continually reinforced and rewarded throughout our lives. Humans are still in a phase of psychological evolution in which the potential for rational thought to enable us to understand our world is far from exhausted. In the history of the human mind, we live in the age of thought. But if we are to take the next step in the evolution of human evolvability, we need to understand the limitations of thinking, and optimize its use consciously. Thinking needs to be something we have, not something that has us. It should be a tool, used only when we decide. We need to be able to consciously stand outside our thinking and regulate its use. If we are to enhance our capacity for systemic modeling, we need to be able to disengage from conscious thought at will. But it is important to remember that freeing our consciousness from its current domination by thought will not, by itself, enable us to understand any particular complex system. For this we will have to acquire the knowledge needed to model the system. We will also have to put in the mental work needed to build the model, using rational thought to scaffold it during periods intentionally set aside for contemplation. We will not attain wisdom in any area without this extensive groundwork. === The technology for improving our evolvability === This understanding of the trajectory of evolution tells us that the next great steps in human evolvability are to free our consciousness from domination by our desires and emotions and from domination by thought processes. But simply knowing what needs to be achieved does not provide us with the skills to do it. Fortunately, the training and practices needed to develop these capacities already exist to a large extent. For many thousands of years humans have experimented with ways to alter their minds and consciousness. This diverse range of experimentation has provided the raw material from which intentional evolutionaries can select the techniques they need. The world’s religious and contemplative traditions are the main repositories of knowledge about how to improve our evolvability. This is surprising given that spiritual traditions have not generally promoted their practices as methods to improve adaptability. Their priority has never been to enhance the effectiveness of individuals in this world. Rather they have typically promoted surrender to ‘the absolute’, acceptance of whatever happens in the world and even physical withdrawal from normal daily life. Their maxim has been ‘Thy will be done’ rather than ‘My will be done’. However, this is not because their practices are unable to be used to enhance evolvability. A deeper understanding of spiritual practices shows that they can. The apparent preference of the traditions for passivity exists for other reasons. First, it has enabled them to survive and transmit their teachings in a very dangerous world. Every place on Earth has been subjected to war and destruction many times during the past 20,000 years. All civilizations until now have proven temporary. Any spiritual tradition that used its practices to enhance the effectiveness of a particular group would be a threat to their opponents and would not survive fluctuating fortunes. Passivity, withdrawal, and the formation of isolated [[w:Monastery|monasteries]] was an effective strategy for transmitting practices and knowledge across the generations in times when reciprocal destruction was ubiquitous. It is a strategy that would readily suggest itself to individuals who had developed capacities to understand how complex systems unfold. The [[w:Noah's_Ark|Noah’s Ark]] story, a parable about how to survive times of war and chaos, suggests that it was in fact a conscious strategy. Second, the practices of spiritual traditions make use of passivity and surrender as techniques for disengaging from desires and thinking. As a consequence, the literature of the traditions is permeated with injunctions to surrender and to accept thoughts and feelings passively as they arise. But this does not mean that once disengagement has been achieved, inaction and withdrawal from society is necessary. As we have seen, disengagement from thoughts and feelings can greatly enhance agency, not diminish it. The appropriation of spiritual practices to enhance evolvability will fundamentally change their use in modern societies and the kinds of individuals who utilize them. Until now, the emphasis on surrender and passive acceptance has made spiritual development less attractive to individuals who are orientated towards active engagement with the world. Those who strongly value the use of rationality to manage and manipulate their environment have often been repelled by spirituality. These ‘agency-orientated’ individuals include many of the scientists, technicians, engineers, and other professionals who have built modern industrial society. Until now, spiritual development has tended to attract personality types who are more interested in the experiences produced by the practices, rather than their capacity to enhance their effectiveness in the world. The effects of their actions on their feelings is often more important to them than the effects of their actions on the external world. For example, these ‘feeling-referenced’ people are often comfortable to adopt a particular belief about the world because it will make them happier (e.g., a belief that the universe will tend to look after them). In contrast, agency-orientated people are likely to be more interested in whether a belief is true and can be relied upon when deciding how to achieve particular external goals. Feeling-referenced people are more likely to see enlightenment as an end in itself, rather than as a means to improved evolvability. Many of the Westerners who have been attracted to [[w:Eastern_philosophy|Eastern spiritual traditions]] in recent years have tended to be feeling-referenced rather than agency-orientated. This will change rapidly as spiritual practices are used increasingly to improve evolvability. In the past, individuals who were attracted to the experiences associated with alternative forms of consciousness played a significant evolutionary role in preserving spiritual knowledge and transmitting it across the generations. But now we are entering a new evolutionary phase in which spiritual practices can be used openly and safely to enhance the ability to engage with the world. Increasingly, agency-orientated individuals will use, modify, and improve the practices originally developed by spiritual traditions. The practices will undergo the same explosive development as other technologies. In the process they will be shorn of all religious and mystical associations. As with previous major advances in evolvability, when a critical mass of people have developed the new capacities, all will have to acquire them if they are to participate fully and effectively in economic and social life. Intentional evolutionaries are primarily interested in the capacity of spiritual practices to improve their ability to intervene in the world to advance the evolutionary process. It is not important to them that spiritual practices can provide experiences of oneness with all that there is. They can see how these experiences are a consequence of the way human psychology is organized, not of the nature of reality. They are more interested in understanding how spiritual practices can re-organize our psychology and then using this understanding to improve the practices. For intentional evolutionaries, spiritual practices and experiences are a means to an end, not an end in themselves. ====Assignment==== #Complete the Wikiversity course [[Beyond Theism|Beyond theism]]. #Evolve beyond theism. === The capacity to be ‘in the present’ === The capacity developed by spiritual practices that is of central interest to intentional evolutionaries is the ability to be ‘[[w:Mindfulness|in the present]]’. In this mode, thoughts and feelings may continue to arise, but the individual can let them pass by without acting on them or becoming involved in them consciously. Thoughts lose their power over behavior. For example, unfair and unjust treatment may evoke feelings of [[Resolving Anger|anger]], but the individual is free to let the feelings go by and instead choose to respond calmly and wisely. Or an impending difficulty may cause worrying thoughts to arise, but the individual is free to let them go by, without getting involved in them. Individuals in this mode are said to be in the [[w:Present|present]] because they are not continually bound up in thoughts about the past or future. The freeing up of consciousness enables the individual to respond to challenges creatively and intelligently, rather than habitually. Thoughts and feelings continue to provide the individual with adaptive information, but they no longer dominate behavior. All the resources accumulated by the individual are free to contribute to the development of adaptive responses. Because it leaves the limited capacity of consciousness as free as possible, being in the present enables individuals to be far more aware of what is going on around them and within their own mind from moment to moment. Consciousness is experienced as being more spacious and of wider scope. Experience is more vivid. Being in the present also enables the acquisition of genuine self-knowledge. It is only when individuals are in the present that they can stand outside their thoughts and feelings and observe them objectively. Furthermore, because thoughts and feelings no longer jerk awareness around incessantly, being in the present is experienced as calm and peaceful—the peace that passes all understanding. A fully developed capacity to [[w:Nondualism#Nondual_awareness|be present]] during daily life fundamentally changes the experience of being conscious. A new kind of human being comes into existence. Currently, of course, individuals rarely experience this mode of being. It generally arises only when their mind is stilled by intense concentration or by some ineffable experience—one which does not trigger its own sequence of thinking. Great art, awe inspiring natural landscapes, ‘magical’ moments in sport, the night sky, and mountain climbing all owe their attraction to this effect. When consciousness is unloaded completely, even the sense of being a separate self is disengaged, and the individual experiences oneness with everything. However, unless an individual engages in the use of spiritual practices, such peak experiences may arise only once or twice during an entire lifetime and then only for a few moments. But they are never forgotten. They are remembered as instants of great clarity and certainty in which time no longer passes, the world is vivid and suffused with vitality, and all is one. The objective of many spiritual traditions is to extend these few moments indefinitely. === Training a capacity to be in the present === [[File:2006-01-14_Surface_waves.jpg|thumb|right|250px|We can learn to control discursive thought and cultivate pure awareness]]The practices used to train an ability to be in the present generally require repeated disengagement from habitual responses to thoughts, desires, and emotions. [[w:Meditation|Meditation]] is a widespread example. Disengagement is typically achieved by taking attention away from thoughts or feeling as they arise and returning it to something that does not itself evoke any feelings or thoughts—an ‘inert’ stimulus. So when meditators experience themselves becoming involved with a particular feeling or thought, they gently move attention back to the inert stimulus, and rest attention there. This needs to be done without conscious thought or judgment, otherwise the thought or judgment will be entrenched as a new habitual response. A wide range of internal and external phenomenon can serve as the inert stimulus. One of the most common recommendations is to focus attention on [[w:Anapanasati|sensations of the breath]]. Other recommendations made by various spiritual traditions are to rest attention on an external object, a visualized object, internal or external sounds (including [[w:Chant|chanting]] or a [[w:Mantra|mantra]]), other physical or mental sensations (including resting attention on [[w:Awareness|awareness]] itself or on the sensations associated with an emotion), repetitious cognitive tasks such as counting or prayer, and goalless emotional states such as reverence, devotion, love or feelings of surrender. In [[w:Mindfulness|mindfulness meditation]], thoughts and feelings themselves serve as inert stimuli when they are observed passively as objects arising in awareness. Repetitions of this type of practice diminish the capacity of thoughts and feelings to dominate consciousness. Eventually the practice extinguishes the habitual responses to feelings and emotions, including habitual thought processes. As a result, thoughts and feelings can be disengaged from at any time, and disengagement can be maintained. The Wikiversity course [[Quiet Mind]] can guide students in this practice. Initially, habitual thought processes and reactions to feelings can make it very difficult to apply the practice. Individuals find themselves continually involved in thoughts and feelings. However, these distractions can be reduced somewhat if the practice is performed in circumstances that do not evoke strong emotions and desires. In recognition of this difficulty, many traditions promote approaches that reduce the likelihood that the practice will be disrupted by strong reactions. For example, they may teach practitioners to perform meditation with a particular posture in a quiet place, encourage practitioners to develop an attitude of acceptance and love towards others, or have practitioners engage in monastic living, pilgrimages, or other forms of withdrawal from the challenges of daily life. However, the practice will tend to produce disengagement only in the particular circumstances in which it is trained. If disengagement is practiced only in restricted situations, the individual will not be able to be in the present during ordinary life. This is a major limitation for intentional evolutionaries and others whose objective is to enhance agency. It can be overcome by progressively extending the practice to all the activities of daily life. But special trainings may be necessary to extinguish some particular types of habitual responses. As discussed earlier, the practice achieves its effects by having the individual experience particular feelings and emotions without engaging in the habitual responses they would otherwise evoke. However, this can deal only with emotions that are experienced during the practice. It will not affect emotions and feelings that the individual avoids, represses, or denies. These will not be experienced either in formal meditation or during ordinary life, and therefore will be untouched by the practice. This is a particular problem for individuals in Western societies, where repression and avoidance are extremely common. Repressed and avoided emotions are major determinants of behavior in these societies and must be dealt with if individuals are to free themselves from the dictates of these emotions. For this, the individual must experience the avoided, repressed or denied emotions, and then practice disengagement in the face of the habitual responses. For example, individuals can intentionally put themselves in circumstances they would otherwise avoid or use visualization techniques to achieve similar effects. When the emotion arises, they can practice non-attachment by, for example, resting attention on the feelings associated with the emotion, fully experiencing the sensations without reacting to them. ====Assignment==== #Adopt some [[Meditation|meditation]] practice that you find beneficial. ##The Wikiversity course [[Quiet Mind]] may be beneficial. #Practice regularly. === Self-evolution === Continued use of meditation practice reduces attachment to thoughts, desires, and emotions. Once we are no longer attached to such an aspect of our being, it can be an object of consciousness. We are then able to observe it passively because it ceases to trigger a habitual response that loads consciousness and therefore takes attention away from it. And because it does not produce a habitual response, it does not control our behavior. We are free to act from the whole of ourselves, from a broader and wiser perspective. For example, once particular emotions are objects of consciousness, they are just like other sensations that we experience. We continue to fully experience them, but they cease to compel us to act. We are not identified with them, and they are not part of who we are, something that is given that cannot be changed at will. As individuals free themselves progressively from their biological past and social conditioning, more and more aspects of their psychology become objects of consciousness. Eventually they will be able to adapt consciously every aspect of themselves and will be a self-evolving being. No matter what circumstances arise, their consciousness will be free and poised, able to call on any of the knowledge, skills, and other resources they have acquired to that point, unbiased by any habitual response. They will identify with their awareness rather than with any particular content of awareness. But it is not easy or straightforward to develop a capacity to be present and fully conscious during ordinary life. It entails disengaging from habitual responses that have been reinforced and trained repeatedly throughout the individual’s life up to that point. Responses that have been trained over many years cannot be extinguished overnight. This capacity can only be developed and exploited consciously. It is made, not born, and must be self-made, consciously. Before the capacity reaches a critical mass in a culture, and before the culture develops processes and structures that nurture and motivate the work needed to train it, the development of the capacity requires an extensive period of conscious labor and intentional suffering. ====Assignment==== #Adopt an anthropologists’ mindset toward your own thoughts. Observe your thoughts without becoming captivated or controlled by them. Witness your [[w:Self|self]]. === Making use of the capacity to be in the present === The development of a capacity to be fully present during ordinary life is only the first step. It is an enabling capacity, not an end in itself. As we have seen, it assists individuals to build and use mental models of complex systems. But it does not ensure that they will actually build the models. Nor does it prevent them from developing models only for some limited area of expertise. This is reflected in the phenomenon of the ‘silly saint’—individuals who can be in the present at will, but who show little [[Wisdom|wisdom]], because they have not developed the requisite mental models. As we have also seen, the capacity enables individuals to move at right angles to their heredity and the influences of their up-bringing. No longer will they be bound to react habitually and conventionally in social situations. They will be able to set about reviewing, revising, and replacing the predispositions, traits and tendencies acquired during their upbringing. But again, these are potentials only. Having this enabling capacity does not ensure that it will actually be used to improve adaptability. Individuals might not go on to acquire the knowledge or wisdom needed to replace habitual responses with more effective behaviors. They may not acquire the understanding needed to identify evolutionary goals and may not even commit to advancing the evolutionary process. Nor might they acquire the know-how and knowledge to educate and manage their emotional system to align it with their longer-term goals, whatever they might be. They might just enjoy the experience of being in the present. It is worth emphasizing again that for intentional evolutionaries, the development of a capacity to be fully present and conscious during ordinary life is a means to an end, not an end in itself. ====Assignment==== #Practice your ability to be fully present. #Apply your ability to be fully present. === The drivers of improvements in human evolvability === It is possible that the capacity to be fully present and conscious in daily life will emerge in humanity to some extent before any general shift to intentional evolution. This is because it provides immediate benefits to individuals and to organizations whose members develop the capacities. It enhances their ability to achieve their goals creatively and intelligently within a complex environment, no matter what those goals are. However, the strongest driver of the acquisition of this capacity will be the spread of evolutionary consciousness. Awareness of the wider evolutionary significance of the capacity will energize and motivate intentional evolutionaries in their efforts to develop it in themselves. Irrespective of whether the capacity delivers them any economic or social benefits, they will work to develop it as part of their efforts to advance the evolutionary process. They will also encourage the development of the capacity in others. Whenever issues relating to these capacities and practices are discussed, intentional evolutionaries will draw attention to the evolutionary context. They will point out and bring to the front the understanding that the acquisition of the capacity is part of the unfolding of a great evolutionary dynamic on Earth. It is the next step in a long sequence of improvements in the evolvability of life. As always, evolutionary activists will take every available opportunity to promote the awakening of evolutionary consciousness across the face of the planet. ====Assignment==== #Promote the awakening of evolutionary consciousness. === The significance of self-evolving beings === The emergence of self-evolving beings who embrace evolutionary goals is a very significant step in the evolution of life on Earth. Intentional evolutionaries with this capacity will be able to remake themselves in any way that is necessary to advance the evolutionary process, unfettered by their biological or cultural past. As we have seen, organisms are programmed to do evolution’s bidding—they are fitted out with desires and motivations that are proxies for evolutionary success in past environments. But this programming was undertaken by highly unintelligent processes—it was put in place and tuned by the blind trial and error of natural selection and by unconscious learning processes during their upbringing. In contrast, self-evolving beings can use far more intelligent processes to identify the goals that will best advance the evolutionary process. They can use foresight to consider the longer-term evolutionary consequences of their actions. Reliance on blind trial and error to program organisms to pursue evolutionary success was clearly an inferior arrangement that was always going to be temporary. It will be rendered obsolete by organisms who consciously work out what will achieve evolutionary success and use this knowledge to guide their actions. A new and superior kind of being will enter history and evolution. Once enough members of the global society are self-evolving, the society will become a self-evolving being in its own right. Through the global organization, life on Earth will transcend it’s evolutionary past. It will be able to adapt in whatever ways are necessary for life on Earth to make a significant contribution to the successful evolution of life in the universe. No longer will the global organization waste the enormous creativity of consciousness on the pursuit of self-centered desires that were established by past evolution. As Earth life moves out into the solar system, the galaxy, and the universe, it will be able to change its adaptive goals and behavior in whatever ways are demanded by the challenges it meets. It will be able to continually recreate itself, to change its nature at will, to repeatedly sacrifice what it is for what it can become, to continually die and be born again. ====Assignment==== #Enhance evolvability. #Complete the Wikiversity curriculum on [[Emotional_Competency|emotional competency]]. Increase your emotional competency. #Complete the Wikiversity [[Deductive_Logic/Clear_Thinking_curriculum|clear thinking curriculum]]. Think clearly. #Study [[w:Complex_system|complex systems]]. #Practice [[Meditation|meditation]]. #Promote the awakening of evolutionary consciousness. == PART 4: THE UNIQUE CAPACITY OF THE EVOLUTIONARY WORLDVIEW TO PROVIDE DIRECTION AND PURPOSE FOR HUMANITY == [[File:Aligning Worldviews.jpg|thumb|It is wise to align our worldviews with the real world.]]As we have seen, merely freeing ourselves from our evolutionary past will not complete the shift to intentional evolution. Sufficient numbers of individuals will also have to commit deeply to advancing the evolutionary process. Fulfilling their evolutionary role will have to become the source of meaning and purpose in their lives. Individuals will not make this critical commitment without a profound understanding of the evolutionary processes that have produced life on Earth and will determine its future. But often this will not be enough. Many will not adopt evolutionary goals until they have begun to experience themselves as active participants in the evolutionary process. This combination of experiencing and understanding will show them that the evolutionary worldview satisfies all aspects of their being, including their rational, intuitive, and emotional faculties. From a rational perspective, they will find that the evolutionary worldview does not share the [[Beyond_Theism|deficiencies of religious]] and mythical worldviews. They will [[Seeking True Beliefs|seek true beliefs]]. In the past, humanity developed a diversity of mythological and religious worldviews that each attempted to explain key aspects of the human condition and to provide guidance about how one should live one’s life. Humans who believed a particular mythological worldview knew their place in the world, what was [[What_Matters|important in life]] and what was not, and how they should behave in all the key events of their life. They knew [[True_Self|who they were]], where they came from, and where they were going to. But the rise of rationality has destroyed every one of these worldviews. Rationalists have successfully undermined all mythological and religious worldviews by showing that they contradict scientific knowledge. All rely on gods, spirits, or other supernatural processes that are unsupported by [[Evaluating Evidence|evidence]]. Rational humanity has been left without a [[Exploring_Worldviews/Aligning_worldviews|worldview]] that makes sense of human existence and that shows how a life can be lived with meaning and purpose. The evolutionary worldview outlined in this manifesto is clearly not susceptible to this form of attack—it relies only on [[Thinking_Scientifically|scientific knowledge]] and explanations. And like science itself it will adapt to incorporate any new scientific discoveries. In the evolutionary worldview humanity finally has a belief system that provides meaning and purpose without having to invent supernatural entities and processes—it finds meaning solely in an understanding of the factual world. However, rationalists have also attacked all past attempts to develop worldviews that rely only on scientific knowledge to propose what we should do with our lives. They have pointed out that such worldviews usually commit the [[w:Naturalistic_fallacy|naturalistic fallacy]]. This fallacy argues that it is invalid to [[w:Is–ought_problem|derive an ‘ought’ from an ‘is’]]. In other words, it is invalid to argue that humans ought to do something solely based on facts about the way the world is. In particular, the naturalistic fallacy has often been used against attempts to use evolutionary theories to suggest what we should do with our lives. The fallacy has been used to argue that just because evolution might have favored aggressive competition (or cooperation), it does not follow that humans ought to follow suit in their lives. The fact that evolution appears to favor something doesn’t mean humans ought to. But the evolutionary worldview does not suffer from this deficiency. It derives its ‘oughts’ from other ‘oughts’ in combination with relevant facts, not solely from facts. There is no logical fallacy involved in deriving ‘oughts’ from other ‘oughts’. For example, if an individual holds a particular value, it is perfectly rational to use the value to derive new values that are consistent with it. Satisfaction of the new values will lead to the satisfaction of the original value. The use of relevant factual information in this derivation of new values is also perfectly legitimate. Particular facts might be highly relevant to identifying the circumstances in which pursuit of the new value is consistent with pursuit of the original value. Intentional evolutionaries do not fall into the naturalistic fallacy—they embrace evolutionary goals because the goals are consistent with their most fundamental values. As we shall see in detail below, they experience this consistency when they appraise the evolutionary worldview with their emotional, intuitive, and intellectual faculties, working together. ====Assignment==== #Complete the Wikiversity course [[Beyond Theism|Beyond theism]]. #Complete the Wikiversity course [[Seeking True Beliefs]]. #Seek true beliefs. #Read the essay [[Exploring_Worldviews/Aligning_worldviews|Aligning Worldviews]]. #Align your worldview with reality. === Consistency of the evolutionary worldview with universal values === [[File:Compass rose browns 00.png|thumb|right| 250px|[[w:Moral_reasoning|Moral Reasoning]] is the thought process we go through to determine what we ought to do. ]]Consistency between evolutionary values and our fundamental values can be demonstrated analytically in those cases where the values are able to be articulated explicitly. In particular, evolutionary goals can be shown to be consistent with key values that are likely to be held universally by sufficiently-developed sentient beings. The most fundamental of these universal values is to favor life over death and oblivion. For humanity to seek to advance the evolutionary process on this planet is consistent with this value. As we have seen, humanity must pursue this goal if Earth life is to survive successfully into the future. Life on Earth will not get far beyond its present stage by chance or accident. Unless humanity sets out to advance the evolutionary process intentionally, life on Earth does not have a future. We could try to ignore the large-scale processes that govern the evolution of life in the universe. We could refuse to do what is necessary for life on Earth to avoid being selected out by these processes. But to do so would be to choose irrelevance, meaninglessness, and eventual oblivion for humanity and life on Earth. It would mean that everything humanity has experienced until now, the misery, wars, holocausts, triumphs of the spirit, transcendent art, inventions, and scientific breakthroughs; all the personal dreams, aspirations, struggles, and strivings; and all the political movements, work, fame, fortunes, families, and civilizations would be for nothing. Everything would be as if it never happened. Life on Earth would disappear without trace. The only way we can contribute to something that is enduring and not ephemeral is if humanity continues to be successful in evolutionary terms. Individuals are more likely to favor life over oblivion in the sense used here if they achieve some freedom from the selfish desires inherited from their evolutionary past. The capacity to stand outside desires and motivations tends to undermine self-centered values and strengthens those that support evolutionary goals. However, some individuals may never develop this fundamental value. They may, for example, claim that they value their own life and pleasures above all else. They may say they would be unmoved if the universe and all life within it was to end when they die. While individuals genuinely embody such values, they will not be intentional evolutionaries. And planetary life that fails to develop values that support evolutionary goals will fail to complete the transition to conscious evolution. Life on such a planet will be meaningless and irrelevant to the future evolution of life in the universe. It will be an egg that never hatches. ====Assignment==== #Complete the Wikiversity course on [[Moral Reasoning]]. #Carefully consider the basis for your moral reasoning. #Write down the basis for your moral reasoning. #Apply well-chosen moral reasoning when deciding what we ought to do. === Evolutionary consciousness is the culmination of a long developmental sequence === [[File:Illustrated proverb- Blind men and an elephant.jpg|thumb|right|300px|We are like the [[w:Blind_men_and_an_elephant|blind men examining the elephant]] when we fail to adopt a [[Global Perspective|global perspective]].]]For a deeper realization of how evolutionary values spring from our existing values, it is important to understand that the adoption of the evolutionary worldview is the culmination of a developmental progression that begins at birth. As individuals grow, they progressively acquire an understanding of wider and [[w:Global_Perspective|wider contexts]] and learn to take them into account when deciding their actions. As a child develops, its world typically moves from encompassing its mother as well as itself to also including the rest of the family, then the school, then a wider community, then a nation, then perhaps the planet. At each step of this [[w:Piaget's theory of cognitive development|developmental sequence]] the individual learns that its previous world was in fact only a small part of a much wider world. It learns that much of what was important in its previous world is strongly influenced by what happens in the new, wider world, and cannot be properly understood or dealt with unless the larger processes are considered. Things that were meaningful and important in its previous world may prove to be futile and pointless when the larger context is considered. To adapt to the wider context, individuals typically need to adjust their strategies, values, and goals. An individual who is unable to adapt to the next wider context at the appropriate time is generally seen to suffer from a developmental pathology. The largest context that we yet know about in any detail is the evolutionary context outlined in this manifesto. It is the widest, deepest, and fullest context and it determines the destiny of all smaller contexts. The evolutionary context is the next context for humanity to grow into. Like other contexts before it, living into this wider context demands a revaluation of the strategies, values and goals that made sense in earlier contexts. The evolutionary context is particularly powerful in this respect because it is the first context of sufficient breadth in space and time to encompass all the processes that have produced each of us and all our characteristics. It is the first context that enables us to stand outside ourselves and see what it is that has made every aspect of ourselves and everything we experience. Growing into the evolutionary context therefore causes the most radical reassessment of values—it changes everything. Of course, as with every developmental step to a wider context, some may not make it. Some may never adapt to the evolutionary context, just as some children are never able to leave their family and function effectively at school, and instead stay at home forever. However, as we have seen, the naturalistic fallacy should not be a particular impediment to mastering the evolutionary context—it is no more relevant at this level than when individuals change their goals and values at earlier steps in the sequence of development. Furthermore, growing into the evolutionary context will become easier. As humanity increasingly embraces the evolutionary worldview, our cultures will develop structures and processes to facilitate adaptation to the wider evolutionary context, just as children are currently provided with a nurturing environment to facilitate their transition to school life. Whenever living processes move into and master a wider context, they must increase the scale over which they are organized and coordinated if they are to have a meaningful impact at the larger scale. And they must increase their evolvability, including by developing the capacity to model and understand the larger context. This process of building capacity to adapt to ever-widening contexts may never end. There may always be wider contexts yet to be discovered. For example, it is possible that our universe is embedded in a larger context in which universes compete, reproduce, and evolve. Or universes may participate in other large-scale processes that are unimaginable to us, just as our lives are unimaginable to the bacteria that live in our gut. Life can never know that any particular context is final. No knowledge or event could ever prove that there is not an even wider context yet to be discovered. It follows that there could never be such a thing as a context that renders life meaningless and irrelevant. No matter what the implications of any particular context, an even larger context may change its implications and make sense of all smaller contexts. Nor can there ever be such a thing as a context that resolves all uncertainties, answers all questions and brings evolution to an end. A bigger picture may change everything. Nor can sentient life ever be completely sure that its interpretations and understandings of existing contexts are correct. Ineradicable mystery and uncertainty always accompany finite existence. Strategically, it will therefore always make sense for life to continue to build its adaptive capacity, no matter how dark the hour, no matter how pointless existence seems to be within known contexts. Such a strategy will put it in the best position to take advantage of any new possibilities that emerge, including any that arise from larger, more meaningful contexts. ====Assignment==== #Complete the Wikiversity course [[Global Perspective]]. #Adopt a global perspective. #Develop your evolutionary consciousness. === Evolutionary epiphanies === As well as meeting the tests of rational analysis, the evolutionary worldview is also deeply satisfying to the values embodied in our intuitive and emotional systems. Most of these values are implicit—we are unable to articulate them. We therefore cannot check their consistency with evolutionary goals analytically. We can do this only by responding to the evolutionary worldview emotionally and intuitively. But a profound intuitive and emotional response is unlikely to be evoked by a mere verbal description of the evolutionary worldview. Our emotional and intuitive systems operate primarily with patterns of information, such as images, simulations, and other analogical representations. Therefore thought-based analytical descriptions of situations have little emotional impact, at least until we translate them into image-based representations. So, a full emotional and intuitive response to the evolutionary worldview is unlikely on first exposure. Individuals will need time to integrate the separate strands of an analytical, thought-based description of the worldview into dynamic mental models that are run largely without any conscious thought. When the models are sufficiently developed, the individual will be able to ‘inhabit’ and ‘walk around’ the dynamic representations. They will be able to read observations and conclusions off the models in the way they do with a picture. When this has been achieved the full array of intuitive and emotional resources of the mind can then assess the diverse consequences and implications of the worldview. Again, this emotional and intuitive processing will occur largely without conscious thought. Silently, and in a very short period of time, these resources will work out the implications of the various aspects of the worldview for the individual’s existing values, strategies and beliefs. This will often occur all at once as a major epiphany. It can also unfold over a longer period as a series of epiphanies. In such an epiphany, individuals experience a sudden revolution of ideas, beliefs, and strategies, as well as an exhilarating rush of diverse emotional responses to them. They directly experience the capacity of the evolutionary worldview to make sense of many experiences and beliefs that were previously unconnected and isolated. They actually feel the linkages being made and feel the reorganization of their beliefs into a coherent and unified whole. And they are flooded by the surge of emotional responses to this meaning-making. When the epiphany is complete, individuals will never be the same again. The evolutionary worldview will have been checked, tested, and implemented at every level of their being. They will know many implications of the worldview that they have not deduced consciously. Individuals will know far more about the evolutionary worldview than they can tell. They will be strongly committed to it at all levels of their being, rationally, intuitively, and emotionally. Of course, such epiphanies cannot occur until an individual has developed the cognitive capacity to translate analytical, thought-based knowledge into complex mental models. This is the capacity discussed earlier that is necessary for the understanding and management of complex systems. As we saw, to develop this capacity, individuals must learn to some extent to stand outside their thought processes. === Your epiphany === [[File:Cuerpo humano jaqaru.jpg|thumb|A flash of insight.]] Often, evolutionary epiphanies will be triggered as individuals begin to actually experience themselves as part of the unfolding evolutionary process. If you develop in this direction, you will find that this begins to occur as your mental representations of the evolutionary process develop in detail, scale, and complexity. The turning point is when you find that you yourself have a role in the representations. You will begin to see that your life and actions are part of the unfolding of the evolutionary process. And you will begin to see that you have the potential to play a significant role if you choose to do so. You will see that the next great step in the evolution of life on Earth is the transition to intentional evolution. You will realize that evolution will continue to progress on this planet only if enough individuals dedicate their existence to its advancement. The success of evolution on Earth depends on individuals awakening to the nature of the evolutionary process, realizing they have a role in driving it forward, and embracing that role. You will realize that your study of the evolutionary process is itself part of the unfolding of the great transition to intentional evolution. It is an essential element of the evolutionary awakening that is needed to power the transition. And you will see that your realization that you have an important role in advancing evolution is itself a significant step in the shift to conscious evolution. This is a realization that must be had by sufficient individuals on a planet if the transition is to be successful on that planet. You will see that the successful evolution of life on Earth depends on you having this realization. These realizations are exhilarating and energizing and capable of providing a deep sense of meaning and purpose. Increasingly you will cease to experience yourself primarily as an isolated and self-concerned individual. Instead, you will begin to see and experience yourself as a participant in the great evolutionary process on this planet. The object of your self-reflection will change. When you think of yourself, you will tend to see yourself as a-part-of-the-evolutionary-process. You will experience yourself as the most recent representative of an unbroken evolutionary lineage that goes back billions of years. Your conscious participation in evolution will increasingly become the source of value and meaning in your life. You are likely to experience a developmental epiphany that is like one that often accompanies the most powerful experience of self-recognition that occurs in childhood. Around the age of two, when looking in a mirror, we are struck for the first time by the realization that the person looking back at us from the mirror is our self. Typically, this rush of self-recognition triggers a moment of ecstatic dancing in front of the mirror as we repeatedly confirm that the image is us. The person looking back at you from a pivotal role in the future evolution of life on Earth is you. You are life on Earth becoming aware of itself and deciding to consciously advance its own evolution. ====Assignment==== #Study, contemplate, and reflect on evolutionary consciousness. #Welcome any [[w:Epiphany_(feeling)|epiphanies]] that result. Enjoy them. #Calm down, plan, and then act. === The universality of the transition to intentional evolution === As the transition to intentional evolution unfolds, intentional evolutionaries know that they are participating in processes that have universal aspects. The details of the living processes that emerge elsewhere in the universe will differ. But the general direction of evolution and the major transitions will follow similar principles everywhere. Wherever life emerges, * living processes will progressively become organized into [[w:Cooperative|cooperatives]] of greater and greater scale; * this will be accompanied by a long sequence of improvements in evolvability; * eventually organisms will emerge that can build [[w:Mental_model|mental models]] of their environment and themselves; * they will use this capacity to develop a comprehensive understanding of the evolutionary processes that have produced them and will [[Level_5_Research_Center|determine their future]]; * for the first time they will have a powerful, [[Thinking_Scientifically|science-based]] story that explains where they have come from, and their place in the unfolding of the universe; * they will see that evolution is headed somewhere—it is directional; * they will begin to see themselves as having reached a particular stage in an on-going and directional evolutionary process; * individuals will begin to emerge who see that evolution will progress further only if they commit to working consciously to advance the process; * they will realize that this realization is itself an important step in the transition to conscious evolution; * as part of this transition, they will develop in themselves the capacity to free themselves from the dictates of their evolutionary past, becoming self-evolving beings, able to evolve in whatever directions are necessary to contribute positively to the future evolution of life in the universe; * a unified and cooperative organization will emerge that comprises all the living processes that arose with them and all the technology, matter, energy and other resources available to them, eventually developing the capacity to adapt as a whole, transcending the particularities of its evolutionary past, becoming a self-evolving being in its own right, expanding in scale, linking up with other organizations of living processes that arose elsewhere, expanding in scale again and again, moving forever onwards and upwards, without end. And everywhere that living processes emerge, the transition to intentional evolution will include something like ''The Evolutionary Manifesto''. Of course, life on some planets may not complete the critically important step that currently faces humanity: the emergence of a unified and sustainable global society. Life at the threshold of this step is likely to be precarious, as it is for humanity at present. At this stage, life still comprises separate warring groups that compete destructively with one another. Like us they will be technologically advanced enough to destroy their civilizations in a war to end all wars. At the same time, the lack of global controls to restrain competition for ever-diminishing resources will inevitably result in environmental despoliation, as it has on this planet at this time. This in turn will increase the potential for further conflict and war. One way or the other, civilizations at this precarious threshold will be temporary: either they will be driven urgently by evolutionary consciousness to form a unified global society that restrains internal conflict and environmental harm; or they will destroy themselves. Humanity is at a dangerous stage in the evolution of planetary life, poised somewhere between oblivion and the opening of extraordinary new opportunities. The fate of humanity is likely to be decided this century, by our actions. ==Assignment== #[[Living Wisely|Live wisely]]. #Read the essay [[Exploring_Worldviews/Aligning_worldviews|Aligning Worldviews]]. ##Align your worldview with reality. #Become an ''intentional evolutionary''. ##Read and study the essay [http://www.evolutionarymanifesto.com/strategies.pdf ''Strategies for Advancing Evolution''].<ref>[http://www.evolutionarymanifesto.com/strategies.pdf ''Strategies for advancing evolution''], John Stewart, April 2009. </ref> ##The essay describes many strategies, techniques, projects, and actions that can help to advance intentional evolution. Identify projects that are most suitable to your talents, skills, and interests. ##Carry out the suitable projects you have identified. #Encourage others to complete this course. #Help to promote discussion about the evolutionary worldview ##Whether or not those who read the ''Manifesto'' are prepared to embrace the new evolutionary worldview immediately, they generally agree on one thing: as a matter of urgency, the Manifesto should be widely circulated and subject to extensive discussion and serious consideration. ##You can help to promote this [[Practicing Dialogue|dialogue]] by circulating links to this course, The Evolutionary Manifesto, and to other material about this evolutionary worldview. For example, you could email links to people who might be interested, put links on websites, in blogs, in comments on blogs and discussion groups, and so on. #Practice [[Level_5_Research_Center#Values|pro-social values]]. #Complete the Wikiversity course [[Evolving Governments]]. ##Work to improve governments. #Collaborate with others who practice [[Level_5_Research_Center#Values|pro-social values]]. ##Click on [https://discord.gg/8FSy3xJQ this link] to join our [[w:Discord|Discord]] Intentional Evolution discussion server. #Without compromising your values, [[Finding Common Ground|seek common ground]] with those who do not practice [[Level_5_Research_Center#Values|pro-social values]]. ##Complete the Wikiversity course [[Transcending Conflict|Transcending conflict]]. ###Work to transcend conflict. ##Complete the Wikiversity course [[Finding Common Ground|Finding common ground]]. ###Seek common ground #Challenge, confront, and [[w:Persuasion|persuade]] those who do not practice [[Level_5_Research_Center#Values|pro-social values]]. ##[[w:The_7_Habits_of_Highly_Effective_People#Habit 5: "Seek first to understand, then to be understood"|Seek first to understand, then to be understood]]. ##As a gentle starting point, become comfortable using [[Level_5_Research_Center/Level_5_Phrases|these phrases]] in [[Practicing Dialogue|dialogue]] to encourage the participants to act in good faith. ##Support and vote for political leaders who support values and policies that advance this evolutionary worldview. ##Protect your own safety. ##Complete the Wikiversity course [[Finding Courage]]. ###Find the moral courage to act according to your well-chosen values and confront antagonists. ##Apply suitable techniques discussed in the book {{cite book |last=Sharp |first=Gene |author-link=w:Gene_Sharp |date=September 4, 2012 |title=From Dictatorship to Democracy: A Conceptual Framework for Liberation |publisher=The New Press |pages=160 |isbn=978-1595588500}} ##Complete the Wikiversity course on [[Confronting Tyranny]]. ###Confront tyranny == Recommended Reading == * {{cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |author-link=w:Richard_Dawkins |date=August 1, 2016 |title=The Selfish Gene |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=544 |isbn=978-0198788607}} *{{cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |date=August 24, 2010 |title=The Greatest Show on Earth: The Evidence for Evolution |publisher=Free Press |pages=496 |isbn= 978-1416594796 |author-link=w:Richard_Dawkins }} * {{cite book |last=Strogatz |first=Steven H. |author-link=w:Steven_Strogatz |date=Feb 14, 2012 |title=Sync: How Order Emerges from Chaos In the Universe, Nature, and Daily Life |publisher=Hachette Books |pages=353 |isbn=978-0141007632}} * {{cite book |last=Ridley |first=Matt |author-link=w:Matt_Ridley |date=May 18, 2021 |title=How Innovation Works: And Why It Flourishes in Freedom |publisher=Harper Perennial |pages=432 |isbn=978-0062916600}} * {{cite book |last=Ridley |first=Matt |author-link=w:Matt_Ridley |date=October 25, 2016 |title=The Evolution of Everything: How New Ideas Emerge |publisher=Harper Perennial |pages=368 |isbn=978-0062296016}} * {{cite book |last=Christakis |first=Nicholas A. |author-link=w:Nicholas_Christakis |date=March 26, 2019 |title=Blueprint: The Evolutionary Origins of a Good Society |publisher=Little, Brown Spark |pages=441 |isbn=978-0316230032}} Future Consciousness * {{cite book |last=Wright |first=Robert |date= |title=Nonzero: The Logic of Human Destiny |publisher=Vintage |pages=448 |isbn=978-0679758945}} *{{cite book |last=Freinacht |first=Hanzi |date=March 10, 2017 |title=The Listening Society: A Metamodern Guide to Politics |publisher=Metamoderna ApS |pages=414 |isbn=978-8799973903}} *{{cite book |last=Freinacht |first=Hanzi |date=May 29, 2019 |title=Nordic Ideology: A Metamodern Guide to Politics |publisher=Metamoderna ApS |pages=495 |isbn=978-8799973927}} * {{cite book |last1=Briskin |first1=Alan |last2=Erickson |first2=Sheryl |last3=Callanan |first3=Tom |last4=Ott |first4=John |date=October 1, 2009 |title=The Power of Collective Wisdom: And the Trap of Collective Folly |publisher=Berrett-Koehler Publishers |pages=220 |isbn=978-1576754450}} * {{cite book |last=Sharp |first=Gene |author-link=w:Gene_Sharp |date=September 4, 2012 |title=From Dictatorship to Democracy: A Conceptual Framework for Liberation |publisher=The New Press |pages=160 |isbn=978-1595588500}} * {{cite book |last=Stewart |first=John |date=July 12, 2012 |title=The Evolutionary Manifesto |publisher=The Chapman Press |pages=108 }} I have not yet read the following books, but they seem interesting and relevant. They are listed here to invite further research. * {{cite book |last=Stewart |first=John |date=January 5, 2000 |title=Evolution's Arrow: the direction of evolution and the future of humanity |publisher=The Chapman Press |pages=108| isbn=978-0646394978 }} * {{cite book |last=Popper |first= Karl R. |author-link=w:Karl_Popper |date=November 9, 1972 |title=Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=390 |isbn=978-0198750246}} == References == <references/> [[Category:Futurology]] [[Category:Applied Wisdom]] [[Category:Philosophy]] [[Category:Courses]] {{Possibilities}} 6dmgz3u7u0bkx7z3fbelv4ptmxysau6 2 285229 2415654 2413004 2022-08-17T00:16:31Z U3216256 2942574 /* Social contributions */ wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hello everyone, My name is Ebony and I am a second year Bachelor of Science in Psychology student at the ''University of Canberra''. I am excited to contribute to the 2022 [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022|Motivation and Emotion]] Book. As a first-generation University student, I am passionate about education and bringing awareness to issues that first-generation students face. == Hobbies == University related: * [https://clubs.canberra.edu.au/Clubs/CLSS CLSS Treasurer] * UCPS President (2021) Other hobbies: * Knitting/Crocheting * Baking * Reading - Mostly fiction, such as novels by Terry Pratchett, Neil Gaiman, and A. A. Milne ([https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/1333202.The_Red_House_Mystery The Red House Mystery]). == The book chapter I am working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment|Disappointment: What is disappointment, what causes disappointment, and how can disappointment be managed?]] == Social contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Work_and_flow&diff=2411657&oldid=2411646 13:29, 4 August 2022: Suggested multiple resources that could be used for the Work and Flow chapter] # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation+and+emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FTime+Management&date-range-to=&tagfilter=&action=history 13:39, 4 August 2022: Added the Motivation and Emotion quick start template to the Time Management chapter] # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Time_and_motivation&action=history 13:44, 4 August 2022: Added the Motivation and Emotion quick start template to the Time and Motivation chapter] # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Wave_metaphor_for_emotion&oldid=2412979 13:58, 10 August 2022: Added the Motivation and Emotion quick start template to the Wave metaphor for emotion chapter] # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Suffering_as_emotion&oldid=2412994 14:02, 10 August 2022: Added the Motivation and Emotion quick start template to the Suffering as emotion chapter] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Kindness_motivation&action=history 10:06, 17 August 2022: Added the Motivation and Emotion quick start template to the Kindness motivation chapter] #[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Kindness_motivation&action=history 10:15, 17 August 2022: Suggested multiple resources that could be used for the Kindness motivation chapter (discussion page)] ecehkuxkosx7u6kdbyo5uhbwyefdpac 0 285353 2415757 2406741 2022-08-17T06:34:19Z U3213549 2946564 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hostage negotiation:<br>What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is hostage negotiation? * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] mjvufx4024slbhrprj1kjqlx4qy0w8n 2415768 2415757 2022-08-17T07:07:14Z U3213549 2946564 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hostage negotiation:<br>What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is hostage negotiation? * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Anger and motivation|Anger and Motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[wikipedia:Crisis_negotiation|Crisis negotiation]](Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Hate crime motivation|Hate crime motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[wikipedia:Hostage|Hostage]](Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 80pvel5s97j0x5guk5fzt0rv9gkavxa 2415799 2415768 2022-08-17T09:53:43Z U3213549 2946564 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hostage negotiation:<br>What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is hostage negotiation? * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Anger and motivation|Anger and Motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[wikipedia:Crisis_negotiation|Crisis negotiation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Hate crime motivation|Hate crime motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[wikipedia:Hostage|Hostage]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Lindt_Cafe_siege|Lindt Cafe siege]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2014/dec/20/sydney-siege-timeline-how-a-day-and-night-of-terror-unfolded-at-the-lindt-cafe Sydney siege: how a day and night of terror unfolded at the Lindt cafe] (The Guardian) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 1kyrl3pvyjxouwi6gn12c7en18bncyp 2415802 2415799 2022-08-17T10:23:43Z U3213549 2946564 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hostage negotiation:<br>What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is hostage negotiation? * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Hostage Negotiation == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. == The role motivation plays in hostage negotiation and situations == == The role Emotion plays in hostage negotiation and situations == * One of the main goals of crisis/hostage negotiation is to decrease heightened emotions of the perpetrator, and allow for rationality, this is done by using learnt skills and utilising verbal strategies to buy time and intervene (Hatcher et al, 1998) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Anger and motivation|Anger and Motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[wikipedia:Crisis_negotiation|Crisis negotiation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Hate crime motivation|Hate crime motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[wikipedia:Hostage|Hostage]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Lindt_Cafe_siege|Lindt Cafe siege]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4<455::AID-BSL321>3.0.CO;2-G }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2014/dec/20/sydney-siege-timeline-how-a-day-and-night-of-terror-unfolded-at-the-lindt-cafe Sydney siege: how a day and night of terror unfolded at the Lindt cafe] (The Guardian) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] hkbfo0kyrva88ahgfqqaf28d9q1nd2o 2415803 2415802 2022-08-17T10:24:48Z U3213549 2946564 /* References */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Hostage negotiation:<br>What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is hostage negotiation? * What are the motivations involved in hostage negotiation? * What are the emotions involved in hostage negotiation? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Hostage Negotiation == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. == The role motivation plays in hostage negotiation and situations == == The role Emotion plays in hostage negotiation and situations == * One of the main goals of crisis/hostage negotiation is to decrease heightened emotions of the perpetrator, and allow for rationality, this is done by using learnt skills and utilising verbal strategies to buy time and intervene (Hatcher et al, 1998) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Anger and motivation|Anger and Motivation]] (Book chapter, 2014) * [[wikipedia:Crisis_negotiation|Crisis negotiation]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Hate crime motivation|Hate crime motivation]] (Book chapter, 2019) * [[wikipedia:Hostage|Hostage]] (Wikipedia) * [[wikipedia:Lindt_Cafe_siege|Lindt Cafe siege]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Hatcher, C., Mohandie, K., Turner, J., & Gelles, M. G. (1998). The role of the psychologist in crisis/hostage negotiations. Behavioral sciences & the law, 16(4), 455-472. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0798(199823)16:4%3C455::AID-BSL321%3E3.0.CO;2-G?casa_token=8R8ffIld3P4AAAAA:dyvKlftEioymCBS25ZL5CufY1_yu20k8dFWL_wbxsk8Il4nYjkKCSkhMaCuqQhOrfbu-2zgPvYLWnsjz }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2014/dec/20/sydney-siege-timeline-how-a-day-and-night-of-terror-unfolded-at-the-lindt-cafe Sydney siege: how a day and night of terror unfolded at the Lindt cafe] (The Guardian) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 2gtupn94wk96w5h05ql92ha71y5kdb3 0 285380 2415577 2414759 2022-08-16T14:48:42Z Young1lim 21186 /* Handling Series of Data */ wikitext text/x-wiki === Introduction === * Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]]) === Handling Repetition === * Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling a Big Work === * Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Functions & Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Series of Data === ==== Background ==== * Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Basics ==== * Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.A.20220816.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Pointers ([[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.A.20180726.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.A.20220816.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20220418.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.11.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]]) ==== Applications ==== * Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series1App.Array.1.A.20220816.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.Series7.AppPoint.1.A.20200424.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.Series3App.ArrayPointer.1.A.2022024.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Examples ==== * Spreadsheet Example Programs :: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]]) :: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]]) === Handling Various Kinds of Data === * Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Handling Low Level Operations === * Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]]) === Declarations === * Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]]) * Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]]) * Scope === Class Notes === * TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]]) * Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library * Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements * Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers * Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts * Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops * Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control * Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions * Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope * Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion * Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions * Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications * Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions * Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications * Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) * Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2) * Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO * Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions * Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications * Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum * Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List * Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing * Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing <!----------------------------------------------------------------------> </br> See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/ == '''Old Materials '''== until 201201 * Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]]) * Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]]) * Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) <br> until 201107 * Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]]) * Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]]) * Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]]) * Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) * Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]]) go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ] [[Category:C programming]] </br> em7xuk1lvluq8uwnrqk3cnxbdvzmgj0 0 285385 2415733 2414258 2022-08-17T06:18:59Z Young1lim 21186 /* Object Files */ wikitext text/x-wiki === Executable and Linkable Format === ==== Object Files ==== * Introduction * ELF Header ([[Media:ELF1.1B.Header.20220211.pdf |pdf]]) * Group section ([[Media:ELF1.1C.Group.20220426.pdf |pdf]]) * String table section ([[Media:ELF1.1D.StringTbl.20220427.pdf |pdf]]) * Weak and common symbols ([[Media:ELF1.1E.WeakComm.20220815.pdf |pdf]]) * Symbol table section ([[Media:ELF1.1F.SymbolTbl.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) * Special Sections ([[Media:ELF1.7B.Section.20200511.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Relocation ([[Media:ELF1.6A.Relocation.20190413.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Program Loading and Dynamic Linking ==== * Introduction * Program Header ([[Media:ELF1.2B.ProgHeader.20220110.pdf |pdf]]) * Program Loading * Dynamic Linking ([[Media:ELF2.4A.DynLinking.20191028.pdf |pdf]]) ==== C Library ==== * C Library === ELF Study === ==== ELF Relocations ==== * Linking ([[Media:ELF1.7A.Linking.20200731.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Loading ([[Media:ELF1.7B.Loading.20201103.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Executing ([[Media:ELF1.7C.Executing.20201221.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Virtual Memory ([[Media:ELF2.1D.VMemory.20211227.pdf |D.pdf]]) * PIC Method ([[Media:ELF1.7B.PICMethod.20200417.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Design Cycles ([[Media:ELF1.7C.DesignCycle.20200317.pdf |D.pdf]]) * Relocs in i386 ([[Media:ELF1.7D.Reloc386.20200413.pdf |E.pdf]]) ==== Relocation Examples ==== * Relocs example introduction ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.1Intro.20200109.pdf |E1.pdf]]) * Relocs in an object for a library ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.2ObjectRel.20200319.pdf |E2.pdf]]) * Relocs in an object for an executable ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.3ObjectMain.20200118.pdf |E3.pdf]]) * Relocs in a library ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.4Library.20200320.pdf |E4.pdf]]) * Relocs in an executable ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.5Executable.20200228.pdf |E5.pdf]]) * Result Summary ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.6Result.20200121.pdf |E6.pdf]]) * Symbol Table Listing ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.7Symbol.20200120.pdf |E7.pdf]]) * Relocs Listing ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.8Relocs.20200121.pdf |E8.pdf]]) * Assembly Listing ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.9Assembly.20200128.pdf |E9.pdf]]) * Reloc Experiments ([[Media:ELF1.7F.Experiments.20191206.pdf |F.pdf]]) </br> go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ] [[Category:C programming]] 1uxdf6s9rm303paytjr4t64mbnkzqd1 2415736 2415733 2022-08-17T06:22:44Z Young1lim 21186 /* Object Files */ wikitext text/x-wiki === Executable and Linkable Format === ==== Object Files ==== * Introduction * ELF Header ([[Media:ELF1.1B.Header.20220211.pdf |pdf]]) * Group section ([[Media:ELF1.1C.Group.20220426.pdf |pdf]]) * String table section ([[Media:ELF1.1D.StringTbl.20220427.pdf |pdf]]) * Weak and common symbols ([[Media:ELF1.1E.WeakComm.20220816.pdf |pdf]]) * Symbol table section ([[Media:ELF1.1F.SymbolTbl.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) * Special Sections ([[Media:ELF1.7B.Section.20200511.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Relocation ([[Media:ELF1.6A.Relocation.20190413.pdf |A.pdf]]) ==== Program Loading and Dynamic Linking ==== * Introduction * Program Header ([[Media:ELF1.2B.ProgHeader.20220110.pdf |pdf]]) * Program Loading * Dynamic Linking ([[Media:ELF2.4A.DynLinking.20191028.pdf |pdf]]) ==== C Library ==== * C Library === ELF Study === ==== ELF Relocations ==== * Linking ([[Media:ELF1.7A.Linking.20200731.pdf |A.pdf]]) * Loading ([[Media:ELF1.7B.Loading.20201103.pdf |B.pdf]]) * Executing ([[Media:ELF1.7C.Executing.20201221.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Virtual Memory ([[Media:ELF2.1D.VMemory.20211227.pdf |D.pdf]]) * PIC Method ([[Media:ELF1.7B.PICMethod.20200417.pdf |C.pdf]]) * Design Cycles ([[Media:ELF1.7C.DesignCycle.20200317.pdf |D.pdf]]) * Relocs in i386 ([[Media:ELF1.7D.Reloc386.20200413.pdf |E.pdf]]) ==== Relocation Examples ==== * Relocs example introduction ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.1Intro.20200109.pdf |E1.pdf]]) * Relocs in an object for a library ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.2ObjectRel.20200319.pdf |E2.pdf]]) * Relocs in an object for an executable ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.3ObjectMain.20200118.pdf |E3.pdf]]) * Relocs in a library ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.4Library.20200320.pdf |E4.pdf]]) * Relocs in an executable ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.5Executable.20200228.pdf |E5.pdf]]) * Result Summary ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.6Result.20200121.pdf |E6.pdf]]) * Symbol Table Listing ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.7Symbol.20200120.pdf |E7.pdf]]) * Relocs Listing ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.8Relocs.20200121.pdf |E8.pdf]]) * Assembly Listing ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.9Assembly.20200128.pdf |E9.pdf]]) * Reloc Experiments ([[Media:ELF1.7F.Experiments.20191206.pdf |F.pdf]]) </br> go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ] [[Category:C programming]] nzu2gj5iag9mwu00f8gkees8llwxd30 4 285491 2415559 2412800 2022-08-16T12:11:55Z Alexis Jazz 791434 Updating gadget usage statistics from [[Special:GadgetUsage]] ([[phab:T121049]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{#ifexist:Project:GUS2Wiki/top|{{/top}}|This page provides a historical record of [[Special:GadgetUsage]] through its page history. To get the data in CSV format, see wikitext. To customize this message or add categories, create [[/top]].}} The following data is cached, and was last updated 2022-08-13T19:58:37Z. A maximum of {{PLURAL:5000|one result is|5000 results are}} available in the cache. {| class="sortable wikitable" ! Gadget !! data-sort-type="number" | Number of users !! data-sort-type="number" | Active users |- |CleanDeletions || 75 || 2 |- |EnhancedTalk || 1304 || 3 |- |HideFundraisingNotice || 749 || 6 |- |HotCat || 815 || 10 |- |LintHint || 70 || 1 |- |ReferenceTooltips || data-sort-value="Infinity" | Default || data-sort-value="Infinity" | Default |- |Round Corners || 1108 || 3 |- |contribsrange || 346 || 3 |- |dark-mode || 15 || 0 |- |dark-mode-toggle || 29 || 2 |- |edittop || 456 || 5 |- |popups || 789 || 5 |- |purge || 663 || 9 |- |sidebartranslate || 497 || 2 |- |usurper-count || 74 || 2 |} * [[Special:GadgetUsage]] * [[m:Meta:GUS2Wiki/Script|GUS2Wiki]] <!-- data in CSV format: CleanDeletions,75,2 EnhancedTalk,1304,3 HideFundraisingNotice,749,6 HotCat,815,10 LintHint,70,1 ReferenceTooltips,default,default Round Corners,1108,3 contribsrange,346,3 dark-mode,15,0 dark-mode-toggle,29,2 edittop,456,5 popups,789,5 purge,663,9 sidebartranslate,497,2 usurper-count,74,2 --> 97bmiguropwyn37g4pc6f9fll6yiquj 2 285905 2415806 2413322 2022-08-17T10:24:59Z Earthxangel 2947535 /* Social contributions */ wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == [[File:-Munnar -Kerala -Hillstation -Nature -Greenery -Leaves -Idukki.jpg|alt=Coloured photograph of a field of greenery|thumb|415x415px|Figure 1. An example of green prescription ]] Hi, I'm Anjali Singh. I'm a 3rd year [[w:Psychology|psychology]] student studying at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] I'm currently undertaking the Bachelor of Science in Psychology and the unit [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion.]] === Hobbies === * Shopping * Going on long walks * Listening to music == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Green prescription motivation|Green prescription motivation]] == Social contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415801 Fixed grammar on 2021 page] 0zejwfzpsjz05doi4mkl2kci19fh1jx 2415807 2415806 2022-08-17T10:25:55Z Earthxangel 2947535 /* Social contributions */ wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == [[File:-Munnar -Kerala -Hillstation -Nature -Greenery -Leaves -Idukki.jpg|alt=Coloured photograph of a field of greenery|thumb|415x415px|Figure 1. An example of green prescription ]] Hi, I'm Anjali Singh. I'm a 3rd year [[w:Psychology|psychology]] student studying at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] I'm currently undertaking the Bachelor of Science in Psychology and the unit [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion.]] === Hobbies === * Shopping * Going on long walks * Listening to music == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Green prescription motivation|Green prescription motivation]] == Social contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415801 Fixed grammar on 2021 page] - 17/08/22 la1ave2qbugpc5rjcfqbivm8ji1bew3 2415811 2415807 2022-08-17T10:55:48Z Earthxangel 2947535 /* Social contributions */ wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == [[File:-Munnar -Kerala -Hillstation -Nature -Greenery -Leaves -Idukki.jpg|alt=Coloured photograph of a field of greenery|thumb|415x415px|Figure 1. An example of green prescription ]] Hi, I'm Anjali Singh. I'm a 3rd year [[w:Psychology|psychology]] student studying at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] I'm currently undertaking the Bachelor of Science in Psychology and the unit [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion.]] === Hobbies === * Shopping * Going on long walks * Listening to music == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Green prescription motivation|Green prescription motivation]] == Social contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415801 Fixed grammar on 2021 page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415809 Corrected grammar and sentence layout on 2021 page] - 17/08/22 r9rv1tsjm0nkwsok5wv08u0xtd1ovfk 2415813 2415811 2022-08-17T11:03:51Z Earthxangel 2947535 /* Social contributions */ wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == [[File:-Munnar -Kerala -Hillstation -Nature -Greenery -Leaves -Idukki.jpg|alt=Coloured photograph of a field of greenery|thumb|415x415px|Figure 1. An example of green prescription ]] Hi, I'm Anjali Singh. I'm a 3rd year [[w:Psychology|psychology]] student studying at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] I'm currently undertaking the Bachelor of Science in Psychology and the unit [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion.]] === Hobbies === * Shopping * Going on long walks * Listening to music == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Green prescription motivation|Green prescription motivation]] == Social contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415801 Fixed grammar on 2021 page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415809 Corrected grammar and sentence layout on 2021 page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415812 Sentence restructure and grammar change on 2021 page] - 17/08/22 ktsy926yspmi6ky3onxlwwn7ha6rgqi 2415815 2415813 2022-08-17T11:07:51Z Earthxangel 2947535 /* Social contributions */ wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == [[File:-Munnar -Kerala -Hillstation -Nature -Greenery -Leaves -Idukki.jpg|alt=Coloured photograph of a field of greenery|thumb|415x415px|Figure 1. An example of green prescription ]] Hi, I'm Anjali Singh. I'm a 3rd year [[w:Psychology|psychology]] student studying at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] I'm currently undertaking the Bachelor of Science in Psychology and the unit [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion.]] === Hobbies === * Shopping * Going on long walks * Listening to music == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Green prescription motivation|Green prescription motivation]] == Social contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415801 Fixed grammar on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415809 Corrected grammar and sentence layout on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415812 Sentence restructure and grammar change on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415814 Minor grammar fix on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 g6n3ruys5s1exo3xe9y8e7jn1c2n3bk 2415817 2415815 2022-08-17T11:10:13Z Earthxangel 2947535 /* Social contributions */ wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == [[File:-Munnar -Kerala -Hillstation -Nature -Greenery -Leaves -Idukki.jpg|alt=Coloured photograph of a field of greenery|thumb|415x415px|Figure 1. An example of green prescription ]] Hi, I'm Anjali Singh. I'm a 3rd year [[w:Psychology|psychology]] student studying at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] I'm currently undertaking the Bachelor of Science in Psychology and the unit [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion.]] === Hobbies === * Shopping * Going on long walks * Listening to music == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Green prescription motivation|Green prescription motivation]] == Social contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415801 Fixed grammar on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415809 Corrected grammar and sentence layout on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415812 Sentence restructure and grammar change on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415814 Minor grammar fix on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415816 Grammar edit and sentence shortening on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] 17/08/22 416yjp5a4p7lwrfbruto8ib1w9fr9mx 2415819 2415817 2022-08-17T11:12:57Z Earthxangel 2947535 /* Social contributions */ wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == [[File:-Munnar -Kerala -Hillstation -Nature -Greenery -Leaves -Idukki.jpg|alt=Coloured photograph of a field of greenery|thumb|415x415px|Figure 1. An example of green prescription ]] Hi, I'm Anjali Singh. I'm a 3rd year [[w:Psychology|psychology]] student studying at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] I'm currently undertaking the Bachelor of Science in Psychology and the unit [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion.]] === Hobbies === * Shopping * Going on long walks * Listening to music == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Green prescription motivation|Green prescription motivation]] == Social contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415801 Fixed grammar on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415809 Corrected grammar and sentence layout on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415812 Sentence restructure and grammar change on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415814 Minor grammar fix on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415816 Grammar edit and sentence shortening on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415818 Grammar fixed on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 dwcwr5obfk2kphxkd1aqwwpj66t5mm4 2415823 2415819 2022-08-17T11:15:47Z Earthxangel 2947535 /* Social contributions */ wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == [[File:-Munnar -Kerala -Hillstation -Nature -Greenery -Leaves -Idukki.jpg|alt=Coloured photograph of a field of greenery|thumb|415x415px|Figure 1. An example of green prescription ]] Hi, I'm Anjali Singh. I'm a 3rd year [[w:Psychology|psychology]] student studying at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] I'm currently undertaking the Bachelor of Science in Psychology and the unit [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion.]] === Hobbies === * Shopping * Going on long walks * Listening to music == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Green prescription motivation|Green prescription motivation]] == Social contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415801 Fixed grammar on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415809 Corrected grammar and sentence layout on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415812 Sentence restructure and grammar change on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415814 Minor grammar fix on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415816 Grammar edit and sentence shortening on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415818 Grammar fixed on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415820 Change to grammar on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 2owt9gswt6fr406ibnm5yq41kfb8o8z 2415825 2415823 2022-08-17T11:20:51Z Earthxangel 2947535 /* Social contributions */ wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == [[File:-Munnar -Kerala -Hillstation -Nature -Greenery -Leaves -Idukki.jpg|alt=Coloured photograph of a field of greenery|thumb|415x415px|Figure 1. An example of green prescription ]] Hi, I'm Anjali Singh. I'm a 3rd year [[w:Psychology|psychology]] student studying at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] I'm currently undertaking the Bachelor of Science in Psychology and the unit [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion.]] === Hobbies === * Shopping * Going on long walks * Listening to music == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Green prescription motivation|Green prescription motivation]] == Social contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415801 Fixed grammar on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415809 Corrected grammar and sentence layout on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415812 Sentence restructure and grammar change on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415814 Minor grammar fix on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415816 Grammar edit and sentence shortening on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415818 Grammar fixed on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415820 Change to grammar on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415824 Fixed some grammar on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 lxh2t1ntb55vapb45e1xhu4rr2tkfeo 2415827 2415825 2022-08-17T11:28:58Z Earthxangel 2947535 /* Book chapter I'm working on */ wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == [[File:-Munnar -Kerala -Hillstation -Nature -Greenery -Leaves -Idukki.jpg|alt=Coloured photograph of a field of greenery|thumb|415x415px|Figure 1. An example of green prescription ]] Hi, I'm Anjali Singh. I'm a 3rd year [[w:Psychology|psychology]] student studying at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] I'm currently undertaking the Bachelor of Science in Psychology and the unit [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion.]] === Hobbies === * Shopping * Going on long walks * Listening to music == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Green prescription motivation|Green prescription motivation]] == Social contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415801 Fixed grammar on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415809 Corrected grammar and sentence layout on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415812 Sentence restructure and grammar change on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415814 Minor grammar fix on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415816 Grammar edit and sentence shortening on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415818 Grammar fixed on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415820 Change to grammar on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415824 Fixed some grammar on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Mixed_emotions&diff=prev&oldid=2415826 Sentence and grammar change on 2021 (mixed emotions) page] - 17/08/22 8qgk91fwyxqbfyubfxcg8twgs89x44z 0 285908 2415642 2415522 2022-08-17T00:03:43Z 2001:8003:1C14:D601:8CE6:4B:41CB:F990 /* Overview */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Disappointment<br>What is disappointment, what causes disappointment, and how can disappointment be managed?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:Wayuu woman with sad face in the market buying.jpg|alt=Older woman with a disappointed look on her face in a busy market place.|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Person expressing disappointment through facial features]] * Example (case study) of disappointment - include statistics on frequency of occurrence (Van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002) * Define [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], what emotions involve. Reference Figure 1 * Overview of what the chapter explores * Note on emotion research (Ramachandran & Jalal, 2017) {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Key questions:''' * What is disappointment? * What causes disappointment? * How can disappointment be managed? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is disappointment?== * Disappointment occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998). * Disappointment involves feeling powerless, a tendency to remove oneself from the situation, and a desire to do nothing (van Dijk et al., 1999) * Disappointment is a complex emotion (Ramachandran & Jalal, 2017) * Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related; where outcome-related disappointment (ORD) occurs when the expected pleasurable outcome has not occurred, and person-related disappointment (PRD) occurs when you attribute the undesirable outcome to a\ person (you blame them for the 'bad' outcome) (Van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002). {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Emotions similar to disappointment}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> '''Regret''' : Regret is a negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998). "Regret stems from bad decisions" (Zeelenberg et al., 1998). '''Anger''' : Anger is a simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al., 1999). '''Disillusionment''' : Disillusionment is a complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment. </div> {{Robelbox/close}} Test yourself:<quiz display="simple"> {Mary's boss received a complaint from a customer about Mary. Mary was made aware of the complaint and then fired. Mary is likely to experience: |type="()"} + Person-related disappointment - Outcome-related disappointment {Alex is trying to get a snack from a vending machine. Alex put their money into the vending machine and typed in the code for lemonade. The vending machine did not give Alex lemonade, and took their money. Alex is likely to experience: |type="()"} - Person-related disappointment + Outcome-related disappointment </quiz> == What causes disappointment? == * Key content: why people experience disappointment (reference) * Key content: what causes disappointment - go into physiology/chemistry/etc. (reference) * key content: contexts? eg. disappointment in self vs in external thing??? (reference) * amygdala!! - research * can have more content Insert Quiz on why John could be disappointed ==How can disappointment be managed?== * Disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003) * key content: mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza & Dawson, 2021) ... ^ therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing * key content: how to mitigate/reduce disappointment (reference) * key content: something else (reference) * can have more content === The benefits of disappointment === * Key content: negotiation * Expressing disappointment encourages higher levels of cooperation in others (Olekalns & Druckman, 2014). - * Expressing disappointment can lead to helping behaviour in others(Johnson & Connelly, 2014). === The downsides to disappointment === * Disappointment can taint relationships, leading to blaming or [[wikipedia:Scapegoating|scapegoating]] (Clancy et al., 2012). * Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza & Dawson, 2021) ==Learning features== ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Restate what disappointment is, the types of disappointment, and emotions similar to disappointment. * Restate the causes of disappointment * Restate how disappointment can be managed * Take home message: everybody experiences disappointment, but there are things you can do to minimise experiencing it and you can even take advantage of it. The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: Clancy, A., Vince, R., & Gabriel, Y. (2012). That Unwanted Feeling: A Psychodynamic Study of Disappointment in Organizations. ''British Journal of Management, 23''(4), 518–531. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2011.00780.x de Meza, D., & Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an Optimist Nor a Pessimist Be: Mistaken Expectations Lower Well-Being. ''Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577</nowiki> Izard, C. E. (2010). The Many Meanings/Aspects of Emotion: Definitions, Functions, Activation, and Regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661</nowiki> Johnson, G., & Connelly, S. (2014). Negative emotions in informal feedback: The benefits of disappointment and drawbacks of anger. ''Human Relations (New York), 67''(10), 1265–1290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726714532856 Lelieveld, GJ., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., Steinel, W., & Van Kleef, G. A. (2011). Disappointed in you, angry about your offer: Distinct negative emotions induce concessions via different mechanisms. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47''(3), 635–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.015 Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., & van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: a prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764</nowiki> Olekalns, M., & Druckman, D. (2014). With Feeling: How Emotions Shape Negotiation. ''Negotiation Journal, 30''(4), 455–478. https://doi.org/10.1111/nejo.12071 Ramachandran, V.S., & Jalal, B. (2017). The Evolutionary Psychology of Envy and Jealousy. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 8'', 1619–1619. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01619 Reeve, J. (2018). ''Understanding motivation and emotion'' (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley van Dijk, W. W., & Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563</nowiki> van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., & van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8</nowiki> van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., & van der Pligt, J. (1999). Not Having What You Want versus Having What You Do Not Want: The Impact of Type of Negative Outcome on the Experience of Disappointment and Related Emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion, 13''(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379302 Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., & der Pligt, J. (1998). The Experience of Regret and Disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727 }} {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC) qu3ojwfovmfuydxpswgumf86gy6j22z 2415655 2415642 2022-08-17T00:17:14Z U3216256 2942574 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Disappointment<br>What is disappointment, what causes disappointment, and how can disappointment be managed?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:Wayuu woman with sad face in the market buying.jpg|alt=Older woman with a disappointed look on her face in a busy market place.|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Person expressing disappointment through facial features]] * Example (case study) of disappointment - include statistics on frequency of occurrence (Van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002) * Define [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], what emotions involve. Reference Figure 1 * Overview of what the chapter explores * Note on emotion research (Ramachandran & Jalal, 2017) {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Key questions:''' * What is disappointment? * What causes disappointment? * How can disappointment be managed? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is disappointment?== * Disappointment occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998). * Disappointment involves feeling powerless, a tendency to remove oneself from the situation, and a desire to do nothing (van Dijk et al., 1999) * Disappointment is a complex emotion (Ramachandran & Jalal, 2017) * Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related; where outcome-related disappointment (ORD) occurs when the expected pleasurable outcome has not occurred, and person-related disappointment (PRD) occurs when you attribute the undesirable outcome to a\ person (you blame them for the 'bad' outcome) (Van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002). {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Emotions similar to disappointment}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> '''Regret''' : Regret is a negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998). "Regret stems from bad decisions" (Zeelenberg et al., 1998). '''Anger''' : Anger is a simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al., 1999). '''Disillusionment''' : Disillusionment is a complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment. </div> {{Robelbox/close}} Test yourself:<quiz display="simple"> {Mary's boss received a complaint from a customer about Mary. Mary was made aware of the complaint and then fired. Mary is likely to experience: |type="()"} + Person-related disappointment - Outcome-related disappointment {Alex is trying to get a snack from a vending machine. Alex put their money into the vending machine and typed in the code for lemonade. The vending machine did not give Alex lemonade, and took their money. Alex is likely to experience: |type="()"} - Person-related disappointment + Outcome-related disappointment </quiz> == What causes disappointment? == * Key content: why people experience disappointment (reference) * Key content: what causes disappointment - go into physiology/chemistry/etc. (reference) * key content: contexts? eg. disappointment in self vs in external thing??? (reference) * amygdala!! - research * can have more content Insert Quiz on why John could be disappointed ==How can disappointment be managed?== * Disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003) * key content: mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza & Dawson, 2021) ... ^ therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing * key content: how to mitigate/reduce disappointment (reference) * key content: something else (reference) * can have more content === The benefits of disappointment === * Key content: negotiation * Expressing disappointment encourages higher levels of cooperation in others (Olekalns & Druckman, 2014). - * Expressing disappointment can lead to helping behaviour in others(Johnson & Connelly, 2014). === The downsides to disappointment === * Disappointment can taint relationships, leading to blaming or [[wikipedia:Scapegoating|scapegoating]] (Clancy et al., 2012). * Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza & Dawson, 2021) ==Learning features== ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Restate what disappointment is, the types of disappointment, and emotions similar to disappointment. * Restate the causes of disappointment * Restate how disappointment can be managed * Take home message: everybody experiences disappointment, but there are things you can do to minimise experiencing it and you can even take advantage of it. The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: Clancy, A., Vince, R., & Gabriel, Y. (2012). That Unwanted Feeling: A Psychodynamic Study of Disappointment in Organizations. ''British Journal of Management, 23''(4), 518–531. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2011.00780.x de Meza, D., & Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an Optimist Nor a Pessimist Be: Mistaken Expectations Lower Well-Being. ''Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577</nowiki> Izard, C. E. (2010). The Many Meanings/Aspects of Emotion: Definitions, Functions, Activation, and Regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661</nowiki> Johnson, G., & Connelly, S. (2014). Negative emotions in informal feedback: The benefits of disappointment and drawbacks of anger. ''Human Relations (New York), 67''(10), 1265–1290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726714532856 Lelieveld, GJ., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., Steinel, W., & Van Kleef, G. A. (2011). Disappointed in you, angry about your offer: Distinct negative emotions induce concessions via different mechanisms. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47''(3), 635–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.015 Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., & van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: a prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764</nowiki> Olekalns, M., & Druckman, D. (2014). With Feeling: How Emotions Shape Negotiation. ''Negotiation Journal, 30''(4), 455–478. https://doi.org/10.1111/nejo.12071 Ramachandran, V.S., & Jalal, B. (2017). The Evolutionary Psychology of Envy and Jealousy. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 8'', 1619–1619. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01619 Reeve, J. (2018). ''Understanding motivation and emotion'' (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley van Dijk, W. W., & Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563</nowiki> van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., & van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8</nowiki> van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., & van der Pligt, J. (1999). Not Having What You Want versus Having What You Do Not Want: The Impact of Type of Negative Outcome on the Experience of Disappointment and Related Emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion, 13''(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379302 Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., & der Pligt, J. (1998). The Experience of Regret and Disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC) eywvwi5efbacbkkxdlzn5dndfgpfl8h 2415656 2415655 2022-08-17T00:18:22Z U3216256 2942574 /* References */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Disappointment<br>What is disappointment, what causes disappointment, and how can disappointment be managed?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:Wayuu woman with sad face in the market buying.jpg|alt=Older woman with a disappointed look on her face in a busy market place.|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Person expressing disappointment through facial features]] * Example (case study) of disappointment - include statistics on frequency of occurrence (Van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002) * Define [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], what emotions involve. Reference Figure 1 * Overview of what the chapter explores * Note on emotion research (Ramachandran & Jalal, 2017) {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Key questions:''' * What is disappointment? * What causes disappointment? * How can disappointment be managed? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is disappointment?== * Disappointment occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998). * Disappointment involves feeling powerless, a tendency to remove oneself from the situation, and a desire to do nothing (van Dijk et al., 1999) * Disappointment is a complex emotion (Ramachandran & Jalal, 2017) * Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related; where outcome-related disappointment (ORD) occurs when the expected pleasurable outcome has not occurred, and person-related disappointment (PRD) occurs when you attribute the undesirable outcome to a\ person (you blame them for the 'bad' outcome) (Van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002). {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Emotions similar to disappointment}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> '''Regret''' : Regret is a negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998). "Regret stems from bad decisions" (Zeelenberg et al., 1998). '''Anger''' : Anger is a simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al., 1999). '''Disillusionment''' : Disillusionment is a complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment. </div> {{Robelbox/close}} Test yourself:<quiz display="simple"> {Mary's boss received a complaint from a customer about Mary. Mary was made aware of the complaint and then fired. Mary is likely to experience: |type="()"} + Person-related disappointment - Outcome-related disappointment {Alex is trying to get a snack from a vending machine. Alex put their money into the vending machine and typed in the code for lemonade. The vending machine did not give Alex lemonade, and took their money. Alex is likely to experience: |type="()"} - Person-related disappointment + Outcome-related disappointment </quiz> == What causes disappointment? == * Key content: why people experience disappointment (reference) * Key content: what causes disappointment - go into physiology/chemistry/etc. (reference) * key content: contexts? eg. disappointment in self vs in external thing??? (reference) * amygdala!! - research * can have more content Insert Quiz on why John could be disappointed ==How can disappointment be managed?== * Disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003) * key content: mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza & Dawson, 2021) ... ^ therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing * key content: how to mitigate/reduce disappointment (reference) * key content: something else (reference) * can have more content === The benefits of disappointment === * Key content: negotiation * Expressing disappointment encourages higher levels of cooperation in others (Olekalns & Druckman, 2014). - * Expressing disappointment can lead to helping behaviour in others(Johnson & Connelly, 2014). === The downsides to disappointment === * Disappointment can taint relationships, leading to blaming or [[wikipedia:Scapegoating|scapegoating]] (Clancy et al., 2012). * Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza & Dawson, 2021) ==Learning features== ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Restate what disappointment is, the types of disappointment, and emotions similar to disappointment. * Restate the causes of disappointment * Restate how disappointment can be managed * Take home message: everybody experiences disappointment, but there are things you can do to minimise experiencing it and you can even take advantage of it. The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: Clancy, A., Vince, R., & Gabriel, Y. (2012). That Unwanted Feeling: A Psychodynamic Study of Disappointment in Organizations. ''British Journal of Management, 23''(4), 518–531. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2011.00780.x de Meza, D., & Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an Optimist Nor a Pessimist Be: Mistaken Expectations Lower Well-Being. ''Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577 Izard, C. E. (2010). The Many Meanings/Aspects of Emotion: Definitions, Functions, Activation, and Regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661 Johnson, G., & Connelly, S. (2014). Negative emotions in informal feedback: The benefits of disappointment and drawbacks of anger. ''Human Relations (New York), 67''(10), 1265–1290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726714532856 Lelieveld, GJ., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., Steinel, W., & Van Kleef, G. A. (2011). Disappointed in you, angry about your offer: Distinct negative emotions induce concessions via different mechanisms. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47''(3), 635–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.015 Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., & van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: a prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764 Olekalns, M., & Druckman, D. (2014). With Feeling: How Emotions Shape Negotiation. ''Negotiation Journal, 30''(4), 455–478. https://doi.org/10.1111/nejo.12071 Ramachandran, V.S., & Jalal, B. (2017). The Evolutionary Psychology of Envy and Jealousy. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 8'', 1619–1619. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01619 Reeve, J. (2018). ''Understanding motivation and emotion'' (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley van Dijk, W. W., & Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563 van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., & van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8 van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., & van der Pligt, J. (1999). Not Having What You Want versus Having What You Do Not Want: The Impact of Type of Negative Outcome on the Experience of Disappointment and Related Emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion, 13''(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379302 Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., & der Pligt, J. (1998). The Experience of Regret and Disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC) p7of45y9h1pmj4tt4v70yf0ndcm1h1b 2415657 2415656 2022-08-17T00:19:49Z U3216256 2942574 /* Overview */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Disappointment<br>What is disappointment, what causes disappointment, and how can disappointment be managed?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:Wayuu woman with sad face in the market buying.jpg|alt=Older woman with a disappointed look on her face in a busy market place.|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Person expressing disappointment through facial features]] * Example (case study) of disappointment - include statistics on frequency of occurrence (Van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002) * Define [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], what emotions involve. (Reeve, 2018; Izard, 2010) Reference Figure 1 * Overview of what the chapter explores * Note on emotion research (Ramachandran & Jalal, 2017) {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Key questions:''' * What is disappointment? * What causes disappointment? * How can disappointment be managed? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is disappointment?== * Disappointment occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998). * Disappointment involves feeling powerless, a tendency to remove oneself from the situation, and a desire to do nothing (van Dijk et al., 1999) * Disappointment is a complex emotion (Ramachandran & Jalal, 2017) * Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related; where outcome-related disappointment (ORD) occurs when the expected pleasurable outcome has not occurred, and person-related disappointment (PRD) occurs when you attribute the undesirable outcome to a\ person (you blame them for the 'bad' outcome) (Van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002). {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Emotions similar to disappointment}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> '''Regret''' : Regret is a negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998). "Regret stems from bad decisions" (Zeelenberg et al., 1998). '''Anger''' : Anger is a simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al., 1999). '''Disillusionment''' : Disillusionment is a complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment. </div> {{Robelbox/close}} Test yourself:<quiz display="simple"> {Mary's boss received a complaint from a customer about Mary. Mary was made aware of the complaint and then fired. Mary is likely to experience: |type="()"} + Person-related disappointment - Outcome-related disappointment {Alex is trying to get a snack from a vending machine. Alex put their money into the vending machine and typed in the code for lemonade. The vending machine did not give Alex lemonade, and took their money. Alex is likely to experience: |type="()"} - Person-related disappointment + Outcome-related disappointment </quiz> == What causes disappointment? == * Key content: why people experience disappointment (reference) * Key content: what causes disappointment - go into physiology/chemistry/etc. (reference) * key content: contexts? eg. disappointment in self vs in external thing??? (reference) * amygdala!! - research * can have more content Insert Quiz on why John could be disappointed ==How can disappointment be managed?== * Disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003) * key content: mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza & Dawson, 2021) ... ^ therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing * key content: how to mitigate/reduce disappointment (reference) * key content: something else (reference) * can have more content === The benefits of disappointment === * Key content: negotiation * Expressing disappointment encourages higher levels of cooperation in others (Olekalns & Druckman, 2014). - * Expressing disappointment can lead to helping behaviour in others(Johnson & Connelly, 2014). === The downsides to disappointment === * Disappointment can taint relationships, leading to blaming or [[wikipedia:Scapegoating|scapegoating]] (Clancy et al., 2012). * Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza & Dawson, 2021) ==Learning features== ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Restate what disappointment is, the types of disappointment, and emotions similar to disappointment. * Restate the causes of disappointment * Restate how disappointment can be managed * Take home message: everybody experiences disappointment, but there are things you can do to minimise experiencing it and you can even take advantage of it. The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: Clancy, A., Vince, R., & Gabriel, Y. (2012). That Unwanted Feeling: A Psychodynamic Study of Disappointment in Organizations. ''British Journal of Management, 23''(4), 518–531. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2011.00780.x de Meza, D., & Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an Optimist Nor a Pessimist Be: Mistaken Expectations Lower Well-Being. ''Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577 Izard, C. E. (2010). The Many Meanings/Aspects of Emotion: Definitions, Functions, Activation, and Regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661 Johnson, G., & Connelly, S. (2014). Negative emotions in informal feedback: The benefits of disappointment and drawbacks of anger. ''Human Relations (New York), 67''(10), 1265–1290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726714532856 Lelieveld, GJ., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., Steinel, W., & Van Kleef, G. A. (2011). Disappointed in you, angry about your offer: Distinct negative emotions induce concessions via different mechanisms. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47''(3), 635–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.015 Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., & van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: a prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764 Olekalns, M., & Druckman, D. (2014). With Feeling: How Emotions Shape Negotiation. ''Negotiation Journal, 30''(4), 455–478. https://doi.org/10.1111/nejo.12071 Ramachandran, V.S., & Jalal, B. (2017). The Evolutionary Psychology of Envy and Jealousy. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 8'', 1619–1619. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01619 Reeve, J. (2018). ''Understanding motivation and emotion'' (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley van Dijk, W. W., & Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563 van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., & van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8 van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., & van der Pligt, J. (1999). Not Having What You Want versus Having What You Do Not Want: The Impact of Type of Negative Outcome on the Experience of Disappointment and Related Emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion, 13''(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379302 Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., & der Pligt, J. (1998). The Experience of Regret and Disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC) 75to4i8b1cmefh7n8u2evcxmp8xxu6u 2415660 2415657 2022-08-17T00:22:13Z U3216256 2942574 /* References */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Disappointment<br>What is disappointment, what causes disappointment, and how can disappointment be managed?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:Wayuu woman with sad face in the market buying.jpg|alt=Older woman with a disappointed look on her face in a busy market place.|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Person expressing disappointment through facial features]] * Example (case study) of disappointment - include statistics on frequency of occurrence (Van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002) * Define [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], what emotions involve. (Reeve, 2018; Izard, 2010) Reference Figure 1 * Overview of what the chapter explores * Note on emotion research (Ramachandran & Jalal, 2017) {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Key questions:''' * What is disappointment? * What causes disappointment? * How can disappointment be managed? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is disappointment?== * Disappointment occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998). * Disappointment involves feeling powerless, a tendency to remove oneself from the situation, and a desire to do nothing (van Dijk et al., 1999) * Disappointment is a complex emotion (Ramachandran & Jalal, 2017) * Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related; where outcome-related disappointment (ORD) occurs when the expected pleasurable outcome has not occurred, and person-related disappointment (PRD) occurs when you attribute the undesirable outcome to a\ person (you blame them for the 'bad' outcome) (Van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002). {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Emotions similar to disappointment}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> '''Regret''' : Regret is a negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998). "Regret stems from bad decisions" (Zeelenberg et al., 1998). '''Anger''' : Anger is a simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al., 1999). '''Disillusionment''' : Disillusionment is a complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment. </div> {{Robelbox/close}} Test yourself:<quiz display="simple"> {Mary's boss received a complaint from a customer about Mary. Mary was made aware of the complaint and then fired. Mary is likely to experience: |type="()"} + Person-related disappointment - Outcome-related disappointment {Alex is trying to get a snack from a vending machine. Alex put their money into the vending machine and typed in the code for lemonade. The vending machine did not give Alex lemonade, and took their money. Alex is likely to experience: |type="()"} - Person-related disappointment + Outcome-related disappointment </quiz> == What causes disappointment? == * Key content: why people experience disappointment (reference) * Key content: what causes disappointment - go into physiology/chemistry/etc. (reference) * key content: contexts? eg. disappointment in self vs in external thing??? (reference) * amygdala!! - research * can have more content Insert Quiz on why John could be disappointed ==How can disappointment be managed?== * Disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003) * Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza & Dawson, 2021) ... ^ therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing * key content: how to mitigate/reduce disappointment (reference) * key content: something else (reference) === The benefits of disappointment === * Expressing disappointment encourages higher levels of cooperation in others (Olekalns & Druckman, 2014). * Expressing disappointment can lead to helping behaviour in others (Johnson & Connelly, 2014). === The downsides to disappointment === * Disappointment can taint relationships, leading to blaming or [[wikipedia:Scapegoating|scapegoating]] (Clancy et al., 2012). * Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza & Dawson, 2021) ==Learning features== ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Restate what disappointment is, the types of disappointment, and emotions similar to disappointment. * Restate the causes of disappointment * Restate how disappointment can be managed * Take home message: everybody experiences disappointment, but there are things you can do to minimise experiencing it and you can even take advantage of it. The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Clancy, A., Vince, R., & Gabriel, Y. (2012). That Unwanted Feeling: A Psychodynamic Study of Disappointment in Organizations. ''British Journal of Management, 23''(4), 518–531. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2011.00780.x de Meza, D., & Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an Optimist Nor a Pessimist Be: Mistaken Expectations Lower Well-Being. ''Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577 Izard, C. E. (2010). The Many Meanings/Aspects of Emotion: Definitions, Functions, Activation, and Regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661 Johnson, G., & Connelly, S. (2014). Negative emotions in informal feedback: The benefits of disappointment and drawbacks of anger. ''Human Relations (New York), 67''(10), 1265–1290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726714532856 Lelieveld, GJ., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., Steinel, W., & Van Kleef, G. A. (2011). Disappointed in you, angry about your offer: Distinct negative emotions induce concessions via different mechanisms. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47''(3), 635–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.015 Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., & van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: a prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764 Olekalns, M., & Druckman, D. (2014). With Feeling: How Emotions Shape Negotiation. ''Negotiation Journal, 30''(4), 455–478. https://doi.org/10.1111/nejo.12071 Ramachandran, V.S., & Jalal, B. (2017). The Evolutionary Psychology of Envy and Jealousy. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 8'', 1619–1619. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01619 Reeve, J. (2018). ''Understanding motivation and emotion'' (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley van Dijk, W. W., & Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563 van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., & van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8 van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., & van der Pligt, J. (1999). Not Having What You Want versus Having What You Do Not Want: The Impact of Type of Negative Outcome on the Experience of Disappointment and Related Emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion, 13''(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379302 Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., & der Pligt, J. (1998). The Experience of Regret and Disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC) 4z3od0v37ae9mho80obsxttg9r73g64 2415682 2415660 2022-08-17T03:07:40Z U3216256 2942574 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Disappointment<br>What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:Wayuu woman with sad face in the market buying.jpg|alt=Older woman with a disappointed look on her face in a busy market place.|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Person expressing disappointment through facial features]] * Example (case study) of disappointment - include statistics on frequency of occurrence (Van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002) * Define [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], what emotions involve. (Reeve, 2018; Izard, 2010) Reference Figure 1 * Overview of what the chapter explores * Note on emotion research (Ramachandran & Jalal, 2017) {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Key questions:''' * What is disappointment? * What causes disappointment? * How can disappointment be managed? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is disappointment?== * Disappointment occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998). * Disappointment involves feeling powerless, a tendency to remove oneself from the situation, and a desire to do nothing (van Dijk et al., 1999) * Disappointment is a complex emotion (Ramachandran & Jalal, 2017) * Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related; where outcome-related disappointment (ORD) occurs when the expected pleasurable outcome has not occurred, and person-related disappointment (PRD) occurs when you attribute the undesirable outcome to a\ person (you blame them for the 'bad' outcome) (Van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002). {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Emotions similar to disappointment}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> '''Regret''' : Regret is a negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998). "Regret stems from bad decisions" (Zeelenberg et al., 1998). '''Anger''' : Anger is a simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al., 1999). '''Disillusionment''' : Disillusionment is a complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment. </div> {{Robelbox/close}} Test yourself:<quiz display="simple"> {Mary's boss received a complaint from a customer about Mary. Mary was made aware of the complaint and then fired. Mary is likely to experience: |type="()"} + Person-related disappointment - Outcome-related disappointment {Alex is trying to get a snack from a vending machine. Alex put their money into the vending machine and typed in the code for lemonade. The vending machine did not give Alex lemonade, and took their money. Alex is likely to experience: |type="()"} - Person-related disappointment + Outcome-related disappointment </quiz> == What causes disappointment? == * Key content: why people experience disappointment (reference) * Key content: what causes disappointment - go into physiology/chemistry/etc. (reference) * key content: contexts? eg. disappointment in self vs in external thing??? (reference) * amygdala!! - research * can have more content Insert Quiz on why John could be disappointed ==How can disappointment be managed?== * Disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003) * Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza & Dawson, 2021) ... ^ therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing * key content: how to mitigate/reduce disappointment (reference) * key content: something else (reference) === The benefits of disappointment === * Expressing disappointment encourages higher levels of cooperation in others (Olekalns & Druckman, 2014). * Expressing disappointment can lead to helping behaviour in others (Johnson & Connelly, 2014). === The downsides to disappointment === * Disappointment can taint relationships, leading to blaming or [[wikipedia:Scapegoating|scapegoating]] (Clancy et al., 2012). * Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza & Dawson, 2021) ==Learning features== ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Restate what disappointment is, the types of disappointment, and emotions similar to disappointment. * Restate the causes of disappointment * Restate how disappointment can be managed * Take home message: everybody experiences disappointment, but there are things you can do to minimise experiencing it and you can even take advantage of it. The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Clancy, A., Vince, R., & Gabriel, Y. (2012). That Unwanted Feeling: A Psychodynamic Study of Disappointment in Organizations. ''British Journal of Management, 23''(4), 518–531. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2011.00780.x de Meza, D., & Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an Optimist Nor a Pessimist Be: Mistaken Expectations Lower Well-Being. ''Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577 Izard, C. E. (2010). The Many Meanings/Aspects of Emotion: Definitions, Functions, Activation, and Regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661 Johnson, G., & Connelly, S. (2014). Negative emotions in informal feedback: The benefits of disappointment and drawbacks of anger. ''Human Relations (New York), 67''(10), 1265–1290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726714532856 Lelieveld, GJ., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., Steinel, W., & Van Kleef, G. A. (2011). Disappointed in you, angry about your offer: Distinct negative emotions induce concessions via different mechanisms. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47''(3), 635–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.015 Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., & van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: a prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764 Olekalns, M., & Druckman, D. (2014). With Feeling: How Emotions Shape Negotiation. ''Negotiation Journal, 30''(4), 455–478. https://doi.org/10.1111/nejo.12071 Ramachandran, V.S., & Jalal, B. (2017). The Evolutionary Psychology of Envy and Jealousy. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 8'', 1619–1619. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01619 Reeve, J. (2018). ''Understanding motivation and emotion'' (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley van Dijk, W. W., & Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563 van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., & van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8 van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., & van der Pligt, J. (1999). Not Having What You Want versus Having What You Do Not Want: The Impact of Type of Negative Outcome on the Experience of Disappointment and Related Emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion, 13''(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379302 Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., & der Pligt, J. (1998). The Experience of Regret and Disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC) fmep6z1g8wyy60npow00r7qdhy2digy 2415747 2415682 2022-08-17T06:29:46Z U3216256 2942574 /* References */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Disappointment<br>What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:Wayuu woman with sad face in the market buying.jpg|alt=Older woman with a disappointed look on her face in a busy market place.|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Person expressing disappointment through facial features]] * Example (case study) of disappointment - include statistics on frequency of occurrence (Van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002) * Define [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], what emotions involve. (Reeve, 2018; Izard, 2010) Reference Figure 1 * Overview of what the chapter explores * Note on emotion research (Ramachandran & Jalal, 2017) {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Key questions:''' * What is disappointment? * What causes disappointment? * How can disappointment be managed? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is disappointment?== * Disappointment occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998). * Disappointment involves feeling powerless, a tendency to remove oneself from the situation, and a desire to do nothing (van Dijk et al., 1999) * Disappointment is a complex emotion (Ramachandran & Jalal, 2017) * Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related; where outcome-related disappointment (ORD) occurs when the expected pleasurable outcome has not occurred, and person-related disappointment (PRD) occurs when you attribute the undesirable outcome to a\ person (you blame them for the 'bad' outcome) (Van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002). {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Emotions similar to disappointment}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> '''Regret''' : Regret is a negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998). "Regret stems from bad decisions" (Zeelenberg et al., 1998). '''Anger''' : Anger is a simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al., 1999). '''Disillusionment''' : Disillusionment is a complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment. </div> {{Robelbox/close}} Test yourself:<quiz display="simple"> {Mary's boss received a complaint from a customer about Mary. Mary was made aware of the complaint and then fired. Mary is likely to experience: |type="()"} + Person-related disappointment - Outcome-related disappointment {Alex is trying to get a snack from a vending machine. Alex put their money into the vending machine and typed in the code for lemonade. The vending machine did not give Alex lemonade, and took their money. Alex is likely to experience: |type="()"} - Person-related disappointment + Outcome-related disappointment </quiz> == What causes disappointment? == * Key content: why people experience disappointment (reference) * Key content: what causes disappointment - go into physiology/chemistry/etc. (reference) * key content: contexts? eg. disappointment in self vs in external thing??? (reference) * amygdala!! - research * can have more content Insert Quiz on why John could be disappointed ==How can disappointment be managed?== * Disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003) * Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza & Dawson, 2021) ... ^ therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing * key content: how to mitigate/reduce disappointment (reference) * key content: something else (reference) === The benefits of disappointment === * Expressing disappointment encourages higher levels of cooperation in others (Olekalns & Druckman, 2014). * Expressing disappointment can lead to helping behaviour in others (Johnson & Connelly, 2014). === The downsides to disappointment === * Disappointment can taint relationships, leading to blaming or [[wikipedia:Scapegoating|scapegoating]] (Clancy et al., 2012). * Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza & Dawson, 2021) ==Learning features== ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Restate what disappointment is, the types of disappointment, and emotions similar to disappointment. * Restate the causes of disappointment * Restate how disappointment can be managed * Take home message: everybody experiences disappointment, but there are things you can do to minimise experiencing it and you can even take advantage of it. The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Clancy, A., Vince, R., & Gabriel, Y. (2012). That Unwanted Feeling: A Psychodynamic Study of Disappointment in Organizations. ''British Journal of Management, 23''(4), 518–531. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2011.00780.x de Meza, D., & Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an Optimist Nor a Pessimist Be: Mistaken Expectations Lower Well-Being. ''Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577 Izard, C. E. (2010). The Many Meanings/Aspects of Emotion: Definitions, Functions, Activation, and Regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661 Johnson, G., & Connelly, S. (2014). Negative emotions in informal feedback: The benefits of disappointment and drawbacks of anger. ''Human Relations (New York), 67''(10), 1265–1290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726714532856 Lelieveld, GJ., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., Steinel, W., & Van Kleef, G. A. (2011). Disappointed in you, angry about your offer: Distinct negative emotions induce concessions via different mechanisms. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47''(3), 635–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.015 Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., & van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: a prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764 Olekalns, M., & Druckman, D. (2014). With Feeling: How Emotions Shape Negotiation. ''Negotiation Journal, 30''(4), 455–478. https://doi.org/10.1111/nejo.12071 Ramachandran, V.S., & Jalal, B. (2017). The Evolutionary Psychology of Envy and Jealousy. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 8'', 1619–1619. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01619 Reeve, J. (2018). ''Understanding motivation and emotion'' (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley van Dijk, W. W., & Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563 van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., & van der Pligt, J. (1999). Not Having What You Want versus Having What You Do Not Want: The Impact of Type of Negative Outcome on the Experience of Disappointment and Related Emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion, 13''(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379302 van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., & van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8 Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., & der Pligt, J. (1998). The Experience of Regret and Disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC) r0kzkjca0w4b1sa9g0cda1nq0jt2iay 2415771 2415747 2022-08-17T07:22:17Z U3216256 2942574 /* What causes disappointment? */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Disappointment<br>What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== [[File:Wayuu woman with sad face in the market buying.jpg|alt=Older woman with a disappointed look on her face in a busy market place.|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Person expressing disappointment through facial features]] * Example (case study) of disappointment - include statistics on frequency of occurrence (Van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002) * Define [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], what emotions involve. (Reeve, 2018; Izard, 2010) Reference Figure 1 * Overview of what the chapter explores * Note on emotion research (Ramachandran & Jalal, 2017) {{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}} '''Key questions:''' * What is disappointment? * What causes disappointment? * How can disappointment be managed? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is disappointment?== * Disappointment occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998). * Disappointment involves feeling powerless, a tendency to remove oneself from the situation, and a desire to do nothing (van Dijk et al., 1999) * Disappointment is a complex emotion (Ramachandran & Jalal, 2017) * Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related; where outcome-related disappointment (ORD) occurs when the expected pleasurable outcome has not occurred, and person-related disappointment (PRD) occurs when you attribute the undesirable outcome to a\ person (you blame them for the 'bad' outcome) (Van Dijk & Zeelenberg, 2002). {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Emotions similar to disappointment}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> '''Regret''' : Regret is a negative emotion that occurs when you know that the outcome that occurred could have been better if you made a different choice (Zeelenberg et al., 1998). "Regret stems from bad decisions" (Zeelenberg et al., 1998). '''Anger''' : Anger is a simple negative emotion that occurs when you cannot achieve your goals and you blame someone or something else for it (Lelieveld et al., 2011). Anger can be the result of disappointment (van Dijk et al., 1999). '''Disillusionment''' : Disillusionment is a complex negative emotion that occurs when you realise that what you believe or know is false (Maher et al., 2020). Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment. </div> {{Robelbox/close}} Test yourself:<quiz display="simple"> {Mary's boss received a complaint from a customer about Mary. Mary was made aware of the complaint and then fired. Mary is likely to experience: |type="()"} + Person-related disappointment - Outcome-related disappointment {Alex is trying to get a snack from a vending machine. Alex put their money into the vending machine and typed in the code for lemonade. The vending machine did not give Alex lemonade, and took their money. Alex is likely to experience: |type="()"} - Person-related disappointment + Outcome-related disappointment </quiz> == What causes disappointment? == * Key content: why people experience disappointment (reference) * Disappointment occurs when expectations are not met (Chua et al., 2009). * When individuals experience disappointment, their anterior insula and dorsomedial prefrontal cortex are activated (Chua et al., 2009) * * Key content: what causes disappointment - go into physiology/chemistry/etc. (reference) * key content: contexts? eg. disappointment in self vs in external thing??? (reference) * amygdala!! - research * can have more content Insert Quiz on why John could be disappointed ==How can disappointment be managed?== * Disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003) * Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza & Dawson, 2021) ... ^ therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing * key content: how to mitigate/reduce disappointment (reference) * key content: something else (reference) === The benefits of disappointment === * Expressing disappointment encourages higher levels of cooperation in others (Olekalns & Druckman, 2014). * Expressing disappointment can lead to helping behaviour in others (Johnson & Connelly, 2014). === The downsides to disappointment === * Disappointment can taint relationships, leading to blaming or [[wikipedia:Scapegoating|scapegoating]] (Clancy et al., 2012). * Mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza & Dawson, 2021) ==Learning features== ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== * Restate what disappointment is, the types of disappointment, and emotions similar to disappointment. * Restate the causes of disappointment * Restate how disappointment can be managed * Take home message: everybody experiences disappointment, but there are things you can do to minimise experiencing it and you can even take advantage of it. The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Anger|Anger]] (Book chapter, 2011) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Chua, Gonzalez, R., Taylor, S. F., Welsh, R. C., & Liberzon, I. (2009). Decision-related loss: Regret and disappointment. ''NeuroImage, 47''(4), 2031–2040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.06.006 Clancy, A., Vince, R., & Gabriel, Y. (2012). That Unwanted Feeling: A Psychodynamic Study of Disappointment in Organizations. ''British Journal of Management, 23''(4), 518–531. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2011.00780.x de Meza, D., & Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an Optimist Nor a Pessimist Be: Mistaken Expectations Lower Well-Being. ''Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577 Izard, C. E. (2010). The Many Meanings/Aspects of Emotion: Definitions, Functions, Activation, and Regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661 Johnson, G., & Connelly, S. (2014). Negative emotions in informal feedback: The benefits of disappointment and drawbacks of anger. ''Human Relations (New York), 67''(10), 1265–1290. https://doi.org/10.1177/0018726714532856 Lelieveld, GJ., Van Dijk, E., Van Beest, I., Steinel, W., & Van Kleef, G. A. (2011). Disappointed in you, angry about your offer: Distinct negative emotions induce concessions via different mechanisms. ''Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 47''(3), 635–641. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.12.015 Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., & van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: a prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764 Olekalns, M., & Druckman, D. (2014). With Feeling: How Emotions Shape Negotiation. ''Negotiation Journal, 30''(4), 455–478. https://doi.org/10.1111/nejo.12071 Ramachandran, V.S., & Jalal, B. (2017). The Evolutionary Psychology of Envy and Jealousy. ''Frontiers in Psychology, 8'', 1619–1619. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01619 Reeve, J. (2018). ''Understanding motivation and emotion'' (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley van Dijk, W. W., & Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563 van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., & van der Pligt, J. (1999). Not Having What You Want versus Having What You Do Not Want: The Impact of Type of Negative Outcome on the Experience of Disappointment and Related Emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion, 13''(2), 129–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379302 van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., & van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8 Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., Manstead, A. S. R., & der Pligt, J. (1998). The Experience of Regret and Disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC) dxxswznkj8dd2slntxdk29uqs1hqec7 0 285927 2415677 2415528 2022-08-17T02:32:21Z Icantchooseone 2947542 /* Evolutionary perspective */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Fear<br>What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * [[File:Fear has big eyes.jpg|thumb|640x640px|Figure 2. Fear has big eyes.]]definition of fear (fundamental life task: threat or danger present) ** expression of fear (facial expression, heart rate, sweat level) ** types of fear ** coping function (protect, avoid) * outline the similarities and differences between fear and anxiety * outline the cause of fear (psychologically, biologically and socially) * overview of fear and phobia * strategies to manage fear (in and out of clinical setting) Fear can offer both advantage and disadvantage in everyday life. Understand the meaning and causation of fear can lead to course of action that helps to manage fear. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is fear? * What is the difference between fear and anxiety? * What causes fear? * When does fear lead to phobia? * How can fear be managed? {{RoundBoxBottom}} == What is fear? == * what is the definition of fear? ** fear is one of the human basic emotions (Gu et al., 2019) ** fear defined by ethologist (Steimer, 2002) ** fear as a motivator (Bates, 2014) == The difference between fear and anxiety == * Are fear and anxiety truly distinct? (Daniel-Watanabe & Fletcher, 2021) * Neurobehavioral perspectives on the distinction between fear and anxiety (Perusini & Fanselow, 2015) * Fear and anxiety as separable emotions (Perkins et al., 2007) * Interaction between fear and anxiety (Meulders et al., 2012) == What causes fear? == * genetic and environmental cause of fear (Sundet et al., 2003) * the hierarchic structure of fears (Taylor, 1998) === Physiological perspective === * fear response starts in the amygdala - fight or flight (Ressler, 2010) * explicit fear processing activate the pulvinar and parahippocampal gyrus (Tao et al., 2021) * release stress hormones and sympathetic nervous system (Steimer, 2002) * James-Lange theory () * fear serve an adaptive role for survival - Darwin's theory (Mobbs, 2015) - from evolutionary (preprogrammed fear) === Social perspective === * are we born with fear of learn it overtime? (Debiec & Olsson, 2017) * Bandura's social learning theory (Olsson & Phelps, 2007) * cultural evolution of fear (Tudor, 2003) changing due to social experience, circumstances. ** example: the fear of air siren back then (during war time) compare to modern days. === Psychological perspective === * Pavlovian fear conditioning (Hadley et al., 2011) * fear is caused by particular perceived threat related stimuli - physically and psychologically (Rapee, 1997) * cognitive appraisal theory () == When does fear become a phobia? == * what is phobia? (Eaton, 2018) * fear becomes excessive beyond that which is justified by external threat (Du et al., 2008) * phobia as the psychology of irrational fear (Milosevic & McCabe, 2015) * neurobiology of fear and specific phobias (Garcia, 2017) == How can fear be managed? == === Within everyday life === ==== Mindfulness ==== * mindfulness exercise and fear extinction (Kummar, 2017) * the effects of mindfulness and fear inducing stimuli on avoidance behaviour (Carlin & Ahrens, 2014) ==== Self-control instruction ==== * fear reduction using self-control instruction with home-based practice (Graziano et al., 1979) * systematic desensitisation (Goldfield, 1971) * will power is more than a metaphor (Galliot et al., 2007) === Within clinical settings === ==== Cognitive behavioural therapy ==== * case study report of cancer survivor on fear of recurrence (Montel, 2010) * treating fear in anxiety disorders (Kaczkurkin, 2015) * NMDA receptor and fear extinction (Davis, 2022) * reducing fear-avoidance-beliefs among individuals with chronic pain (Lohnberg, 2007) ==== Exposure therapy ==== * face your fear (Frankland & Josselyn, 2018) * an inhibitory approach (Craske et al., 2014) ==Conclusion== == Recap quizzes == <quiz display="simple"> {Fear induce risk taking behaviour |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz>The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Fear]] j5vd5ll53b1y39bam2u2an2bc6fpzik 2 285931 2415641 2411347 2022-08-16T23:57:16Z U3213441 2947534 wikitext text/x-wiki Hi, I am a University of Canberra student taking the class Motivation and Emotion. enq7vez8isrpnuqs1x0rconvsmj5syg 2415643 2415641 2022-08-17T00:05:14Z U3213441 2947534 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi, I am a University of Canberra student taking the class Motivation and Emotion. === Hobbies === # Reading # Pilates # Weekend trips == Book chapter I am working on == Work and Flow scobq3xfth4efsnp3jaojv9g8ei77ol 2415644 2415643 2022-08-17T00:05:57Z U3213441 2947534 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi, I am a University of Canberra student and I am taking the class Motivation and Emotion. === Hobbies === # Reading # Pilates # Weekend trips == Book chapter I am working on == Work and Flow b9ui4b82ulr60gsohbjdp61u6c22m4u 2415646 2415644 2022-08-17T00:06:30Z U3213441 2947534 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi, I am a University of Canberra student and I am taking the class Motivation and Emotion. === Hobbies === # Reading # Pilates # Weekend trips == Book chapter I am working on == Work and Flow == Social contributions == ... dz3bgui883fskffquvj6stxgiadydvv 2415648 2415646 2022-08-17T00:08:51Z U3213441 2947534 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi, I am a University of Canberra student and I am taking the class Motivation and Emotion. === Hobbies === * Reading * Pilates * Weekend trips == Book chapter I am working on == Work and Flow == Social contributions == ... ie3f2b2lu7jtlhbvh7dx8czsrb8hvbp 2415659 2415648 2022-08-17T00:20:26Z U3213441 2947534 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi, I am a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] student and I am in my third year of studying [[wikipedia:Psychology|psychology]]. I am currently taking the class Motivation and Emotion. === Hobbies === * Reading * Pilates * Weekend trips == Book chapter I am working on == Work and Flow == Social contributions == ... naook6mufldjtolapll5othfbdou0pq 2415661 2415659 2022-08-17T00:25:03Z U3213441 2947534 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi, I am a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] student and I am in my third year of studying [[wikipedia:Psychology|psychology]]. I am currently taking the class [[motivation and emotion]]. === Hobbies === * Reading * Pilates * Weekend trips == Book chapter I am working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Work and flow|Work and Flow]] == Social contributions == ... oi3x7omr4djw2nezttiobqt7ncyhn7n 2415663 2415661 2022-08-17T00:38:10Z U3213441 2947534 wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == [[File:Psychology.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Psychology word map ]] Hi, I am a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] student and I am in my third year of studying [[wikipedia:Psychology|psychology]]. I am currently taking the class [[motivation and emotion]]. === Hobbies === * Reading * Pilates * Weekend trips == Book chapter I am working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Work and flow|Work and Flow]] == Social contributions == ... s09y1y4b4p7l4tz7vw38wu2k8dvdd20 2 285932 2415701 2413251 2022-08-17T04:27:37Z U3216563 2947577 edited user page wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == Hello, My name is Kristina and i am in my third year Undergrade Degree in Bachelor of Science in Pscyhology paired with a Major in Counselling studies at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. My goal at the end of my studying journey is to become a Clinical Psychologist, where i will be trained in the assessment and diagnosis of mental health illnesses and pshycological problems that individuals may face. This will enable me to provide advice in clinical and compensational areas in which will guid individuals to better themselves in all aspects of life. == Hobbies == * Sports (Rugby League) * Playing instruments * Baking * Gyming == Book Chapter == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Academic self-regulation|Academic self-regulation]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? == Social Contribution == # Created user page and added in book chapter: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Conspiracy theory motivation|Conspiracy theory motivation]] - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]] # Edited user page by creating consistency between headings and grammar: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Survival needs and motivation|Survival needs and motivation]] - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]]__TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 93rbawmuzg5jlnov56qry64gx6is0ul 2415702 2415701 2022-08-17T04:28:58Z U3216563 2947577 /* About Me */ wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == Hello, My name is Kristina and I am in my third year Undergrade Degree in Bachelor of Science in Pscyhology paired with a Major in Counselling studies at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. My goal at the end of my studying journey is to become a Clinical Psychologist, where I will be trained in the assessment and diagnosis of mental health illnesses and pshycological problems that individuals may face. This will enable me to provide advice in clinical and compensational areas in which will guid individuals to better themselves in all aspects of life. == Hobbies == * Sports (Rugby League) * Playing instruments * Baking * Gyming == Book Chapter == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Academic self-regulation|Academic self-regulation]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? == Social Contribution == # Created user page and added in book chapter: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Conspiracy theory motivation|Conspiracy theory motivation]] - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]] # Edited user page by creating consistency between headings and grammar: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Survival needs and motivation|Survival needs and motivation]] - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]]__TOC__ [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ibf7mq4cc6wf980bz0ubjwaap8f8wy8 2415704 2415702 2022-08-17T04:31:26Z U3216563 2947577 wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == Hello, My name is Kristina and I am in my third year Undergrade Degree in Bachelor of Science in Pscyhology paired with a Major in Counselling studies at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. My goal at the end of my studying journey is to become a Clinical Psychologist, where I will be trained in the assessment and diagnosis of mental health illnesses and pshycological problems that individuals may face. This will enable me to provide advice in clinical and compensational areas in which will guid individuals to better themselves in all aspects of life. == Hobbies == * Sports (Rugby League) * Playing instruments * Baking * Gyming == Book Chapter == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Academic self-regulation|Academic self-regulation]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? == Social Contribution == # Created user page and added in book chapter: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Conspiracy theory motivation|Conspiracy theory motivation]] - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]] # Edited user page by creating consistency between headings and grammar: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Survival needs and motivation|Survival needs and motivation]] - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]]__TOC__ # # # [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] d7g5bypo207tdbyxkynuzdwbag41tn8 0 286007 2415795 2411664 2022-08-17T09:25:22Z CNK.20 2947582 Overview wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Time Management<br>How can one's time be managed effectively?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== Have you ever been so engrossed in something that you forgot about the exam revision you needed to revise for your test tomorrow? Or perhaps you had work in the next 30 minutes? Alternatively, you have experienced a lack of time or cannot achieve your days' work due to your limited time. Luckily, this article is here to help you manage your time and inform you about the history and workings of time management. Time management is not new, as it has been discussed since the 1950s-1960s. However, time management is somewhat ambiguous; time cannot be managed, but individuals can manage their time. Therefore time management is the strategy that supports and successfully executes behaviours required to achieve a set goal effectively. These strategies may include planning, prioritising important works, allocating time, goal settings, monitoring and self-organisation. By doing so, time management can positively bring about a good perception of control of time, job satisfaction and better health in contrast to reducing stress. Previous authors propose a method to handle time issues (Drucker,1967., Lakein, 1973). These authors suggest individuals write down on paper the lists of things to do, thus a "To-do" list. However, Drucker (1967) suggests that this method is not always practical as there are failures to complete tasks due to time being precious. In 1959, Mccay and his team developed time-management training programs that are still used today. The program focused on *Gaining insight into the consumption of time and activities *Changing time expenditures *Using daily planning *Learning how to prioritise tasks *Learning how to handle unexpected tasks and events Though there is much research on time management, little research has been conducted on how to use and manage time effectively. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * How is time managed? *Why is time management important? *Why is time management difficult? *How can we improve time management? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Perhaps you are a detailed person with detailed day-to-day to-do lists, or you are flexible and find regimented schedules suffocating. Managing your time right down to the minute with sticky notes and timetables is as valid as diving into big projects and prioritising other things. Perhaps you have a time of day that works best for you. Some people work better during daylight and others at night. As long as both the work is done, there is nothing wrong is either style. It would be best if you worked with what works best for you and allows you to accomplish all your tasks. }} ==How is time managed?== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 03:39, 4 August 2022 (UTC) av4u0gfvitik9b3u23qixsolfd4bd17 2415800 2415795 2022-08-17T10:02:15Z CNK.20 2947582 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Time Management<br>How can one's time be managed effectively?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== Have you ever been so engrossed in something that you forgot about the exam revision you needed to revise for your test tomorrow? Or perhaps you had work in the next 30 minutes? Alternatively, you have experienced a lack of time or cannot achieve your days' work due to your limited time. Luckily, this article is here to help you manage your time and inform you about the history and workings of time management. There has been a growing recognition of the importance of time organisation in literature. Orlikoqsky and Yate (2002), The dimension of work has increasingly become important due to the expanding global need and increases for immediate products and services. Additionally, Garhammer (2002) pointed out that there is an increase in the pace o life. Things were being done faster (accelerating), therefore contracting time expenditure (e.g. sleeping less) and compressing actions (e.g. multi-tasking). Many authors also discuss the need for better incorporation of time in theoretical models and research designs (e.g. Ancona et al, 2001., George and Jones, 200). Other authors have also focused their attention on researching how people in organisations manage their time and ways to make it effective (e.g. Macan, 1994). Time management is not new, as it has been discussed since the 1950s-1960s. However, time management is somewhat ambiguous; time cannot be managed, but individuals can manage their time. Therefore time management is the strategy that supports and successfully executes behaviours required to achieve a set goal effectively. These strategies may include planning, prioritising important works, allocating time, goal settings, monitoring and self-organisation. By doing so, time management can positively bring about a good perception of control of time, job satisfaction and better health in contrast to reducing stress. Previous authors propose a method to handle time issues (Drucker,1967., Lakein, 1973). These authors suggest individuals write down on paper the lists of things to do, thus a "To-do" list. However, Drucker (1967) suggests that this method is not always practical as there are failures to complete tasks due to time being precious. In 1959, Mccay and his team developed time-management training programs that are still used today. The program focused on *Gaining insight into the consumption of time and activities *Changing time expenditures *Using daily planning *Learning how to prioritise tasks *Learning how to handle unexpected tasks and events Though there is much research on time management, little research has been conducted on how to use and manage time effectively. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * How is time managed? *Why is time management important? *Why is time management difficult? *How can we improve time management? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Perhaps you are a detailed person with detailed day-to-day to-do lists, or you are flexible and find regimented schedules suffocating. Managing your time right down to the minute with sticky notes and timetables is as valid as diving into big projects and prioritising other things. Perhaps you have a time of day that works best for you. Some people work better during daylight and others at night. As long as both the work is done, there is nothing wrong is either style. It would be best if you worked with what works best for you and allows you to accomplish all your tasks. }} ==How is time managed?== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 03:39, 4 August 2022 (UTC) se4227bqgjbwwiablkm41pzx5d109cd 0 286009 2415725 2411673 2022-08-17T06:04:47Z Lturner2311 2947525 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Chapter title:<br>Subtitle?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 03:44, 4 August 2022 (UTC) {{title|Chapter title:<br>Subtitle?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] th37zmjs2p8wtj28ju41c0youe024wr 0 286109 2415662 2412345 2022-08-17T00:37:15Z Tiarnawilson01 2947756 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Unemployment and mental health }} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] t6x4vyl1280bxh2wgr0eyq1885nbtk4 2415723 2415662 2022-08-17T06:02:33Z Tiarnawilson01 2947756 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Unemployment and mental health }} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{Robelbox|theme=11|icon=48px|iconwidth=Ambox blue question.svg|title=Focus questions}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> * What are the main causes of unemployment? * What are the main causes of mental health? * The impact of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment </div>{{Roundboxbottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} == What are the main causes of unemployment? == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==What are the main causes of mental health?== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages == The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] svic1er1jn65ppodpyo3higv5k7qiqm 2415744 2415723 2022-08-17T06:28:21Z Tiarnawilson01 2947756 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Unemployment and mental health }} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{Robelbox|theme=11|icon=48px|iconwidth=Ambox blue question.svg|title=Focus questions}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> * What are the main causes of unemployment? * What are the main causes of mental health? * The impact of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment </div>{{Roundboxbottom}} == What are the main causes of unemployment? == How you are going to structure the chapter? {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==What are the main causes of mental health?== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{Robelbox|theme=7|iconwidth=Ambox blue question.svg|title=Quiz|icon=48px|width=100%}} == The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=8}}kjbr;wjebf;jabf{{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] m875x8huq1r0rylth7isz72gj2kebsq 2415758 2415744 2022-08-17T06:36:53Z Tiarnawilson01 2947756 {{subst:ME/BCS}}, wikitext text/x-wiki '''[[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure|<nowiki>{{subst:ME/BCS}}</nowiki>]]''', {{title|Unemployment and mental health }} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{Robelbox|theme=11|icon=48px|iconwidth=Ambox blue question.svg|title=Focus questions}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> * What are the main causes of unemployment? * What are the main causes of mental health? * The impact of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment </div>{{Roundboxbottom}} == What are the main causes of unemployment? == How you are going to structure the chapter? {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==What are the main causes of mental health?== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages == The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] enmxnlmyaqgn94989g6edkp7g9rzv0e 2415760 2415758 2022-08-17T06:41:27Z Tiarnawilson01 2947756 /* The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment */ wikitext text/x-wiki '''[[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure|<nowiki>{{subst:ME/BCS}}</nowiki>]]''', {{title|Unemployment and mental health:<br>}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{Robelbox|theme=11|icon=48px|iconwidth=Ambox blue question.svg|title=Focus questions}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> * What are the main causes of unemployment? * What are the main causes of mental health? * The impact of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment </div>{{Roundboxbottom}} == What are the main causes of unemployment? == How you are going to structure the chapter? {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==What are the main causes of mental health?== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages == The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] n2h2sfw36axn33p9f9zamgbt6uwr73u 2415761 2415760 2022-08-17T06:41:47Z Tiarnawilson01 2947756 /* The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Unemployment and mental health:<br>}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{Robelbox|theme=11|icon=48px|iconwidth=Ambox blue question.svg|title=Focus questions}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> * What are the main causes of unemployment? * What are the main causes of mental health? * The impact of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment </div>{{Roundboxbottom}} == What are the main causes of unemployment? == How you are going to structure the chapter? {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==What are the main causes of mental health?== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages == The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment == {{RoundBoxTop|theme=7}}{{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] bt3uhc7nmtangu3ntn9oerxeslfxnj4 2415764 2415761 2022-08-17T06:52:26Z Tiarnawilson01 2947756 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Unemployment and mental health:<br>What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{Robelbox|theme=11|icon=48px|iconwidth=Ambox blue question.svg|title=Focus questions}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> * What are the main causes of unemployment? * What are the main causes of mental health? * The impact of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment </div>{{Roundboxbottom}} == What are the main causes of unemployment? == How you are going to structure the chapter? {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==What are the main causes of mental health?== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages == The effects of COVID-19 on mental health and unemployment == {{Robelbox|width=100%|title=Quiz|iconwidth=Ambox blue question.svg|theme=10|icon=48px}}<div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> <quiz display=simple> {Which of the following blah blah?} - b - b - b + a - b </quiz> </div> ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 57h3g9a6edc9o550b2oon89azojq47b 0 286185 2415706 2413022 2022-08-17T04:43:57Z Jtneill 10242 Move to chapter page wikitext text/x-wiki == '''About me''' == I am Manav Porwal, an aspiring Psychologist in the final Semester of Bachelor of Science in Psychology at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I work as a volunteer with [https://reachoutcanberra.com.au/ Reach Out Canberra], [https://mieact.org.au/ MIEACT] and [https://rebustheatre.com/ Rebus Theatre]. Currently I am learning [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. === Hobbies === * Cooking * Painting * Gardening * Woodworking == Book Chapter == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Workplace mental health training|Book chapter]] I am working on: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Workplace mental health training|Workplace mental health training]] === Workplace Mental Health === ==== What is Workplace mental health ==== === Social contribution === 7bvig8ofc939iqn2h1rj8s2meyhuetz 2 286187 2415700 2413181 2022-08-17T04:22:59Z Jtneill 10242 /* Social contributions */ 2nd contribution wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == [[File:Happiness .jpg|alt=Picture of girl smiling|thumb|''Figure 1''. Happiness is an example of an emotion.|150x150px]]I am a lecturer in [[w:Psychology|psychology]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am teaching [[motivation and emotion]]. l am teaching [[motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion (see Figure 1 for an example of an emotion)]]. I have worked at UC for 20+ years. == Hobbies == * Cricket * Gardening * Worm farming # Mountain biking # Podcasts - favourite podcast James? === Music === === Movies === == Book chapter I'm working on - == == Social contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FConspiracy_theory_motivation&type=revision&diff=2413059&oldid=2410713 Added sub-title to conspiracy theory chapter] - 10/8/22 # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Cognitive_evaluation_theory_and_motivation&diff=prev&oldid=2415699 Fix grammar on cognitive evaluation theory page] - 17/8/22 mklew71m0q8n9r8dftd92wmeuvq03mw 2 286209 2415779 2413289 2022-08-17T08:24:50Z Jtneill 10242 /* Social contributions */ + 1 contribution wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == [[File:A Smiling boy from Bangladesh.jpg|alt=Black and white photograph showing a smiling boy in Bangladesh|thumb|Figure 1. Joy is an example of a core emotion that we will be learning about]] [[File:Girl with sad face.jpg|thumb|l.....asdfasdfasf]] Hi, I'm James Neill. I ''teach'' [[w:Psychology|psychology]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am teaching [[motivation and emotion]]. === Hobbies === * Gardening * Mountain biking * Playing cricket # Music # Movies == Book chapter I'm working on == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Episodic memory and planning|Episodic memory and planning]] == Social contributions == # [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Episodic_memory_and_planning&diff=prev&oldid=2415775 Fixed grammar on 2021 page] - 15/8/22 6fwr2p46x8ph454e4lbaw98515xvn1x 2 286218 2415762 2414625 2022-08-17T06:48:23Z U3203545 2947578 /* About Me */ wikitext text/x-wiki == About Me == Hi, I am a 3rd Year Science in Psychology student, majoring in law, policy and culture. I am currently studying the unit 'Motivation & Emotion.' My university journey has taught me valuable skills which can be translated into the workplace and have allowed me to expand my knowledge on various topics. The book chapter I have created has further expanded these skills. See more in my Professional ePortfolio: https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/view/view.php?t=l58oJXjZYMzFrHfTEgR0 == Hobbies == * Reading * Watercolour Painting * Overthinking * Nature Walking == Book Chapter I'm Working On == [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Compassion|Compassion: What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered?]] == Social Contributions == User: Summary: User: Summary: abg2vw2ya01czuuip8tg89tmkj4yfd9 0 286321 2415668 2415553 2022-08-17T01:32:25Z U3203545 2947578 /* Cognitively-Based Compassion Training */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Compassion:<br>What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * Explain why people are compelled to be compassionate or not compelled (illustrate the problem) * How do we measure compassion? * Summarize the advantages of compassion * Summarize the disadvantages of compassion * Summarize how we can foster compassion * Outline how psychological science can help with the problem {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is Compassion? * What are the Advantages of Compassion? * What are the Disadvantages of Compassion? * How can we Foster Compassion? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Compassion?== [[File:There's no crying in baseball! (4549295140) 2.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' A common display of compassion through comforting someone who is upset.]]There are many definitions of compassion, with the main ones stemming from Richard Lazarus and Jennifer Goetz et al. What Lazarus' and Goetz' definitions have in common is that compassion involves being effected by another persons suffering, having the desire to help them, and taking action to help them (Baer et al., 2016). In this chapter, we will be referring to a more detailed definition of compassion. [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] is an emotion expressed in reaction to the [[wikipedia:Suffering|suffering]] or low well-being of others (Nussbaum, 2003). It involves making a judgement, known as the judgement of seriousness, that someone is not coping well and that the situation is serious (Nussbaum, 2003). Therefore, compassion is not felt for people who loose insignificant items, such as a pair of socks or a hairbrush (Nussbaum, 2003). '''There are two main types of compassion:''' [[wikipedia:Radical_compassion|Radical compassion]], otherwise known as compassion for others, involves showing compassion to other people, through acknowledging their pain and coming up with a solution to relieve it (Cherry, 2021). [[wikipedia:Self-compassion|Self-compassion]] involves showing compassion to yourself in suffering and perceived inadequacy (Cherry, 2021). '''What is the difference between compassion and empathy?''' People can often become confused between the terms compassion and [[wikipedia:Empathy|empathy]]. While they are both [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], empathy involves feeling what others are feeling and desiring to help them (Zimmer, 2019). Compassion involves a deep concern for others, a desire to help, AND taking action to help the person (Zimmer, 2019). While empathy and compassion both involve sharing the feelings of others and desiring to help them, compassion also involves taking action to help them (Zimmer, 2019).{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the judgement we make when choosing whether to show compassion based on the seriousness of a person's suffering. Case Study: Samantha is feeling down because she has lost her scrunchie. Samantha has other scrunchies that she can use and her lost scrunchie has no personal significance to her. Samantha's roommate, Alice, evaluates the situation and decides that although Samantha is upset, she is not seriously affected. Alice shows understanding of the loss but chooses not to show compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Evolution of Compassion == [[File:Baboon and baby Okavango delta.jpg|thumb|''Figure 2''. Compassion evolved as part of the care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young]] * Discuss how compassion leads back to [[wikipedia:Charles_darwin|Charles Darwin]] (1871) and how communities which had the largest number of sympathetic individuals thrived and reproduced the most offspring (Gilbert, 2020). * Discuss how currently, theorists have noted that compassion has reproductive advantages, as it is part of the evolved care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young (Gilbert, 2020). The quality of care impacts the offspring's [[wikipedia:Epigenetics|epigenetics]] and appraisal of threats (Gilbert, 2020). * Compassion has also evolved in primates, as it is an ideal feature in mate selection and allows for effective relationships with other primates (Gilbert, 2020). *[[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] studies have shown that being motivated to care, and showing self and radical compassion has benefits on physiological, psychological and social processes (Gilbert, 2015). *Physiological benefits include better functioning systems, such as the sympathetic/parasympathetic nervous system, cardiovascular system and immune system (Gilbert, 2015). *The psychological benefits center around reciprocity: when humans feel seen and supported and in turn are caring and supportive, their psychological functioning improves (Gilbert, 2015). *Oxytocin has been found to be one of the psychological mediators of compassion and caring behaviour (Gilbert, 2015). - links to prosocial behaviour. Table 1. ''Key Figures and their Evolutionary Theories on Compassion'' {| class="wikitable" !Important Figures !Evolutionary Theories |- | | |- | | |- | | |} == Compassion Theories == === The Emancipatory Theory of Compassion === * Dr. Jane Georges (suffering is universal and can therefore be relieved through showing compassion) (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * Also states that nurses, whether conscious of their actions or not, can create surroundings where suffering is sustained (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * '''Key Characteristics of Compassionate Behaviour (Constantinides, 2019):''' # Mindfulness (used to establish meaning and thoughtfulness as a reaction to human needs) # An acknowledgement of the uniqueness and spirituality of others # A willingness to understand # An ability to genuinely listen === The Theory of Compassion Energy === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Martha_E._Rogers|Martha Rogers]] based on her Science of Unitary Beings and Caring Science theories work (Dunn, 2019). * The Theory of Compassion Energy involves caregivers who have a desire to provide compassionate care by intentionally getting to know the person they are caring for through being there for them and nurturing them (Dunn, 2019). * When nurses and carers engage nurturingly with patients, they become energized and focused on meeting the needs of the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Positive outcomes result for both the carer and the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Compassion then becomes the driving force or energizer for caring (Dunn, 2019). === Theoretical Model of Self-Compassion === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Kristin_Neff|Kristin Neff]]<nowiki/>and involved self-compassion consisting of three groups of contrasting components: emotional responsivity, attention to personal suffering, and cognitive understanding (Neff et al., 2020). * Emotional response is made up of self-kindness vs. self-judgement, attention to personal suffering is composed of mindfulness vs. overidentification and cognitive understanding consists of isolation vs. common humanity (Neff et al., 2020). * These contrasting components interconnect as a system and can be measured individually or all together to make a total score (Neff et al., 2020). This is called the Self-Compassion Scale. * Explain the Self-Compassion Scale {{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what is compassion?' 'the evolution of compassion' and 'compassion theories.' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == What are the Pros of Compassion? == === Healing === * For the person receiving compassion. * Not only psychological healing (from grief) but also physical healing (from illness and harm). * Compassion can also help reduce anxiety, and increase positive emotions such as gratitude. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Compassion Satisfaction === * Satisfaction resulting from helping others. * Compassion is also associated with having a more prosocial identity (viewing oneself as caring). * Those who are compassionate are viewed more strongly as leaders. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Emotional Connection & Shared Positive Emotions === [[File:The Joy of Playing Together by Rasheedhrasheed.jpg|thumb|''Figure 3''. Demonstrates shared positive emotion (joy).]] * Compassion connects people psychologically and creates a stronger emotional connection. * This stronger connection may be due to the fact that compassion generates trust. * Alternatively, if an individual consistently shows compassion to another person, but does not receive it in return, may result in status differences or relational inequalities. * Compassion also generates shared positive emotions such as gratefulness and joy. * Compassion has also been found to improve collaboration in the workplace. * (Dutton et al., 2014). == What are the Cons of Compassion? == === Moral Distress === * Moral distress occurs when someone is considering showing compassion, but is unable to take the right action, does not effectively relieve others' suffering, or experiences secondary trauma or impairment resulting from extensive exposure to another person's suffering (Dutton et al., 2014). * Moral distress can also occur when an individual shows compassion in a situation that does not require compassion, or when an individual withholds compassion when it is needed (Nussbaum, 2003). * The person has wrongly determined the judgement of seriousness, placing great importance on the wrong situations and not enough importance on significant situations (Nussbaum, 2003). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the moral distress felt when too much importance is placed on situations that don't require compassion. Case Study: Samantha has lost another item, this time it is her earing. The earing has no personal significance to her, as it is a standard sleeper, which can easily be replaced. Alice, again, evaluates the situation and decides that because Samantha became so distraught when Alice did not provide compassion last time, she would show compassion to Samantha this time. However, Alice experiences moral distress, as the situation is not serious and the loss of a trivial item does not require the expression of compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Compassion Fatigue === [[File:Canva - Woman Feeling Emotional Stress.jpg|thumb|''Figure 4.'' An illustration of how compassion fatigue can feel.]] * [[wikipedia:Compassion_fatigue|Compassion fatigue]] is described as actions or emotions resulting from hearing about a traumatic event and feeling stressed due to wanting to or actually helping the person who is suffering (Sabo, 2014). *Compassion fatigue is common in the healthcare profession, particularly among nurses (Dunn, 2019). *Nurses who are highly empathetic are at a greater risk of developing compassion fatigue (Sabo, 2014). *Describe the factors contributing to compassion fatigue (empathic ability, empathic response, and residual compassion stress) (Sabo, 2014). *Explain ways to avoid or reduce the chance of compassion fatigue. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}* We need to have a balance of providing compassion, but also receiving compassion ourselves to mitigate the cons of displaying compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}}{{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what are the pros and cons of compassion?' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == How can we Foster Compassion? == There are ways we can foster compassion, one of which is through compassion training. There have been many types of effective compassion training, with the most effective ones being mindful self-compassion, cognitively-based compassion training. === Mindful Self-Compassion === * Developed by Kristin Neff and Chris Germer (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Combines mindfulness and compassion training as well as [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|psychotherapy]] and personal development training (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Mindfulness training is necessary, as it allows us to detect when we are suffering so we can show ourselves kindness (Germer & Neff, 2019). *It is also necessary to stabilize our awareness of the confronting emotions triggered during self-compassion therapy (Germer & Neff, 2019). *These confronting emotions are associated with times in a person's life where they did not receive compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). Mindful self-compassion takes a therapeutic approach in addressing these old wounds with a new approach: mindfulness and self-compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Self-compassion training is necessary, as we often need to show loving awareness towards ourselves before we apply this to our experiences (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting that CBCT is successful. === Cognitively-Based Compassion Training === *Developed by Lobsang Tenzin Negi (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT is a form of contemplative practice, where an individual is encouraged to view others with love, kindness, empathy and compassion (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT builds on mindfulness techniques and uses various cognitive restructuring and affect fostering techniques (Cole et al., 2012). *The long term aim of CBCT is to generate a calmness of mind, which accepts and understands others (Cole et al., 2012). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting CBCT is successful. == Conclusion == * Answer the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research) * Answer the focus questions * Summarize the content covered * Communicate the practical, take-home messages == See also == * [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] (Wikipedia) * [[What Matters/Compassion]] (Book chapter, 2021) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rAEhGHcZ3Vw What is the difference between empathy and compassion?] (YouTube) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] khf32do7w6vq7jtai5cx9auzwmw72r4 2415669 2415668 2022-08-17T01:36:54Z U3203545 2947578 /* How can we Foster Compassion? */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Compassion:<br>What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * Explain why people are compelled to be compassionate or not compelled (illustrate the problem) * How do we measure compassion? * Summarize the advantages of compassion * Summarize the disadvantages of compassion * Summarize how we can foster compassion * Outline how psychological science can help with the problem {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is Compassion? * What are the Advantages of Compassion? * What are the Disadvantages of Compassion? * How can we Foster Compassion? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Compassion?== [[File:There's no crying in baseball! (4549295140) 2.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' A common display of compassion through comforting someone who is upset.]]There are many definitions of compassion, with the main ones stemming from Richard Lazarus and Jennifer Goetz et al. What Lazarus' and Goetz' definitions have in common is that compassion involves being effected by another persons suffering, having the desire to help them, and taking action to help them (Baer et al., 2016). In this chapter, we will be referring to a more detailed definition of compassion. [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] is an emotion expressed in reaction to the [[wikipedia:Suffering|suffering]] or low well-being of others (Nussbaum, 2003). It involves making a judgement, known as the judgement of seriousness, that someone is not coping well and that the situation is serious (Nussbaum, 2003). Therefore, compassion is not felt for people who loose insignificant items, such as a pair of socks or a hairbrush (Nussbaum, 2003). '''There are two main types of compassion:''' [[wikipedia:Radical_compassion|Radical compassion]], otherwise known as compassion for others, involves showing compassion to other people, through acknowledging their pain and coming up with a solution to relieve it (Cherry, 2021). [[wikipedia:Self-compassion|Self-compassion]] involves showing compassion to yourself in suffering and perceived inadequacy (Cherry, 2021). '''What is the difference between compassion and empathy?''' People can often become confused between the terms compassion and [[wikipedia:Empathy|empathy]]. While they are both [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], empathy involves feeling what others are feeling and desiring to help them (Zimmer, 2019). Compassion involves a deep concern for others, a desire to help, AND taking action to help the person (Zimmer, 2019). While empathy and compassion both involve sharing the feelings of others and desiring to help them, compassion also involves taking action to help them (Zimmer, 2019).{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the judgement we make when choosing whether to show compassion based on the seriousness of a person's suffering. Case Study: Samantha is feeling down because she has lost her scrunchie. Samantha has other scrunchies that she can use and her lost scrunchie has no personal significance to her. Samantha's roommate, Alice, evaluates the situation and decides that although Samantha is upset, she is not seriously affected. Alice shows understanding of the loss but chooses not to show compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Evolution of Compassion == [[File:Baboon and baby Okavango delta.jpg|thumb|''Figure 2''. Compassion evolved as part of the care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young]] * Discuss how compassion leads back to [[wikipedia:Charles_darwin|Charles Darwin]] (1871) and how communities which had the largest number of sympathetic individuals thrived and reproduced the most offspring (Gilbert, 2020). * Discuss how currently, theorists have noted that compassion has reproductive advantages, as it is part of the evolved care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young (Gilbert, 2020). The quality of care impacts the offspring's [[wikipedia:Epigenetics|epigenetics]] and appraisal of threats (Gilbert, 2020). * Compassion has also evolved in primates, as it is an ideal feature in mate selection and allows for effective relationships with other primates (Gilbert, 2020). *[[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] studies have shown that being motivated to care, and showing self and radical compassion has benefits on physiological, psychological and social processes (Gilbert, 2015). *Physiological benefits include better functioning systems, such as the sympathetic/parasympathetic nervous system, cardiovascular system and immune system (Gilbert, 2015). *The psychological benefits center around reciprocity: when humans feel seen and supported and in turn are caring and supportive, their psychological functioning improves (Gilbert, 2015). *Oxytocin has been found to be one of the psychological mediators of compassion and caring behaviour (Gilbert, 2015). - links to prosocial behaviour. Table 1. ''Key Figures and their Evolutionary Theories on Compassion'' {| class="wikitable" !Important Figures !Evolutionary Theories |- | | |- | | |- | | |} == Compassion Theories == === The Emancipatory Theory of Compassion === * Dr. Jane Georges (suffering is universal and can therefore be relieved through showing compassion) (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * Also states that nurses, whether conscious of their actions or not, can create surroundings where suffering is sustained (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * '''Key Characteristics of Compassionate Behaviour (Constantinides, 2019):''' # Mindfulness (used to establish meaning and thoughtfulness as a reaction to human needs) # An acknowledgement of the uniqueness and spirituality of others # A willingness to understand # An ability to genuinely listen === The Theory of Compassion Energy === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Martha_E._Rogers|Martha Rogers]] based on her Science of Unitary Beings and Caring Science theories work (Dunn, 2019). * The Theory of Compassion Energy involves caregivers who have a desire to provide compassionate care by intentionally getting to know the person they are caring for through being there for them and nurturing them (Dunn, 2019). * When nurses and carers engage nurturingly with patients, they become energized and focused on meeting the needs of the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Positive outcomes result for both the carer and the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Compassion then becomes the driving force or energizer for caring (Dunn, 2019). === Theoretical Model of Self-Compassion === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Kristin_Neff|Kristin Neff]]<nowiki/>and involved self-compassion consisting of three groups of contrasting components: emotional responsivity, attention to personal suffering, and cognitive understanding (Neff et al., 2020). * Emotional response is made up of self-kindness vs. self-judgement, attention to personal suffering is composed of mindfulness vs. overidentification and cognitive understanding consists of isolation vs. common humanity (Neff et al., 2020). * These contrasting components interconnect as a system and can be measured individually or all together to make a total score (Neff et al., 2020). This is called the Self-Compassion Scale. * Explain the Self-Compassion Scale {{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what is compassion?' 'the evolution of compassion' and 'compassion theories.' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == What are the Pros of Compassion? == === Healing === * For the person receiving compassion. * Not only psychological healing (from grief) but also physical healing (from illness and harm). * Compassion can also help reduce anxiety, and increase positive emotions such as gratitude. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Compassion Satisfaction === * Satisfaction resulting from helping others. * Compassion is also associated with having a more prosocial identity (viewing oneself as caring). * Those who are compassionate are viewed more strongly as leaders. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Emotional Connection & Shared Positive Emotions === [[File:The Joy of Playing Together by Rasheedhrasheed.jpg|thumb|''Figure 3''. Demonstrates shared positive emotion (joy).]] * Compassion connects people psychologically and creates a stronger emotional connection. * This stronger connection may be due to the fact that compassion generates trust. * Alternatively, if an individual consistently shows compassion to another person, but does not receive it in return, may result in status differences or relational inequalities. * Compassion also generates shared positive emotions such as gratefulness and joy. * Compassion has also been found to improve collaboration in the workplace. * (Dutton et al., 2014). == What are the Cons of Compassion? == === Moral Distress === * Moral distress occurs when someone is considering showing compassion, but is unable to take the right action, does not effectively relieve others' suffering, or experiences secondary trauma or impairment resulting from extensive exposure to another person's suffering (Dutton et al., 2014). * Moral distress can also occur when an individual shows compassion in a situation that does not require compassion, or when an individual withholds compassion when it is needed (Nussbaum, 2003). * The person has wrongly determined the judgement of seriousness, placing great importance on the wrong situations and not enough importance on significant situations (Nussbaum, 2003). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the moral distress felt when too much importance is placed on situations that don't require compassion. Case Study: Samantha has lost another item, this time it is her earing. The earing has no personal significance to her, as it is a standard sleeper, which can easily be replaced. Alice, again, evaluates the situation and decides that because Samantha became so distraught when Alice did not provide compassion last time, she would show compassion to Samantha this time. However, Alice experiences moral distress, as the situation is not serious and the loss of a trivial item does not require the expression of compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Compassion Fatigue === [[File:Canva - Woman Feeling Emotional Stress.jpg|thumb|''Figure 4.'' An illustration of how compassion fatigue can feel.]] * [[wikipedia:Compassion_fatigue|Compassion fatigue]] is described as actions or emotions resulting from hearing about a traumatic event and feeling stressed due to wanting to or actually helping the person who is suffering (Sabo, 2014). *Compassion fatigue is common in the healthcare profession, particularly among nurses (Dunn, 2019). *Nurses who are highly empathetic are at a greater risk of developing compassion fatigue (Sabo, 2014). *Describe the factors contributing to compassion fatigue (empathic ability, empathic response, and residual compassion stress) (Sabo, 2014). *Explain ways to avoid or reduce the chance of compassion fatigue. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}* We need to have a balance of providing compassion, but also receiving compassion ourselves to mitigate the cons of displaying compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}}{{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what are the pros and cons of compassion?' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == How can we Foster Compassion? == There are ways we can foster compassion, one of which is through compassion training. There have been many types of effective compassion training, with the most effective ones being mindful self-compassion, cognitively-based compassion training. === Mindful Self-Compassion === * Developed by Kristin Neff and Chris Germer (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Combines mindfulness and compassion training as well as [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|psychotherapy]] and personal development training (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Mindfulness training is necessary, as it allows us to detect when we are suffering so we can show ourselves kindness (Germer & Neff, 2019). *It is also necessary to stabilize our awareness of the confronting emotions triggered during self-compassion therapy (Germer & Neff, 2019). *These confronting emotions are associated with times in a person's life where they did not receive compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). Mindful self-compassion takes a therapeutic approach in addressing these old wounds with a new approach: mindfulness and self-compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Self-compassion training is necessary, as we often need to show loving awareness towards ourselves before we apply this to our experiences (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting that CBCT is successful. === Cognitively-Based Compassion Training === *Developed by Lobsang Tenzin Negi (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT is a form of contemplative practice, where an individual is encouraged to view others with love, kindness, empathy and compassion (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT builds on mindfulness techniques and uses various cognitive restructuring and affect fostering techniques (Cole et al., 2012). *The long term aim of CBCT is to generate a calmness of mind, which accepts and understands others (Cole et al., 2012). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting CBCT is successful. === Compassion Based Interventions === * == Conclusion == * Answer the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research) * Answer the focus questions * Summarize the content covered * Communicate the practical, take-home messages == See also == * [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] (Wikipedia) * [[What Matters/Compassion]] (Book chapter, 2021) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rAEhGHcZ3Vw What is the difference between empathy and compassion?] (YouTube) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] teosp53r2qhok9bn9pj1711vzemt2px 2415670 2415669 2022-08-17T01:52:57Z U3203545 2947578 /* Overview */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Compassion:<br>What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * Explain why people are compelled to be compassionate or not compelled (illustrate the problem) * How do we measure compassion? * Summarize the advantages of compassion * Summarize the disadvantages of compassion * Summarize how we can foster compassion * Outline how psychological science can help with the problem {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is Compassion? * What are the Advantages of Compassion? * What are the Disadvantages of Compassion? * How can we Foster Compassion? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Compassion?== [[File:There's no crying in baseball! (4549295140) 2.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' A common display of compassion through comforting someone who is upset.]]There are many definitions of compassion, with the main ones stemming from Richard Lazarus and Jennifer Goetz et al. What Lazarus' and Goetz' definitions have in common is that compassion involves being effected by another persons suffering, having the desire to help them, and taking action to help them (Baer et al., 2016). In this chapter, we will be referring to a more detailed definition of compassion. [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] is an emotion expressed in reaction to the [[wikipedia:Suffering|suffering]] or low well-being of others (Nussbaum, 2003). It involves making a judgement, known as the judgement of seriousness, that someone is not coping well and that the situation is serious (Nussbaum, 2003). Therefore, compassion is not felt for people who loose insignificant items, such as a pair of socks or a hairbrush (Nussbaum, 2003). '''There are two main types of compassion:''' [[wikipedia:Radical_compassion|Radical compassion]], otherwise known as compassion for others, involves showing compassion to other people, through acknowledging their pain and coming up with a solution to relieve it (Cherry, 2021). [[wikipedia:Self-compassion|Self-compassion]] involves showing compassion to yourself in suffering and perceived inadequacy (Cherry, 2021). In Kathryn Stockett's novel 'The Help,' which was later adapted into a film, an African-American nanny whispers to the little girl she is babysitting: "You is kind, you is smart, you is important" (Kathryn Stockett, 2009, p. 443). This was a simple, yet caring way to encourage self-compassion in this young girl. '''What is the difference between compassion and empathy?''' People can often become confused between the terms compassion and [[wikipedia:Empathy|empathy]]. While they are both [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], empathy involves feeling what others are feeling and desiring to help them (Zimmer, 2019). Compassion involves a deep concern for others, a desire to help, AND taking action to help the person (Zimmer, 2019). While empathy and compassion both involve sharing the feelings of others and desiring to help them, compassion also involves taking action to help them (Zimmer, 2019).{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the judgement we make when choosing whether to show compassion based on the seriousness of a person's suffering. Case Study: Samantha is feeling down because she has lost her scrunchie. Samantha has other scrunchies that she can use and her lost scrunchie has no personal significance to her. Samantha's roommate, Alice, evaluates the situation and decides that although Samantha is upset, she is not seriously affected. Alice shows understanding of the loss but chooses not to show compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Evolution of Compassion == [[File:Baboon and baby Okavango delta.jpg|thumb|''Figure 2''. Compassion evolved as part of the care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young]] * Discuss how compassion leads back to [[wikipedia:Charles_darwin|Charles Darwin]] (1871) and how communities which had the largest number of sympathetic individuals thrived and reproduced the most offspring (Gilbert, 2020). * Discuss how currently, theorists have noted that compassion has reproductive advantages, as it is part of the evolved care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young (Gilbert, 2020). The quality of care impacts the offspring's [[wikipedia:Epigenetics|epigenetics]] and appraisal of threats (Gilbert, 2020). * Compassion has also evolved in primates, as it is an ideal feature in mate selection and allows for effective relationships with other primates (Gilbert, 2020). *[[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] studies have shown that being motivated to care, and showing self and radical compassion has benefits on physiological, psychological and social processes (Gilbert, 2015). *Physiological benefits include better functioning systems, such as the sympathetic/parasympathetic nervous system, cardiovascular system and immune system (Gilbert, 2015). *The psychological benefits center around reciprocity: when humans feel seen and supported and in turn are caring and supportive, their psychological functioning improves (Gilbert, 2015). *Oxytocin has been found to be one of the psychological mediators of compassion and caring behaviour (Gilbert, 2015). - links to prosocial behaviour. Table 1. ''Key Figures and their Evolutionary Theories on Compassion'' {| class="wikitable" !Important Figures !Evolutionary Theories |- | | |- | | |- | | |} == Compassion Theories == === The Emancipatory Theory of Compassion === * Dr. Jane Georges (suffering is universal and can therefore be relieved through showing compassion) (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * Also states that nurses, whether conscious of their actions or not, can create surroundings where suffering is sustained (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * '''Key Characteristics of Compassionate Behaviour (Constantinides, 2019):''' # Mindfulness (used to establish meaning and thoughtfulness as a reaction to human needs) # An acknowledgement of the uniqueness and spirituality of others # A willingness to understand # An ability to genuinely listen === The Theory of Compassion Energy === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Martha_E._Rogers|Martha Rogers]] based on her Science of Unitary Beings and Caring Science theories work (Dunn, 2019). * The Theory of Compassion Energy involves caregivers who have a desire to provide compassionate care by intentionally getting to know the person they are caring for through being there for them and nurturing them (Dunn, 2019). * When nurses and carers engage nurturingly with patients, they become energized and focused on meeting the needs of the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Positive outcomes result for both the carer and the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Compassion then becomes the driving force or energizer for caring (Dunn, 2019). === Theoretical Model of Self-Compassion === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Kristin_Neff|Kristin Neff]]<nowiki/>and involved self-compassion consisting of three groups of contrasting components: emotional responsivity, attention to personal suffering, and cognitive understanding (Neff et al., 2020). * Emotional response is made up of self-kindness vs. self-judgement, attention to personal suffering is composed of mindfulness vs. overidentification and cognitive understanding consists of isolation vs. common humanity (Neff et al., 2020). * These contrasting components interconnect as a system and can be measured individually or all together to make a total score (Neff et al., 2020). This is called the Self-Compassion Scale. * Explain the Self-Compassion Scale {{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what is compassion?' 'the evolution of compassion' and 'compassion theories.' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == What are the Pros of Compassion? == === Healing === * For the person receiving compassion. * Not only psychological healing (from grief) but also physical healing (from illness and harm). * Compassion can also help reduce anxiety, and increase positive emotions such as gratitude. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Compassion Satisfaction === * Satisfaction resulting from helping others. * Compassion is also associated with having a more prosocial identity (viewing oneself as caring). * Those who are compassionate are viewed more strongly as leaders. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Emotional Connection & Shared Positive Emotions === [[File:The Joy of Playing Together by Rasheedhrasheed.jpg|thumb|''Figure 3''. Demonstrates shared positive emotion (joy).]] * Compassion connects people psychologically and creates a stronger emotional connection. * This stronger connection may be due to the fact that compassion generates trust. * Alternatively, if an individual consistently shows compassion to another person, but does not receive it in return, may result in status differences or relational inequalities. * Compassion also generates shared positive emotions such as gratefulness and joy. * Compassion has also been found to improve collaboration in the workplace. * (Dutton et al., 2014). == What are the Cons of Compassion? == === Moral Distress === * Moral distress occurs when someone is considering showing compassion, but is unable to take the right action, does not effectively relieve others' suffering, or experiences secondary trauma or impairment resulting from extensive exposure to another person's suffering (Dutton et al., 2014). * Moral distress can also occur when an individual shows compassion in a situation that does not require compassion, or when an individual withholds compassion when it is needed (Nussbaum, 2003). * The person has wrongly determined the judgement of seriousness, placing great importance on the wrong situations and not enough importance on significant situations (Nussbaum, 2003). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the moral distress felt when too much importance is placed on situations that don't require compassion. Case Study: Samantha has lost another item, this time it is her earing. The earing has no personal significance to her, as it is a standard sleeper, which can easily be replaced. Alice, again, evaluates the situation and decides that because Samantha became so distraught when Alice did not provide compassion last time, she would show compassion to Samantha this time. However, Alice experiences moral distress, as the situation is not serious and the loss of a trivial item does not require the expression of compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Compassion Fatigue === [[File:Canva - Woman Feeling Emotional Stress.jpg|thumb|''Figure 4.'' An illustration of how compassion fatigue can feel.]] * [[wikipedia:Compassion_fatigue|Compassion fatigue]] is described as actions or emotions resulting from hearing about a traumatic event and feeling stressed due to wanting to or actually helping the person who is suffering (Sabo, 2014). *Compassion fatigue is common in the healthcare profession, particularly among nurses (Dunn, 2019). *Nurses who are highly empathetic are at a greater risk of developing compassion fatigue (Sabo, 2014). *Describe the factors contributing to compassion fatigue (empathic ability, empathic response, and residual compassion stress) (Sabo, 2014). *Explain ways to avoid or reduce the chance of compassion fatigue. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}* We need to have a balance of providing compassion, but also receiving compassion ourselves to mitigate the cons of displaying compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}}{{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what are the pros and cons of compassion?' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == How can we Foster Compassion? == There are ways we can foster compassion, one of which is through compassion training. There have been many types of effective compassion training, with the most effective ones being mindful self-compassion, cognitively-based compassion training. === Mindful Self-Compassion === * Developed by Kristin Neff and Chris Germer (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Combines mindfulness and compassion training as well as [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|psychotherapy]] and personal development training (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Mindfulness training is necessary, as it allows us to detect when we are suffering so we can show ourselves kindness (Germer & Neff, 2019). *It is also necessary to stabilize our awareness of the confronting emotions triggered during self-compassion therapy (Germer & Neff, 2019). *These confronting emotions are associated with times in a person's life where they did not receive compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). Mindful self-compassion takes a therapeutic approach in addressing these old wounds with a new approach: mindfulness and self-compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Self-compassion training is necessary, as we often need to show loving awareness towards ourselves before we apply this to our experiences (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting that CBCT is successful. === Cognitively-Based Compassion Training === *Developed by Lobsang Tenzin Negi (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT is a form of contemplative practice, where an individual is encouraged to view others with love, kindness, empathy and compassion (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT builds on mindfulness techniques and uses various cognitive restructuring and affect fostering techniques (Cole et al., 2012). *The long term aim of CBCT is to generate a calmness of mind, which accepts and understands others (Cole et al., 2012). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting CBCT is successful. === Compassion Based Interventions === * == Conclusion == * Answer the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research) * Answer the focus questions * Summarize the content covered * Communicate the practical, take-home messages == See also == * [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] (Wikipedia) * [[What Matters/Compassion]] (Book chapter, 2021) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rAEhGHcZ3Vw What is the difference between empathy and compassion?] (YouTube) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] aqmkaf3xury729d39dytk6d6zlgb5e5 2415671 2415670 2022-08-17T01:55:02Z U3203545 2947578 /* How can we Foster Compassion? */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Compassion:<br>What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * Explain why people are compelled to be compassionate or not compelled (illustrate the problem) * How do we measure compassion? * Summarize the advantages of compassion * Summarize the disadvantages of compassion * Summarize how we can foster compassion * Outline how psychological science can help with the problem {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is Compassion? * What are the Advantages of Compassion? * What are the Disadvantages of Compassion? * How can we Foster Compassion? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Compassion?== [[File:There's no crying in baseball! (4549295140) 2.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' A common display of compassion through comforting someone who is upset.]]There are many definitions of compassion, with the main ones stemming from Richard Lazarus and Jennifer Goetz et al. What Lazarus' and Goetz' definitions have in common is that compassion involves being effected by another persons suffering, having the desire to help them, and taking action to help them (Baer et al., 2016). In this chapter, we will be referring to a more detailed definition of compassion. [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] is an emotion expressed in reaction to the [[wikipedia:Suffering|suffering]] or low well-being of others (Nussbaum, 2003). It involves making a judgement, known as the judgement of seriousness, that someone is not coping well and that the situation is serious (Nussbaum, 2003). Therefore, compassion is not felt for people who loose insignificant items, such as a pair of socks or a hairbrush (Nussbaum, 2003). '''There are two main types of compassion:''' [[wikipedia:Radical_compassion|Radical compassion]], otherwise known as compassion for others, involves showing compassion to other people, through acknowledging their pain and coming up with a solution to relieve it (Cherry, 2021). [[wikipedia:Self-compassion|Self-compassion]] involves showing compassion to yourself in suffering and perceived inadequacy (Cherry, 2021). In Kathryn Stockett's novel 'The Help,' which was later adapted into a film, an African-American nanny whispers to the little girl she is babysitting: "You is kind, you is smart, you is important" (Kathryn Stockett, 2009, p. 443). This was a simple, yet caring way to encourage self-compassion in this young girl. '''What is the difference between compassion and empathy?''' People can often become confused between the terms compassion and [[wikipedia:Empathy|empathy]]. While they are both [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], empathy involves feeling what others are feeling and desiring to help them (Zimmer, 2019). Compassion involves a deep concern for others, a desire to help, AND taking action to help the person (Zimmer, 2019). While empathy and compassion both involve sharing the feelings of others and desiring to help them, compassion also involves taking action to help them (Zimmer, 2019).{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the judgement we make when choosing whether to show compassion based on the seriousness of a person's suffering. Case Study: Samantha is feeling down because she has lost her scrunchie. Samantha has other scrunchies that she can use and her lost scrunchie has no personal significance to her. Samantha's roommate, Alice, evaluates the situation and decides that although Samantha is upset, she is not seriously affected. Alice shows understanding of the loss but chooses not to show compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Evolution of Compassion == [[File:Baboon and baby Okavango delta.jpg|thumb|''Figure 2''. Compassion evolved as part of the care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young]] * Discuss how compassion leads back to [[wikipedia:Charles_darwin|Charles Darwin]] (1871) and how communities which had the largest number of sympathetic individuals thrived and reproduced the most offspring (Gilbert, 2020). * Discuss how currently, theorists have noted that compassion has reproductive advantages, as it is part of the evolved care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young (Gilbert, 2020). The quality of care impacts the offspring's [[wikipedia:Epigenetics|epigenetics]] and appraisal of threats (Gilbert, 2020). * Compassion has also evolved in primates, as it is an ideal feature in mate selection and allows for effective relationships with other primates (Gilbert, 2020). *[[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] studies have shown that being motivated to care, and showing self and radical compassion has benefits on physiological, psychological and social processes (Gilbert, 2015). *Physiological benefits include better functioning systems, such as the sympathetic/parasympathetic nervous system, cardiovascular system and immune system (Gilbert, 2015). *The psychological benefits center around reciprocity: when humans feel seen and supported and in turn are caring and supportive, their psychological functioning improves (Gilbert, 2015). *Oxytocin has been found to be one of the psychological mediators of compassion and caring behaviour (Gilbert, 2015). - links to prosocial behaviour. Table 1. ''Key Figures and their Evolutionary Theories on Compassion'' {| class="wikitable" !Important Figures !Evolutionary Theories |- | | |- | | |- | | |} == Compassion Theories == === The Emancipatory Theory of Compassion === * Dr. Jane Georges (suffering is universal and can therefore be relieved through showing compassion) (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * Also states that nurses, whether conscious of their actions or not, can create surroundings where suffering is sustained (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * '''Key Characteristics of Compassionate Behaviour (Constantinides, 2019):''' # Mindfulness (used to establish meaning and thoughtfulness as a reaction to human needs) # An acknowledgement of the uniqueness and spirituality of others # A willingness to understand # An ability to genuinely listen === The Theory of Compassion Energy === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Martha_E._Rogers|Martha Rogers]] based on her Science of Unitary Beings and Caring Science theories work (Dunn, 2019). * The Theory of Compassion Energy involves caregivers who have a desire to provide compassionate care by intentionally getting to know the person they are caring for through being there for them and nurturing them (Dunn, 2019). * When nurses and carers engage nurturingly with patients, they become energized and focused on meeting the needs of the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Positive outcomes result for both the carer and the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Compassion then becomes the driving force or energizer for caring (Dunn, 2019). === Theoretical Model of Self-Compassion === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Kristin_Neff|Kristin Neff]]<nowiki/>and involved self-compassion consisting of three groups of contrasting components: emotional responsivity, attention to personal suffering, and cognitive understanding (Neff et al., 2020). * Emotional response is made up of self-kindness vs. self-judgement, attention to personal suffering is composed of mindfulness vs. overidentification and cognitive understanding consists of isolation vs. common humanity (Neff et al., 2020). * These contrasting components interconnect as a system and can be measured individually or all together to make a total score (Neff et al., 2020). This is called the Self-Compassion Scale. * Explain the Self-Compassion Scale {{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what is compassion?' 'the evolution of compassion' and 'compassion theories.' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == What are the Pros of Compassion? == === Healing === * For the person receiving compassion. * Not only psychological healing (from grief) but also physical healing (from illness and harm). * Compassion can also help reduce anxiety, and increase positive emotions such as gratitude. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Compassion Satisfaction === * Satisfaction resulting from helping others. * Compassion is also associated with having a more prosocial identity (viewing oneself as caring). * Those who are compassionate are viewed more strongly as leaders. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Emotional Connection & Shared Positive Emotions === [[File:The Joy of Playing Together by Rasheedhrasheed.jpg|thumb|''Figure 3''. Demonstrates shared positive emotion (joy).]] * Compassion connects people psychologically and creates a stronger emotional connection. * This stronger connection may be due to the fact that compassion generates trust. * Alternatively, if an individual consistently shows compassion to another person, but does not receive it in return, may result in status differences or relational inequalities. * Compassion also generates shared positive emotions such as gratefulness and joy. * Compassion has also been found to improve collaboration in the workplace. * (Dutton et al., 2014). == What are the Cons of Compassion? == === Moral Distress === * Moral distress occurs when someone is considering showing compassion, but is unable to take the right action, does not effectively relieve others' suffering, or experiences secondary trauma or impairment resulting from extensive exposure to another person's suffering (Dutton et al., 2014). * Moral distress can also occur when an individual shows compassion in a situation that does not require compassion, or when an individual withholds compassion when it is needed (Nussbaum, 2003). * The person has wrongly determined the judgement of seriousness, placing great importance on the wrong situations and not enough importance on significant situations (Nussbaum, 2003). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the moral distress felt when too much importance is placed on situations that don't require compassion. Case Study: Samantha has lost another item, this time it is her earing. The earing has no personal significance to her, as it is a standard sleeper, which can easily be replaced. Alice, again, evaluates the situation and decides that because Samantha became so distraught when Alice did not provide compassion last time, she would show compassion to Samantha this time. However, Alice experiences moral distress, as the situation is not serious and the loss of a trivial item does not require the expression of compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Compassion Fatigue === [[File:Canva - Woman Feeling Emotional Stress.jpg|thumb|''Figure 4.'' An illustration of how compassion fatigue can feel.]] * [[wikipedia:Compassion_fatigue|Compassion fatigue]] is described as actions or emotions resulting from hearing about a traumatic event and feeling stressed due to wanting to or actually helping the person who is suffering (Sabo, 2014). *Compassion fatigue is common in the healthcare profession, particularly among nurses (Dunn, 2019). *Nurses who are highly empathetic are at a greater risk of developing compassion fatigue (Sabo, 2014). *Describe the factors contributing to compassion fatigue (empathic ability, empathic response, and residual compassion stress) (Sabo, 2014). *Explain ways to avoid or reduce the chance of compassion fatigue. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}* We need to have a balance of providing compassion, but also receiving compassion ourselves to mitigate the cons of displaying compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}}{{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what are the pros and cons of compassion?' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == How Can We Foster Compassion? == There are ways we can foster compassion, one of which is through compassion training. There have been many types of effective compassion training, with the most effective ones being mindful self-compassion, cognitively-based compassion training. === Mindful Self-Compassion === * Developed by Kristin Neff and Chris Germer (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Combines mindfulness and compassion training as well as [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|psychotherapy]] and personal development training (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Mindfulness training is necessary, as it allows us to detect when we are suffering so we can show ourselves kindness (Germer & Neff, 2019). *It is also necessary to stabilize our awareness of the confronting emotions triggered during self-compassion therapy (Germer & Neff, 2019). *These confronting emotions are associated with times in a person's life where they did not receive compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). Mindful self-compassion takes a therapeutic approach in addressing these old wounds with a new approach: mindfulness and self-compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Self-compassion training is necessary, as we often need to show loving awareness towards ourselves before we apply this to our experiences (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting that CBCT is successful. === Cognitively-Based Compassion Training === *Developed by Lobsang Tenzin Negi (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT is a form of contemplative practice, where an individual is encouraged to view others with love, kindness, empathy and compassion (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT builds on mindfulness techniques and uses various cognitive restructuring and affect fostering techniques (Cole et al., 2012). *The long term aim of CBCT is to generate a calmness of mind, which accepts and understands others (Cole et al., 2012). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting CBCT is successful. === Compassion Based Interventions === * == Conclusion == * Answer the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research) * Answer the focus questions * Summarize the content covered * Communicate the practical, take-home messages == See also == * [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] (Wikipedia) * [[What Matters/Compassion]] (Book chapter, 2021) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rAEhGHcZ3Vw What is the difference between empathy and compassion?] (YouTube) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] m49w3k60dic1u4oqht96401ufulqtsp 2415672 2415671 2022-08-17T01:58:37Z U3203545 2947578 /* How Can We Foster Compassion? */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Compassion:<br>What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * Explain why people are compelled to be compassionate or not compelled (illustrate the problem) * How do we measure compassion? * Summarize the advantages of compassion * Summarize the disadvantages of compassion * Summarize how we can foster compassion * Outline how psychological science can help with the problem {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is Compassion? * What are the Advantages of Compassion? * What are the Disadvantages of Compassion? * How can we Foster Compassion? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Compassion?== [[File:There's no crying in baseball! (4549295140) 2.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' A common display of compassion through comforting someone who is upset.]]There are many definitions of compassion, with the main ones stemming from Richard Lazarus and Jennifer Goetz et al. What Lazarus' and Goetz' definitions have in common is that compassion involves being effected by another persons suffering, having the desire to help them, and taking action to help them (Baer et al., 2016). In this chapter, we will be referring to a more detailed definition of compassion. [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] is an emotion expressed in reaction to the [[wikipedia:Suffering|suffering]] or low well-being of others (Nussbaum, 2003). It involves making a judgement, known as the judgement of seriousness, that someone is not coping well and that the situation is serious (Nussbaum, 2003). Therefore, compassion is not felt for people who loose insignificant items, such as a pair of socks or a hairbrush (Nussbaum, 2003). '''There are two main types of compassion:''' [[wikipedia:Radical_compassion|Radical compassion]], otherwise known as compassion for others, involves showing compassion to other people, through acknowledging their pain and coming up with a solution to relieve it (Cherry, 2021). [[wikipedia:Self-compassion|Self-compassion]] involves showing compassion to yourself in suffering and perceived inadequacy (Cherry, 2021). In Kathryn Stockett's novel 'The Help,' which was later adapted into a film, an African-American nanny whispers to the little girl she is babysitting: "You is kind, you is smart, you is important" (Kathryn Stockett, 2009, p. 443). This was a simple, yet caring way to encourage self-compassion in this young girl. '''What is the difference between compassion and empathy?''' People can often become confused between the terms compassion and [[wikipedia:Empathy|empathy]]. While they are both [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], empathy involves feeling what others are feeling and desiring to help them (Zimmer, 2019). Compassion involves a deep concern for others, a desire to help, AND taking action to help the person (Zimmer, 2019). While empathy and compassion both involve sharing the feelings of others and desiring to help them, compassion also involves taking action to help them (Zimmer, 2019).{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the judgement we make when choosing whether to show compassion based on the seriousness of a person's suffering. Case Study: Samantha is feeling down because she has lost her scrunchie. Samantha has other scrunchies that she can use and her lost scrunchie has no personal significance to her. Samantha's roommate, Alice, evaluates the situation and decides that although Samantha is upset, she is not seriously affected. Alice shows understanding of the loss but chooses not to show compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Evolution of Compassion == [[File:Baboon and baby Okavango delta.jpg|thumb|''Figure 2''. Compassion evolved as part of the care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young]] * Discuss how compassion leads back to [[wikipedia:Charles_darwin|Charles Darwin]] (1871) and how communities which had the largest number of sympathetic individuals thrived and reproduced the most offspring (Gilbert, 2020). * Discuss how currently, theorists have noted that compassion has reproductive advantages, as it is part of the evolved care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young (Gilbert, 2020). The quality of care impacts the offspring's [[wikipedia:Epigenetics|epigenetics]] and appraisal of threats (Gilbert, 2020). * Compassion has also evolved in primates, as it is an ideal feature in mate selection and allows for effective relationships with other primates (Gilbert, 2020). *[[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] studies have shown that being motivated to care, and showing self and radical compassion has benefits on physiological, psychological and social processes (Gilbert, 2015). *Physiological benefits include better functioning systems, such as the sympathetic/parasympathetic nervous system, cardiovascular system and immune system (Gilbert, 2015). *The psychological benefits center around reciprocity: when humans feel seen and supported and in turn are caring and supportive, their psychological functioning improves (Gilbert, 2015). *Oxytocin has been found to be one of the psychological mediators of compassion and caring behaviour (Gilbert, 2015). - links to prosocial behaviour. Table 1. ''Key Figures and their Evolutionary Theories on Compassion'' {| class="wikitable" !Important Figures !Evolutionary Theories |- | | |- | | |- | | |} == Compassion Theories == === The Emancipatory Theory of Compassion === * Dr. Jane Georges (suffering is universal and can therefore be relieved through showing compassion) (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * Also states that nurses, whether conscious of their actions or not, can create surroundings where suffering is sustained (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * '''Key Characteristics of Compassionate Behaviour (Constantinides, 2019):''' # Mindfulness (used to establish meaning and thoughtfulness as a reaction to human needs) # An acknowledgement of the uniqueness and spirituality of others # A willingness to understand # An ability to genuinely listen === The Theory of Compassion Energy === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Martha_E._Rogers|Martha Rogers]] based on her Science of Unitary Beings and Caring Science theories work (Dunn, 2019). * The Theory of Compassion Energy involves caregivers who have a desire to provide compassionate care by intentionally getting to know the person they are caring for through being there for them and nurturing them (Dunn, 2019). * When nurses and carers engage nurturingly with patients, they become energized and focused on meeting the needs of the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Positive outcomes result for both the carer and the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Compassion then becomes the driving force or energizer for caring (Dunn, 2019). === Theoretical Model of Self-Compassion === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Kristin_Neff|Kristin Neff]]<nowiki/>and involved self-compassion consisting of three groups of contrasting components: emotional responsivity, attention to personal suffering, and cognitive understanding (Neff et al., 2020). * Emotional response is made up of self-kindness vs. self-judgement, attention to personal suffering is composed of mindfulness vs. overidentification and cognitive understanding consists of isolation vs. common humanity (Neff et al., 2020). * These contrasting components interconnect as a system and can be measured individually or all together to make a total score (Neff et al., 2020). This is called the Self-Compassion Scale. * Explain the Self-Compassion Scale {{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what is compassion?' 'the evolution of compassion' and 'compassion theories.' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == What are the Pros of Compassion? == === Healing === * For the person receiving compassion. * Not only psychological healing (from grief) but also physical healing (from illness and harm). * Compassion can also help reduce anxiety, and increase positive emotions such as gratitude. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Compassion Satisfaction === * Satisfaction resulting from helping others. * Compassion is also associated with having a more prosocial identity (viewing oneself as caring). * Those who are compassionate are viewed more strongly as leaders. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Emotional Connection & Shared Positive Emotions === [[File:The Joy of Playing Together by Rasheedhrasheed.jpg|thumb|''Figure 3''. Demonstrates shared positive emotion (joy).]] * Compassion connects people psychologically and creates a stronger emotional connection. * This stronger connection may be due to the fact that compassion generates trust. * Alternatively, if an individual consistently shows compassion to another person, but does not receive it in return, may result in status differences or relational inequalities. * Compassion also generates shared positive emotions such as gratefulness and joy. * Compassion has also been found to improve collaboration in the workplace. * (Dutton et al., 2014). == What are the Cons of Compassion? == === Moral Distress === * Moral distress occurs when someone is considering showing compassion, but is unable to take the right action, does not effectively relieve others' suffering, or experiences secondary trauma or impairment resulting from extensive exposure to another person's suffering (Dutton et al., 2014). * Moral distress can also occur when an individual shows compassion in a situation that does not require compassion, or when an individual withholds compassion when it is needed (Nussbaum, 2003). * The person has wrongly determined the judgement of seriousness, placing great importance on the wrong situations and not enough importance on significant situations (Nussbaum, 2003). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the moral distress felt when too much importance is placed on situations that don't require compassion. Case Study: Samantha has lost another item, this time it is her earing. The earing has no personal significance to her, as it is a standard sleeper, which can easily be replaced. Alice, again, evaluates the situation and decides that because Samantha became so distraught when Alice did not provide compassion last time, she would show compassion to Samantha this time. However, Alice experiences moral distress, as the situation is not serious and the loss of a trivial item does not require the expression of compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Compassion Fatigue === [[File:Canva - Woman Feeling Emotional Stress.jpg|thumb|''Figure 4.'' An illustration of how compassion fatigue can feel.]] * [[wikipedia:Compassion_fatigue|Compassion fatigue]] is described as actions or emotions resulting from hearing about a traumatic event and feeling stressed due to wanting to or actually helping the person who is suffering (Sabo, 2014). *Compassion fatigue is common in the healthcare profession, particularly among nurses (Dunn, 2019). *Nurses who are highly empathetic are at a greater risk of developing compassion fatigue (Sabo, 2014). *Describe the factors contributing to compassion fatigue (empathic ability, empathic response, and residual compassion stress) (Sabo, 2014). *Explain ways to avoid or reduce the chance of compassion fatigue. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}* We need to have a balance of providing compassion, but also receiving compassion ourselves to mitigate the cons of displaying compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}}{{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what are the pros and cons of compassion?' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == How Can We Foster Compassion? == There are ways we can foster compassion, mainly through compassion training. There have been many types of effective compassion training, with the most effective ones being mindful self-compassion, cognitively-based compassion training. === Mindful Self-Compassion === * Developed by Kristin Neff and Chris Germer (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Combines mindfulness and compassion training as well as [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|psychotherapy]] and personal development training (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Mindfulness training is necessary, as it allows us to detect when we are suffering so we can show ourselves kindness (Germer & Neff, 2019). *It is also necessary to stabilize our awareness of the confronting emotions triggered during self-compassion therapy (Germer & Neff, 2019). *These confronting emotions are associated with times in a person's life where they did not receive compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). Mindful self-compassion takes a therapeutic approach in addressing these old wounds with a new approach: mindfulness and self-compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Self-compassion training is necessary, as we often need to show loving awareness towards ourselves before we apply this to our experiences (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting that CBCT is successful. === Cognitively-Based Compassion Training === *Developed by Lobsang Tenzin Negi (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT is a form of contemplative practice, where an individual is encouraged to view others with love, kindness, empathy and compassion (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT builds on mindfulness techniques and uses various cognitive restructuring and affect fostering techniques (Cole et al., 2012). *The long term aim of CBCT is to generate a calmness of mind, which accepts and understands others (Cole et al., 2012). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting CBCT is successful. === Compassion Based Interventions === * == Conclusion == * Answer the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research) * Answer the focus questions * Summarize the content covered * Communicate the practical, take-home messages == See also == * [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] (Wikipedia) * [[What Matters/Compassion]] (Book chapter, 2021) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rAEhGHcZ3Vw What is the difference between empathy and compassion?] (YouTube) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 0xlnmawtbaatzuo29xgeqj4v8xrarbq 2415675 2415672 2022-08-17T02:25:35Z U3203545 2947578 /* Overview */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Compassion:<br>What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * Explain how compassion is controversial as an emotion (not all scientists agree) (Kirby et al., 2017). * Explain why people are compelled to be compassionate or not compelled (illustrate the problem) * How do we measure compassion? * Summarize the advantages of compassion * Summarize the disadvantages of compassion * Summarize how we can foster compassion * Outline how psychological science can help with the problem {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is Compassion? * What are the Advantages of Compassion? * What are the Disadvantages of Compassion? * How can we Foster Compassion? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Compassion?== [[File:There's no crying in baseball! (4549295140) 2.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' A common display of compassion through comforting someone who is upset.]]There are many definitions of compassion, with the main ones stemming from Richard Lazarus and Jennifer Goetz et al. What Lazarus' and Goetz' definitions have in common is that compassion involves being effected by another persons suffering, having the desire to help them, and taking action to help them (Baer et al., 2016). In this chapter, we will be referring to a more detailed definition of compassion. [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] is an emotion expressed in reaction to the [[wikipedia:Suffering|suffering]] or low well-being of others (Nussbaum, 2003). It involves making a judgement, known as the judgement of seriousness, that someone is not coping well and that the situation is serious (Nussbaum, 2003). Therefore, compassion is not felt for people who loose insignificant items, such as a pair of socks or a hairbrush (Nussbaum, 2003). '''There are two main types of compassion:''' [[wikipedia:Radical_compassion|Radical compassion]], otherwise known as compassion for others, involves showing compassion to other people, through acknowledging their pain and coming up with a solution to relieve it (Cherry, 2021). [[wikipedia:Self-compassion|Self-compassion]] involves showing compassion to yourself in suffering and perceived inadequacy (Cherry, 2021). In Kathryn Stockett's novel 'The Help,' which was later adapted into a film, an African-American nanny whispers to the little girl she is babysitting: "You is kind, you is smart, you is important" (Kathryn Stockett, 2009, p. 443). This was a simple, yet caring way to encourage self-compassion in this young girl. '''What is the difference between compassion and empathy?''' People can often become confused between the terms compassion and [[wikipedia:Empathy|empathy]]. While they are both [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], empathy involves feeling what others are feeling and desiring to help them (Zimmer, 2019). Compassion involves a deep concern for others, a desire to help, AND taking action to help the person (Zimmer, 2019). While empathy and compassion both involve sharing the feelings of others and desiring to help them, compassion also involves taking action to help them (Zimmer, 2019).{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the judgement we make when choosing whether to show compassion based on the seriousness of a person's suffering. Case Study: Samantha is feeling down because she has lost her scrunchie. Samantha has other scrunchies that she can use and her lost scrunchie has no personal significance to her. Samantha's roommate, Alice, evaluates the situation and decides that although Samantha is upset, she is not seriously affected. Alice shows understanding of the loss but chooses not to show compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Evolution of Compassion == [[File:Baboon and baby Okavango delta.jpg|thumb|''Figure 2''. Compassion evolved as part of the care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young]] * Discuss how compassion leads back to [[wikipedia:Charles_darwin|Charles Darwin]] (1871) and how communities which had the largest number of sympathetic individuals thrived and reproduced the most offspring (Gilbert, 2020). * Discuss how currently, theorists have noted that compassion has reproductive advantages, as it is part of the evolved care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young (Gilbert, 2020). The quality of care impacts the offspring's [[wikipedia:Epigenetics|epigenetics]] and appraisal of threats (Gilbert, 2020). * Compassion has also evolved in primates, as it is an ideal feature in mate selection and allows for effective relationships with other primates (Gilbert, 2020). *[[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] studies have shown that being motivated to care, and showing self and radical compassion has benefits on physiological, psychological and social processes (Gilbert, 2015). *Physiological benefits include better functioning systems, such as the sympathetic/parasympathetic nervous system, cardiovascular system and immune system (Gilbert, 2015). *The psychological benefits center around reciprocity: when humans feel seen and supported and in turn are caring and supportive, their psychological functioning improves (Gilbert, 2015). *Oxytocin has been found to be one of the psychological mediators of compassion and caring behaviour (Gilbert, 2015). - links to prosocial behaviour. Table 1. ''Key Figures and their Evolutionary Theories on Compassion'' {| class="wikitable" !Important Figures !Evolutionary Theories |- | | |- | | |- | | |} == Compassion Theories == === The Emancipatory Theory of Compassion === * Dr. Jane Georges (suffering is universal and can therefore be relieved through showing compassion) (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * Also states that nurses, whether conscious of their actions or not, can create surroundings where suffering is sustained (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * '''Key Characteristics of Compassionate Behaviour (Constantinides, 2019):''' # Mindfulness (used to establish meaning and thoughtfulness as a reaction to human needs) # An acknowledgement of the uniqueness and spirituality of others # A willingness to understand # An ability to genuinely listen === The Theory of Compassion Energy === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Martha_E._Rogers|Martha Rogers]] based on her Science of Unitary Beings and Caring Science theories work (Dunn, 2019). * The Theory of Compassion Energy involves caregivers who have a desire to provide compassionate care by intentionally getting to know the person they are caring for through being there for them and nurturing them (Dunn, 2019). * When nurses and carers engage nurturingly with patients, they become energized and focused on meeting the needs of the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Positive outcomes result for both the carer and the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Compassion then becomes the driving force or energizer for caring (Dunn, 2019). === Theoretical Model of Self-Compassion === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Kristin_Neff|Kristin Neff]]<nowiki/>and involved self-compassion consisting of three groups of contrasting components: emotional responsivity, attention to personal suffering, and cognitive understanding (Neff et al., 2020). * Emotional response is made up of self-kindness vs. self-judgement, attention to personal suffering is composed of mindfulness vs. overidentification and cognitive understanding consists of isolation vs. common humanity (Neff et al., 2020). * These contrasting components interconnect as a system and can be measured individually or all together to make a total score (Neff et al., 2020). This is called the Self-Compassion Scale. * Explain the Self-Compassion Scale {{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what is compassion?' 'the evolution of compassion' and 'compassion theories.' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == What are the Pros of Compassion? == === Healing === * For the person receiving compassion. * Not only psychological healing (from grief) but also physical healing (from illness and harm). * Compassion can also help reduce anxiety, and increase positive emotions such as gratitude. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Compassion Satisfaction === * Satisfaction resulting from helping others. * Compassion is also associated with having a more prosocial identity (viewing oneself as caring). * Those who are compassionate are viewed more strongly as leaders. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Emotional Connection & Shared Positive Emotions === [[File:The Joy of Playing Together by Rasheedhrasheed.jpg|thumb|''Figure 3''. Demonstrates shared positive emotion (joy).]] * Compassion connects people psychologically and creates a stronger emotional connection. * This stronger connection may be due to the fact that compassion generates trust. * Alternatively, if an individual consistently shows compassion to another person, but does not receive it in return, may result in status differences or relational inequalities. * Compassion also generates shared positive emotions such as gratefulness and joy. * Compassion has also been found to improve collaboration in the workplace. * (Dutton et al., 2014). == What are the Cons of Compassion? == === Moral Distress === * Moral distress occurs when someone is considering showing compassion, but is unable to take the right action, does not effectively relieve others' suffering, or experiences secondary trauma or impairment resulting from extensive exposure to another person's suffering (Dutton et al., 2014). * Moral distress can also occur when an individual shows compassion in a situation that does not require compassion, or when an individual withholds compassion when it is needed (Nussbaum, 2003). * The person has wrongly determined the judgement of seriousness, placing great importance on the wrong situations and not enough importance on significant situations (Nussbaum, 2003). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the moral distress felt when too much importance is placed on situations that don't require compassion. Case Study: Samantha has lost another item, this time it is her earing. The earing has no personal significance to her, as it is a standard sleeper, which can easily be replaced. Alice, again, evaluates the situation and decides that because Samantha became so distraught when Alice did not provide compassion last time, she would show compassion to Samantha this time. However, Alice experiences moral distress, as the situation is not serious and the loss of a trivial item does not require the expression of compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Compassion Fatigue === [[File:Canva - Woman Feeling Emotional Stress.jpg|thumb|''Figure 4.'' An illustration of how compassion fatigue can feel.]] * [[wikipedia:Compassion_fatigue|Compassion fatigue]] is described as actions or emotions resulting from hearing about a traumatic event and feeling stressed due to wanting to or actually helping the person who is suffering (Sabo, 2014). *Compassion fatigue is common in the healthcare profession, particularly among nurses (Dunn, 2019). *Nurses who are highly empathetic are at a greater risk of developing compassion fatigue (Sabo, 2014). *Describe the factors contributing to compassion fatigue (empathic ability, empathic response, and residual compassion stress) (Sabo, 2014). *Explain ways to avoid or reduce the chance of compassion fatigue. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}* We need to have a balance of providing compassion, but also receiving compassion ourselves to mitigate the cons of displaying compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}}{{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what are the pros and cons of compassion?' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == How Can We Foster Compassion? == There are ways we can foster compassion, mainly through compassion training. There have been many types of effective compassion training, with the most effective ones being mindful self-compassion, cognitively-based compassion training. === Mindful Self-Compassion === * Developed by Kristin Neff and Chris Germer (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Combines mindfulness and compassion training as well as [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|psychotherapy]] and personal development training (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Mindfulness training is necessary, as it allows us to detect when we are suffering so we can show ourselves kindness (Germer & Neff, 2019). *It is also necessary to stabilize our awareness of the confronting emotions triggered during self-compassion therapy (Germer & Neff, 2019). *These confronting emotions are associated with times in a person's life where they did not receive compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). Mindful self-compassion takes a therapeutic approach in addressing these old wounds with a new approach: mindfulness and self-compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Self-compassion training is necessary, as we often need to show loving awareness towards ourselves before we apply this to our experiences (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting that CBCT is successful. === Cognitively-Based Compassion Training === *Developed by Lobsang Tenzin Negi (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT is a form of contemplative practice, where an individual is encouraged to view others with love, kindness, empathy and compassion (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT builds on mindfulness techniques and uses various cognitive restructuring and affect fostering techniques (Cole et al., 2012). *The long term aim of CBCT is to generate a calmness of mind, which accepts and understands others (Cole et al., 2012). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting CBCT is successful. === Compassion Based Interventions === * == Conclusion == * Answer the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research) * Answer the focus questions * Summarize the content covered * Communicate the practical, take-home messages == See also == * [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] (Wikipedia) * [[What Matters/Compassion]] (Book chapter, 2021) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rAEhGHcZ3Vw What is the difference between empathy and compassion?] (YouTube) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 887ug12zyuc6lfupcx2txo7sdss8uq6 2415678 2415675 2022-08-17T02:34:15Z U3203545 2947578 /* How Can We Foster Compassion? */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Compassion:<br>What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * Explain how compassion is controversial as an emotion (not all scientists agree) (Kirby et al., 2017). * Explain why people are compelled to be compassionate or not compelled (illustrate the problem) * How do we measure compassion? * Summarize the advantages of compassion * Summarize the disadvantages of compassion * Summarize how we can foster compassion * Outline how psychological science can help with the problem {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is Compassion? * What are the Advantages of Compassion? * What are the Disadvantages of Compassion? * How can we Foster Compassion? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Compassion?== [[File:There's no crying in baseball! (4549295140) 2.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' A common display of compassion through comforting someone who is upset.]]There are many definitions of compassion, with the main ones stemming from Richard Lazarus and Jennifer Goetz et al. What Lazarus' and Goetz' definitions have in common is that compassion involves being effected by another persons suffering, having the desire to help them, and taking action to help them (Baer et al., 2016). In this chapter, we will be referring to a more detailed definition of compassion. [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] is an emotion expressed in reaction to the [[wikipedia:Suffering|suffering]] or low well-being of others (Nussbaum, 2003). It involves making a judgement, known as the judgement of seriousness, that someone is not coping well and that the situation is serious (Nussbaum, 2003). Therefore, compassion is not felt for people who loose insignificant items, such as a pair of socks or a hairbrush (Nussbaum, 2003). '''There are two main types of compassion:''' [[wikipedia:Radical_compassion|Radical compassion]], otherwise known as compassion for others, involves showing compassion to other people, through acknowledging their pain and coming up with a solution to relieve it (Cherry, 2021). [[wikipedia:Self-compassion|Self-compassion]] involves showing compassion to yourself in suffering and perceived inadequacy (Cherry, 2021). In Kathryn Stockett's novel 'The Help,' which was later adapted into a film, an African-American nanny whispers to the little girl she is babysitting: "You is kind, you is smart, you is important" (Kathryn Stockett, 2009, p. 443). This was a simple, yet caring way to encourage self-compassion in this young girl. '''What is the difference between compassion and empathy?''' People can often become confused between the terms compassion and [[wikipedia:Empathy|empathy]]. While they are both [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], empathy involves feeling what others are feeling and desiring to help them (Zimmer, 2019). Compassion involves a deep concern for others, a desire to help, AND taking action to help the person (Zimmer, 2019). While empathy and compassion both involve sharing the feelings of others and desiring to help them, compassion also involves taking action to help them (Zimmer, 2019).{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the judgement we make when choosing whether to show compassion based on the seriousness of a person's suffering. Case Study: Samantha is feeling down because she has lost her scrunchie. Samantha has other scrunchies that she can use and her lost scrunchie has no personal significance to her. Samantha's roommate, Alice, evaluates the situation and decides that although Samantha is upset, she is not seriously affected. Alice shows understanding of the loss but chooses not to show compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Evolution of Compassion == [[File:Baboon and baby Okavango delta.jpg|thumb|''Figure 2''. Compassion evolved as part of the care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young]] * Discuss how compassion leads back to [[wikipedia:Charles_darwin|Charles Darwin]] (1871) and how communities which had the largest number of sympathetic individuals thrived and reproduced the most offspring (Gilbert, 2020). * Discuss how currently, theorists have noted that compassion has reproductive advantages, as it is part of the evolved care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young (Gilbert, 2020). The quality of care impacts the offspring's [[wikipedia:Epigenetics|epigenetics]] and appraisal of threats (Gilbert, 2020). * Compassion has also evolved in primates, as it is an ideal feature in mate selection and allows for effective relationships with other primates (Gilbert, 2020). *[[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] studies have shown that being motivated to care, and showing self and radical compassion has benefits on physiological, psychological and social processes (Gilbert, 2015). *Physiological benefits include better functioning systems, such as the sympathetic/parasympathetic nervous system, cardiovascular system and immune system (Gilbert, 2015). *The psychological benefits center around reciprocity: when humans feel seen and supported and in turn are caring and supportive, their psychological functioning improves (Gilbert, 2015). *Oxytocin has been found to be one of the psychological mediators of compassion and caring behaviour (Gilbert, 2015). - links to prosocial behaviour. Table 1. ''Key Figures and their Evolutionary Theories on Compassion'' {| class="wikitable" !Important Figures !Evolutionary Theories |- | | |- | | |- | | |} == Compassion Theories == === The Emancipatory Theory of Compassion === * Dr. Jane Georges (suffering is universal and can therefore be relieved through showing compassion) (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * Also states that nurses, whether conscious of their actions or not, can create surroundings where suffering is sustained (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * '''Key Characteristics of Compassionate Behaviour (Constantinides, 2019):''' # Mindfulness (used to establish meaning and thoughtfulness as a reaction to human needs) # An acknowledgement of the uniqueness and spirituality of others # A willingness to understand # An ability to genuinely listen === The Theory of Compassion Energy === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Martha_E._Rogers|Martha Rogers]] based on her Science of Unitary Beings and Caring Science theories work (Dunn, 2019). * The Theory of Compassion Energy involves caregivers who have a desire to provide compassionate care by intentionally getting to know the person they are caring for through being there for them and nurturing them (Dunn, 2019). * When nurses and carers engage nurturingly with patients, they become energized and focused on meeting the needs of the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Positive outcomes result for both the carer and the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Compassion then becomes the driving force or energizer for caring (Dunn, 2019). === Theoretical Model of Self-Compassion === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Kristin_Neff|Kristin Neff]]<nowiki/>and involved self-compassion consisting of three groups of contrasting components: emotional responsivity, attention to personal suffering, and cognitive understanding (Neff et al., 2020). * Emotional response is made up of self-kindness vs. self-judgement, attention to personal suffering is composed of mindfulness vs. overidentification and cognitive understanding consists of isolation vs. common humanity (Neff et al., 2020). * These contrasting components interconnect as a system and can be measured individually or all together to make a total score (Neff et al., 2020). This is called the Self-Compassion Scale. * Explain the Self-Compassion Scale {{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what is compassion?' 'the evolution of compassion' and 'compassion theories.' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == What are the Pros of Compassion? == === Healing === * For the person receiving compassion. * Not only psychological healing (from grief) but also physical healing (from illness and harm). * Compassion can also help reduce anxiety, and increase positive emotions such as gratitude. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Compassion Satisfaction === * Satisfaction resulting from helping others. * Compassion is also associated with having a more prosocial identity (viewing oneself as caring). * Those who are compassionate are viewed more strongly as leaders. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Emotional Connection & Shared Positive Emotions === [[File:The Joy of Playing Together by Rasheedhrasheed.jpg|thumb|''Figure 3''. Demonstrates shared positive emotion (joy).]] * Compassion connects people psychologically and creates a stronger emotional connection. * This stronger connection may be due to the fact that compassion generates trust. * Alternatively, if an individual consistently shows compassion to another person, but does not receive it in return, may result in status differences or relational inequalities. * Compassion also generates shared positive emotions such as gratefulness and joy. * Compassion has also been found to improve collaboration in the workplace. * (Dutton et al., 2014). == What are the Cons of Compassion? == === Moral Distress === * Moral distress occurs when someone is considering showing compassion, but is unable to take the right action, does not effectively relieve others' suffering, or experiences secondary trauma or impairment resulting from extensive exposure to another person's suffering (Dutton et al., 2014). * Moral distress can also occur when an individual shows compassion in a situation that does not require compassion, or when an individual withholds compassion when it is needed (Nussbaum, 2003). * The person has wrongly determined the judgement of seriousness, placing great importance on the wrong situations and not enough importance on significant situations (Nussbaum, 2003). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the moral distress felt when too much importance is placed on situations that don't require compassion. Case Study: Samantha has lost another item, this time it is her earing. The earing has no personal significance to her, as it is a standard sleeper, which can easily be replaced. Alice, again, evaluates the situation and decides that because Samantha became so distraught when Alice did not provide compassion last time, she would show compassion to Samantha this time. However, Alice experiences moral distress, as the situation is not serious and the loss of a trivial item does not require the expression of compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Compassion Fatigue === [[File:Canva - Woman Feeling Emotional Stress.jpg|thumb|''Figure 4.'' An illustration of how compassion fatigue can feel.]] * [[wikipedia:Compassion_fatigue|Compassion fatigue]] is described as actions or emotions resulting from hearing about a traumatic event and feeling stressed due to wanting to or actually helping the person who is suffering (Sabo, 2014). *Compassion fatigue is common in the healthcare profession, particularly among nurses (Dunn, 2019). *Nurses who are highly empathetic are at a greater risk of developing compassion fatigue (Sabo, 2014). *Describe the factors contributing to compassion fatigue (empathic ability, empathic response, and residual compassion stress) (Sabo, 2014). *Explain ways to avoid or reduce the chance of compassion fatigue. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}* We need to have a balance of providing compassion, but also receiving compassion ourselves to mitigate the cons of displaying compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}}{{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what are the pros and cons of compassion?' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == How Can We Foster Compassion? == There are ways we can foster compassion, mainly through compassion training. There have been many types of effective compassion training, with the most effective ones being mindful self-compassion, cognitively-based compassion training. === Mindful Self-Compassion === * Developed by Kristin Neff and Chris Germer (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Combines mindfulness and compassion training as well as [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|psychotherapy]] and personal development training (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Mindfulness training is necessary, as it allows us to detect when we are suffering so we can show ourselves kindness (Germer & Neff, 2019). *It is also necessary to stabilize our awareness of the confronting emotions triggered during self-compassion therapy (Germer & Neff, 2019). *These confronting emotions are associated with times in a person's life where they did not receive compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). Mindful self-compassion takes a therapeutic approach in addressing these old wounds with a new approach: mindfulness and self-compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Self-compassion training is necessary, as we often need to show loving awareness towards ourselves before we apply this to our experiences (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting that CBCT is successful. === Cognitively-Based Compassion Training === *Developed by Lobsang Tenzin Negi (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT is a form of contemplative practice, where an individual is encouraged to view others with love, kindness, empathy and compassion (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT builds on mindfulness techniques and uses various cognitive restructuring and affect fostering techniques (Cole et al., 2012). *The long term aim of CBCT is to generate a calmness of mind, which accepts and understands others (Cole et al., 2012). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting CBCT is successful. === Compassion Cultivation Training === * == Conclusion == * Answer the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research) * Answer the focus questions * Summarize the content covered * Communicate the practical, take-home messages == See also == * [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] (Wikipedia) * [[What Matters/Compassion]] (Book chapter, 2021) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rAEhGHcZ3Vw What is the difference between empathy and compassion?] (YouTube) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 71zowxozqluh29tb1aqmudoemgsjsnm 2415689 2415678 2022-08-17T03:41:00Z U3203545 2947578 /* Compassion Cultivation Training */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Compassion:<br>What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * Explain how compassion is controversial as an emotion (not all scientists agree) (Kirby et al., 2017). * Explain why people are compelled to be compassionate or not compelled (illustrate the problem) * How do we measure compassion? * Summarize the advantages of compassion * Summarize the disadvantages of compassion * Summarize how we can foster compassion * Outline how psychological science can help with the problem {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is Compassion? * What are the Advantages of Compassion? * What are the Disadvantages of Compassion? * How can we Foster Compassion? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Compassion?== [[File:There's no crying in baseball! (4549295140) 2.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' A common display of compassion through comforting someone who is upset.]]There are many definitions of compassion, with the main ones stemming from Richard Lazarus and Jennifer Goetz et al. What Lazarus' and Goetz' definitions have in common is that compassion involves being effected by another persons suffering, having the desire to help them, and taking action to help them (Baer et al., 2016). In this chapter, we will be referring to a more detailed definition of compassion. [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] is an emotion expressed in reaction to the [[wikipedia:Suffering|suffering]] or low well-being of others (Nussbaum, 2003). It involves making a judgement, known as the judgement of seriousness, that someone is not coping well and that the situation is serious (Nussbaum, 2003). Therefore, compassion is not felt for people who loose insignificant items, such as a pair of socks or a hairbrush (Nussbaum, 2003). '''There are two main types of compassion:''' [[wikipedia:Radical_compassion|Radical compassion]], otherwise known as compassion for others, involves showing compassion to other people, through acknowledging their pain and coming up with a solution to relieve it (Cherry, 2021). [[wikipedia:Self-compassion|Self-compassion]] involves showing compassion to yourself in suffering and perceived inadequacy (Cherry, 2021). In Kathryn Stockett's novel 'The Help,' which was later adapted into a film, an African-American nanny whispers to the little girl she is babysitting: "You is kind, you is smart, you is important" (Kathryn Stockett, 2009, p. 443). This was a simple, yet caring way to encourage self-compassion in this young girl. '''What is the difference between compassion and empathy?''' People can often become confused between the terms compassion and [[wikipedia:Empathy|empathy]]. While they are both [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], empathy involves feeling what others are feeling and desiring to help them (Zimmer, 2019). Compassion involves a deep concern for others, a desire to help, AND taking action to help the person (Zimmer, 2019). While empathy and compassion both involve sharing the feelings of others and desiring to help them, compassion also involves taking action to help them (Zimmer, 2019).{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the judgement we make when choosing whether to show compassion based on the seriousness of a person's suffering. Case Study: Samantha is feeling down because she has lost her scrunchie. Samantha has other scrunchies that she can use and her lost scrunchie has no personal significance to her. Samantha's roommate, Alice, evaluates the situation and decides that although Samantha is upset, she is not seriously affected. Alice shows understanding of the loss but chooses not to show compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Evolution of Compassion == [[File:Baboon and baby Okavango delta.jpg|thumb|''Figure 2''. Compassion evolved as part of the care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young]] * Discuss how compassion leads back to [[wikipedia:Charles_darwin|Charles Darwin]] (1871) and how communities which had the largest number of sympathetic individuals thrived and reproduced the most offspring (Gilbert, 2020). * Discuss how currently, theorists have noted that compassion has reproductive advantages, as it is part of the evolved care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young (Gilbert, 2020). The quality of care impacts the offspring's [[wikipedia:Epigenetics|epigenetics]] and appraisal of threats (Gilbert, 2020). * Compassion has also evolved in primates, as it is an ideal feature in mate selection and allows for effective relationships with other primates (Gilbert, 2020). *[[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] studies have shown that being motivated to care, and showing self and radical compassion has benefits on physiological, psychological and social processes (Gilbert, 2015). *Physiological benefits include better functioning systems, such as the sympathetic/parasympathetic nervous system, cardiovascular system and immune system (Gilbert, 2015). *The psychological benefits center around reciprocity: when humans feel seen and supported and in turn are caring and supportive, their psychological functioning improves (Gilbert, 2015). *Oxytocin has been found to be one of the psychological mediators of compassion and caring behaviour (Gilbert, 2015). - links to prosocial behaviour. Table 1. ''Key Figures and their Evolutionary Theories on Compassion'' {| class="wikitable" !Important Figures !Evolutionary Theories |- | | |- | | |- | | |} == Compassion Theories == === The Emancipatory Theory of Compassion === * Dr. Jane Georges (suffering is universal and can therefore be relieved through showing compassion) (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * Also states that nurses, whether conscious of their actions or not, can create surroundings where suffering is sustained (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * '''Key Characteristics of Compassionate Behaviour (Constantinides, 2019):''' # Mindfulness (used to establish meaning and thoughtfulness as a reaction to human needs) # An acknowledgement of the uniqueness and spirituality of others # A willingness to understand # An ability to genuinely listen === The Theory of Compassion Energy === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Martha_E._Rogers|Martha Rogers]] based on her Science of Unitary Beings and Caring Science theories work (Dunn, 2019). * The Theory of Compassion Energy involves caregivers who have a desire to provide compassionate care by intentionally getting to know the person they are caring for through being there for them and nurturing them (Dunn, 2019). * When nurses and carers engage nurturingly with patients, they become energized and focused on meeting the needs of the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Positive outcomes result for both the carer and the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Compassion then becomes the driving force or energizer for caring (Dunn, 2019). === Theoretical Model of Self-Compassion === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Kristin_Neff|Kristin Neff]]<nowiki/>and involved self-compassion consisting of three groups of contrasting components: emotional responsivity, attention to personal suffering, and cognitive understanding (Neff et al., 2020). * Emotional response is made up of self-kindness vs. self-judgement, attention to personal suffering is composed of mindfulness vs. overidentification and cognitive understanding consists of isolation vs. common humanity (Neff et al., 2020). * These contrasting components interconnect as a system and can be measured individually or all together to make a total score (Neff et al., 2020). This is called the Self-Compassion Scale. * Explain the Self-Compassion Scale {{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what is compassion?' 'the evolution of compassion' and 'compassion theories.' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == What are the Pros of Compassion? == === Healing === * For the person receiving compassion. * Not only psychological healing (from grief) but also physical healing (from illness and harm). * Compassion can also help reduce anxiety, and increase positive emotions such as gratitude. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Compassion Satisfaction === * Satisfaction resulting from helping others. * Compassion is also associated with having a more prosocial identity (viewing oneself as caring). * Those who are compassionate are viewed more strongly as leaders. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Emotional Connection & Shared Positive Emotions === [[File:The Joy of Playing Together by Rasheedhrasheed.jpg|thumb|''Figure 3''. Demonstrates shared positive emotion (joy).]] * Compassion connects people psychologically and creates a stronger emotional connection. * This stronger connection may be due to the fact that compassion generates trust. * Alternatively, if an individual consistently shows compassion to another person, but does not receive it in return, may result in status differences or relational inequalities. * Compassion also generates shared positive emotions such as gratefulness and joy. * Compassion has also been found to improve collaboration in the workplace. * (Dutton et al., 2014). == What are the Cons of Compassion? == === Moral Distress === * Moral distress occurs when someone is considering showing compassion, but is unable to take the right action, does not effectively relieve others' suffering, or experiences secondary trauma or impairment resulting from extensive exposure to another person's suffering (Dutton et al., 2014). * Moral distress can also occur when an individual shows compassion in a situation that does not require compassion, or when an individual withholds compassion when it is needed (Nussbaum, 2003). * The person has wrongly determined the judgement of seriousness, placing great importance on the wrong situations and not enough importance on significant situations (Nussbaum, 2003). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the moral distress felt when too much importance is placed on situations that don't require compassion. Case Study: Samantha has lost another item, this time it is her earing. The earing has no personal significance to her, as it is a standard sleeper, which can easily be replaced. Alice, again, evaluates the situation and decides that because Samantha became so distraught when Alice did not provide compassion last time, she would show compassion to Samantha this time. However, Alice experiences moral distress, as the situation is not serious and the loss of a trivial item does not require the expression of compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Compassion Fatigue === [[File:Canva - Woman Feeling Emotional Stress.jpg|thumb|''Figure 4.'' An illustration of how compassion fatigue can feel.]] * [[wikipedia:Compassion_fatigue|Compassion fatigue]] is described as actions or emotions resulting from hearing about a traumatic event and feeling stressed due to wanting to or actually helping the person who is suffering (Sabo, 2014). *Compassion fatigue is common in the healthcare profession, particularly among nurses (Dunn, 2019). *Nurses who are highly empathetic are at a greater risk of developing compassion fatigue (Sabo, 2014). *Describe the factors contributing to compassion fatigue (empathic ability, empathic response, and residual compassion stress) (Sabo, 2014). *Explain ways to avoid or reduce the chance of compassion fatigue. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}* We need to have a balance of providing compassion, but also receiving compassion ourselves to mitigate the cons of displaying compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}}{{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what are the pros and cons of compassion?' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == How Can We Foster Compassion? == There are ways we can foster compassion, mainly through compassion training. There have been many types of effective compassion training, with the most effective ones being mindful self-compassion, cognitively-based compassion training. === Mindful Self-Compassion === * Developed by Kristin Neff and Chris Germer (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Combines mindfulness and compassion training as well as [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|psychotherapy]] and personal development training (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Mindfulness training is necessary, as it allows us to detect when we are suffering so we can show ourselves kindness (Germer & Neff, 2019). *It is also necessary to stabilize our awareness of the confronting emotions triggered during self-compassion therapy (Germer & Neff, 2019). *These confronting emotions are associated with times in a person's life where they did not receive compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). Mindful self-compassion takes a therapeutic approach in addressing these old wounds with a new approach: mindfulness and self-compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Self-compassion training is necessary, as we often need to show loving awareness towards ourselves before we apply this to our experiences (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting that CBCT is successful. === Cognitively-Based Compassion Training === *Developed by Lobsang Tenzin Negi (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT is a form of contemplative practice, where an individual is encouraged to view others with love, kindness, empathy and compassion (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT builds on mindfulness techniques and uses various cognitive restructuring and affect fostering techniques (Cole et al., 2012). *The long term aim of CBCT is to generate a calmness of mind, which accepts and understands others (Cole et al., 2012). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting CBCT is successful. === Compassion Cultivation Training === *Based on Jinpa's definition of compassion involving four items (motivation, intentional, affective and cognitive) (Kirby, 2017). *Each session starts and ends with meditation (Kirby, 2017). *Meditation focus to foster compassion and loving-kindness towards others and the self (Kirby, 2017). == Conclusion == * Answer the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research) * Answer the focus questions * Summarize the content covered * Communicate the practical, take-home messages == See also == * [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] (Wikipedia) * [[What Matters/Compassion]] (Book chapter, 2021) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Constantinides, S. M., & Georges, J. M. (2022). To a centrality of compassion: operationalizing the emancipatory theory of compassion. ''Advances in Nursing Science'', ''45''(2), 114–126. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091221 Dutton, J. E., Hardin, A. E., & Workman, K. M. (2014). Compassion at work. ''The Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior'', ''1'', 277–304. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091221 Kirby, J. N., Steindl, S.R., & Tellegen, C. L. (2017). A meta-analysis of compassion-based interventions: current state of knowledge and future directions. ''Behavior Therapy'', ''48''(6), 778–792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.06.003 Nussbaum, M. C. (2003). Compassion and terror. ''International Justice'', ''132''(1), 10–26. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20027819 Dutton, J. E., Hardin, A. E., & Workman, K. M. (2014). Compassion at work. ''The Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior'', ''1'', 277–304. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091221 Kirby, J. N., Steindl, S.R., & Tellegen, C. L. (2017). A meta-analysis of compassion-based interventions: current state of knowledge and future directions. ''Behavior Therapy'', ''48''(6), 778–792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.06.003 Nussbaum, M. C. (2003). Compassion and terror. ''International Justice'', ''132''(1), 10–26. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20027819 }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rAEhGHcZ3Vw What is the difference between empathy and compassion?] (YouTube) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] j0kk3me9m7yz3c8ot33dxouvjlqb9t3 2415691 2415689 2022-08-17T03:54:59Z U3203545 2947578 /* References */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Compassion:<br>What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * Explain how compassion is controversial as an emotion (not all scientists agree) (Kirby et al., 2017). * Explain why people are compelled to be compassionate or not compelled (illustrate the problem) * How do we measure compassion? * Summarize the advantages of compassion * Summarize the disadvantages of compassion * Summarize how we can foster compassion * Outline how psychological science can help with the problem {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is Compassion? * What are the Advantages of Compassion? * What are the Disadvantages of Compassion? * How can we Foster Compassion? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Compassion?== [[File:There's no crying in baseball! (4549295140) 2.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' A common display of compassion through comforting someone who is upset.]]There are many definitions of compassion, with the main ones stemming from Richard Lazarus and Jennifer Goetz et al. What Lazarus' and Goetz' definitions have in common is that compassion involves being effected by another persons suffering, having the desire to help them, and taking action to help them (Baer et al., 2016). In this chapter, we will be referring to a more detailed definition of compassion. [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] is an emotion expressed in reaction to the [[wikipedia:Suffering|suffering]] or low well-being of others (Nussbaum, 2003). It involves making a judgement, known as the judgement of seriousness, that someone is not coping well and that the situation is serious (Nussbaum, 2003). Therefore, compassion is not felt for people who loose insignificant items, such as a pair of socks or a hairbrush (Nussbaum, 2003). '''There are two main types of compassion:''' [[wikipedia:Radical_compassion|Radical compassion]], otherwise known as compassion for others, involves showing compassion to other people, through acknowledging their pain and coming up with a solution to relieve it (Cherry, 2021). [[wikipedia:Self-compassion|Self-compassion]] involves showing compassion to yourself in suffering and perceived inadequacy (Cherry, 2021). In Kathryn Stockett's novel 'The Help,' which was later adapted into a film, an African-American nanny whispers to the little girl she is babysitting: "You is kind, you is smart, you is important" (Kathryn Stockett, 2009, p. 443). This was a simple, yet caring way to encourage self-compassion in this young girl. '''What is the difference between compassion and empathy?''' People can often become confused between the terms compassion and [[wikipedia:Empathy|empathy]]. While they are both [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], empathy involves feeling what others are feeling and desiring to help them (Zimmer, 2019). Compassion involves a deep concern for others, a desire to help, AND taking action to help the person (Zimmer, 2019). While empathy and compassion both involve sharing the feelings of others and desiring to help them, compassion also involves taking action to help them (Zimmer, 2019).{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the judgement we make when choosing whether to show compassion based on the seriousness of a person's suffering. Case Study: Samantha is feeling down because she has lost her scrunchie. Samantha has other scrunchies that she can use and her lost scrunchie has no personal significance to her. Samantha's roommate, Alice, evaluates the situation and decides that although Samantha is upset, she is not seriously affected. Alice shows understanding of the loss but chooses not to show compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Evolution of Compassion == [[File:Baboon and baby Okavango delta.jpg|thumb|''Figure 2''. Compassion evolved as part of the care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young]] * Discuss how compassion leads back to [[wikipedia:Charles_darwin|Charles Darwin]] (1871) and how communities which had the largest number of sympathetic individuals thrived and reproduced the most offspring (Gilbert, 2020). * Discuss how currently, theorists have noted that compassion has reproductive advantages, as it is part of the evolved care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young (Gilbert, 2020). The quality of care impacts the offspring's [[wikipedia:Epigenetics|epigenetics]] and appraisal of threats (Gilbert, 2020). * Compassion has also evolved in primates, as it is an ideal feature in mate selection and allows for effective relationships with other primates (Gilbert, 2020). *[[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] studies have shown that being motivated to care, and showing self and radical compassion has benefits on physiological, psychological and social processes (Gilbert, 2015). *Physiological benefits include better functioning systems, such as the sympathetic/parasympathetic nervous system, cardiovascular system and immune system (Gilbert, 2015). *The psychological benefits center around reciprocity: when humans feel seen and supported and in turn are caring and supportive, their psychological functioning improves (Gilbert, 2015). *Oxytocin has been found to be one of the psychological mediators of compassion and caring behaviour (Gilbert, 2015). - links to prosocial behaviour. Table 1. ''Key Figures and their Evolutionary Theories on Compassion'' {| class="wikitable" !Important Figures !Evolutionary Theories |- | | |- | | |- | | |} == Compassion Theories == === The Emancipatory Theory of Compassion === * Dr. Jane Georges (suffering is universal and can therefore be relieved through showing compassion) (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * Also states that nurses, whether conscious of their actions or not, can create surroundings where suffering is sustained (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * '''Key Characteristics of Compassionate Behaviour (Constantinides, 2019):''' # Mindfulness (used to establish meaning and thoughtfulness as a reaction to human needs) # An acknowledgement of the uniqueness and spirituality of others # A willingness to understand # An ability to genuinely listen === The Theory of Compassion Energy === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Martha_E._Rogers|Martha Rogers]] based on her Science of Unitary Beings and Caring Science theories work (Dunn, 2019). * The Theory of Compassion Energy involves caregivers who have a desire to provide compassionate care by intentionally getting to know the person they are caring for through being there for them and nurturing them (Dunn, 2019). * When nurses and carers engage nurturingly with patients, they become energized and focused on meeting the needs of the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Positive outcomes result for both the carer and the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Compassion then becomes the driving force or energizer for caring (Dunn, 2019). === Theoretical Model of Self-Compassion === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Kristin_Neff|Kristin Neff]]<nowiki/>and involved self-compassion consisting of three groups of contrasting components: emotional responsivity, attention to personal suffering, and cognitive understanding (Neff et al., 2020). * Emotional response is made up of self-kindness vs. self-judgement, attention to personal suffering is composed of mindfulness vs. overidentification and cognitive understanding consists of isolation vs. common humanity (Neff et al., 2020). * These contrasting components interconnect as a system and can be measured individually or all together to make a total score (Neff et al., 2020). This is called the Self-Compassion Scale. * Explain the Self-Compassion Scale {{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what is compassion?' 'the evolution of compassion' and 'compassion theories.' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == What are the Pros of Compassion? == === Healing === * For the person receiving compassion. * Not only psychological healing (from grief) but also physical healing (from illness and harm). * Compassion can also help reduce anxiety, and increase positive emotions such as gratitude. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Compassion Satisfaction === * Satisfaction resulting from helping others. * Compassion is also associated with having a more prosocial identity (viewing oneself as caring). * Those who are compassionate are viewed more strongly as leaders. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Emotional Connection & Shared Positive Emotions === [[File:The Joy of Playing Together by Rasheedhrasheed.jpg|thumb|''Figure 3''. Demonstrates shared positive emotion (joy).]] * Compassion connects people psychologically and creates a stronger emotional connection. * This stronger connection may be due to the fact that compassion generates trust. * Alternatively, if an individual consistently shows compassion to another person, but does not receive it in return, may result in status differences or relational inequalities. * Compassion also generates shared positive emotions such as gratefulness and joy. * Compassion has also been found to improve collaboration in the workplace. * (Dutton et al., 2014). == What are the Cons of Compassion? == === Moral Distress === * Moral distress occurs when someone is considering showing compassion, but is unable to take the right action, does not effectively relieve others' suffering, or experiences secondary trauma or impairment resulting from extensive exposure to another person's suffering (Dutton et al., 2014). * Moral distress can also occur when an individual shows compassion in a situation that does not require compassion, or when an individual withholds compassion when it is needed (Nussbaum, 2003). * The person has wrongly determined the judgement of seriousness, placing great importance on the wrong situations and not enough importance on significant situations (Nussbaum, 2003). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the moral distress felt when too much importance is placed on situations that don't require compassion. Case Study: Samantha has lost another item, this time it is her earing. The earing has no personal significance to her, as it is a standard sleeper, which can easily be replaced. Alice, again, evaluates the situation and decides that because Samantha became so distraught when Alice did not provide compassion last time, she would show compassion to Samantha this time. However, Alice experiences moral distress, as the situation is not serious and the loss of a trivial item does not require the expression of compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Compassion Fatigue === [[File:Canva - Woman Feeling Emotional Stress.jpg|thumb|''Figure 4.'' An illustration of how compassion fatigue can feel.]] * [[wikipedia:Compassion_fatigue|Compassion fatigue]] is described as actions or emotions resulting from hearing about a traumatic event and feeling stressed due to wanting to or actually helping the person who is suffering (Sabo, 2014). *Compassion fatigue is common in the healthcare profession, particularly among nurses (Dunn, 2019). *Nurses who are highly empathetic are at a greater risk of developing compassion fatigue (Sabo, 2014). *Describe the factors contributing to compassion fatigue (empathic ability, empathic response, and residual compassion stress) (Sabo, 2014). *Explain ways to avoid or reduce the chance of compassion fatigue. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}* We need to have a balance of providing compassion, but also receiving compassion ourselves to mitigate the cons of displaying compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}}{{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what are the pros and cons of compassion?' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == How Can We Foster Compassion? == There are ways we can foster compassion, mainly through compassion training. There have been many types of effective compassion training, with the most effective ones being mindful self-compassion, cognitively-based compassion training. === Mindful Self-Compassion === * Developed by Kristin Neff and Chris Germer (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Combines mindfulness and compassion training as well as [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|psychotherapy]] and personal development training (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Mindfulness training is necessary, as it allows us to detect when we are suffering so we can show ourselves kindness (Germer & Neff, 2019). *It is also necessary to stabilize our awareness of the confronting emotions triggered during self-compassion therapy (Germer & Neff, 2019). *These confronting emotions are associated with times in a person's life where they did not receive compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). Mindful self-compassion takes a therapeutic approach in addressing these old wounds with a new approach: mindfulness and self-compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Self-compassion training is necessary, as we often need to show loving awareness towards ourselves before we apply this to our experiences (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting that CBCT is successful. === Cognitively-Based Compassion Training === *Developed by Lobsang Tenzin Negi (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT is a form of contemplative practice, where an individual is encouraged to view others with love, kindness, empathy and compassion (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT builds on mindfulness techniques and uses various cognitive restructuring and affect fostering techniques (Cole et al., 2012). *The long term aim of CBCT is to generate a calmness of mind, which accepts and understands others (Cole et al., 2012). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting CBCT is successful. === Compassion Cultivation Training === *Based on Jinpa's definition of compassion involving four items (motivation, intentional, affective and cognitive) (Kirby, 2017). *Each session starts and ends with meditation (Kirby, 2017). *Meditation focus to foster compassion and loving-kindness towards others and the self (Kirby, 2017). == Conclusion == * Answer the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research) * Answer the focus questions * Summarize the content covered * Communicate the practical, take-home messages == See also == * [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] (Wikipedia) * [[What Matters/Compassion]] (Book chapter, 2021) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Constantinides, S. M., & Georges, J. M. (2022). To a centrality of compassion: operationalizing the emancipatory theory of compassion. ''Advances in Nursing Science'', ''45''(2), 114–126. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091221 Dutton, J. E., Hardin, A. E., & Workman, K. M. (2014). Compassion at work. ''The Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior'', ''1'', 277–304. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091221 Gilbert, P. (2020). Compassion: from its evolution to a psychotherapy. ''Frontiers in Psychology'',''11'', 1–31. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.586161. Kirby, J. N., Steindl, S.R., & Tellegen, C. L. (2017). A meta-analysis of compassion-based interventions: current state of knowledge and future directions. ''Behavior Therapy'', ''48''(6), 778–792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.06.003 Nussbaum, M. C. (2003). Compassion and terror. ''International Justice'', ''132''(1), 10–26. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20027819 Dutton, J. E., Hardin, A. E., & Workman, K. M. (2014). Compassion at work. ''The Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior'', ''1'', 277–304. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091221 Kirby, J. N., Steindl, S.R., & Tellegen, C. L. (2017). A meta-analysis of compassion-based interventions: current state of knowledge and future directions. ''Behavior Therapy'', ''48''(6), 778–792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.06.003 Nussbaum, M. C. (2003). Compassion and terror. ''International Justice'', ''132''(1), 10–26. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20027819 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rAEhGHcZ3Vw What is the difference between empathy and compassion?] (YouTube) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 5nybmp42ktxwg6ohmky53j9txr47185 2415705 2415691 2022-08-17T04:41:29Z U3203545 2947578 /* References */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Compassion:<br>What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * Explain how compassion is controversial as an emotion (not all scientists agree) (Kirby et al., 2017). * Explain why people are compelled to be compassionate or not compelled (illustrate the problem) * How do we measure compassion? * Summarize the advantages of compassion * Summarize the disadvantages of compassion * Summarize how we can foster compassion * Outline how psychological science can help with the problem {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is Compassion? * What are the Advantages of Compassion? * What are the Disadvantages of Compassion? * How can we Foster Compassion? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Compassion?== [[File:There's no crying in baseball! (4549295140) 2.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' A common display of compassion through comforting someone who is upset.]]There are many definitions of compassion, with the main ones stemming from Richard Lazarus and Jennifer Goetz et al. What Lazarus' and Goetz' definitions have in common is that compassion involves being effected by another persons suffering, having the desire to help them, and taking action to help them (Baer et al., 2016). In this chapter, we will be referring to a more detailed definition of compassion. [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] is an emotion expressed in reaction to the [[wikipedia:Suffering|suffering]] or low well-being of others (Nussbaum, 2003). It involves making a judgement, known as the judgement of seriousness, that someone is not coping well and that the situation is serious (Nussbaum, 2003). Therefore, compassion is not felt for people who loose insignificant items, such as a pair of socks or a hairbrush (Nussbaum, 2003). '''There are two main types of compassion:''' [[wikipedia:Radical_compassion|Radical compassion]], otherwise known as compassion for others, involves showing compassion to other people, through acknowledging their pain and coming up with a solution to relieve it (Cherry, 2021). [[wikipedia:Self-compassion|Self-compassion]] involves showing compassion to yourself in suffering and perceived inadequacy (Cherry, 2021). In Kathryn Stockett's novel 'The Help,' which was later adapted into a film, an African-American nanny whispers to the little girl she is babysitting: "You is kind, you is smart, you is important" (Kathryn Stockett, 2009, p. 443). This was a simple, yet caring way to encourage self-compassion in this young girl. '''What is the difference between compassion and empathy?''' People can often become confused between the terms compassion and [[wikipedia:Empathy|empathy]]. While they are both [[wikipedia:Emotion|emotions]], empathy involves feeling what others are feeling and desiring to help them (Zimmer, 2019). Compassion involves a deep concern for others, a desire to help, AND taking action to help the person (Zimmer, 2019). While empathy and compassion both involve sharing the feelings of others and desiring to help them, compassion also involves taking action to help them (Zimmer, 2019).{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the judgement we make when choosing whether to show compassion based on the seriousness of a person's suffering. Case Study: Samantha is feeling down because she has lost her scrunchie. Samantha has other scrunchies that she can use and her lost scrunchie has no personal significance to her. Samantha's roommate, Alice, evaluates the situation and decides that although Samantha is upset, she is not seriously affected. Alice shows understanding of the loss but chooses not to show compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Evolution of Compassion == [[File:Baboon and baby Okavango delta.jpg|thumb|''Figure 2''. Compassion evolved as part of the care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young]] * Discuss how compassion leads back to [[wikipedia:Charles_darwin|Charles Darwin]] (1871) and how communities which had the largest number of sympathetic individuals thrived and reproduced the most offspring (Gilbert, 2020). * Discuss how currently, theorists have noted that compassion has reproductive advantages, as it is part of the evolved care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young (Gilbert, 2020). The quality of care impacts the offspring's [[wikipedia:Epigenetics|epigenetics]] and appraisal of threats (Gilbert, 2020). * Compassion has also evolved in primates, as it is an ideal feature in mate selection and allows for effective relationships with other primates (Gilbert, 2020). *[[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] studies have shown that being motivated to care, and showing self and radical compassion has benefits on physiological, psychological and social processes (Gilbert, 2015). *Physiological benefits include better functioning systems, such as the sympathetic/parasympathetic nervous system, cardiovascular system and immune system (Gilbert, 2015). *The psychological benefits center around reciprocity: when humans feel seen and supported and in turn are caring and supportive, their psychological functioning improves (Gilbert, 2015). *Oxytocin has been found to be one of the psychological mediators of compassion and caring behaviour (Gilbert, 2015). - links to prosocial behaviour. Table 1. ''Key Figures and their Evolutionary Theories on Compassion'' {| class="wikitable" !Important Figures !Evolutionary Theories |- | | |- | | |- | | |} == Compassion Theories == === The Emancipatory Theory of Compassion === * Dr. Jane Georges (suffering is universal and can therefore be relieved through showing compassion) (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * Also states that nurses, whether conscious of their actions or not, can create surroundings where suffering is sustained (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * '''Key Characteristics of Compassionate Behaviour (Constantinides, 2019):''' # Mindfulness (used to establish meaning and thoughtfulness as a reaction to human needs) # An acknowledgement of the uniqueness and spirituality of others # A willingness to understand # An ability to genuinely listen === The Theory of Compassion Energy === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Martha_E._Rogers|Martha Rogers]] based on her Science of Unitary Beings and Caring Science theories work (Dunn, 2019). * The Theory of Compassion Energy involves caregivers who have a desire to provide compassionate care by intentionally getting to know the person they are caring for through being there for them and nurturing them (Dunn, 2019). * When nurses and carers engage nurturingly with patients, they become energized and focused on meeting the needs of the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Positive outcomes result for both the carer and the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Compassion then becomes the driving force or energizer for caring (Dunn, 2019). === Theoretical Model of Self-Compassion === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Kristin_Neff|Kristin Neff]]<nowiki/>and involved self-compassion consisting of three groups of contrasting components: emotional responsivity, attention to personal suffering, and cognitive understanding (Neff et al., 2020). * Emotional response is made up of self-kindness vs. self-judgement, attention to personal suffering is composed of mindfulness vs. overidentification and cognitive understanding consists of isolation vs. common humanity (Neff et al., 2020). * These contrasting components interconnect as a system and can be measured individually or all together to make a total score (Neff et al., 2020). This is called the Self-Compassion Scale. * Explain the Self-Compassion Scale {{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what is compassion?' 'the evolution of compassion' and 'compassion theories.' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == What are the Pros of Compassion? == === Healing === * For the person receiving compassion. * Not only psychological healing (from grief) but also physical healing (from illness and harm). * Compassion can also help reduce anxiety, and increase positive emotions such as gratitude. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Compassion Satisfaction === * Satisfaction resulting from helping others. * Compassion is also associated with having a more prosocial identity (viewing oneself as caring). * Those who are compassionate are viewed more strongly as leaders. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Emotional Connection & Shared Positive Emotions === [[File:The Joy of Playing Together by Rasheedhrasheed.jpg|thumb|''Figure 3''. Demonstrates shared positive emotion (joy).]] * Compassion connects people psychologically and creates a stronger emotional connection. * This stronger connection may be due to the fact that compassion generates trust. * Alternatively, if an individual consistently shows compassion to another person, but does not receive it in return, may result in status differences or relational inequalities. * Compassion also generates shared positive emotions such as gratefulness and joy. * Compassion has also been found to improve collaboration in the workplace. * (Dutton et al., 2014). == What are the Cons of Compassion? == === Moral Distress === * Moral distress occurs when someone is considering showing compassion, but is unable to take the right action, does not effectively relieve others' suffering, or experiences secondary trauma or impairment resulting from extensive exposure to another person's suffering (Dutton et al., 2014). * Moral distress can also occur when an individual shows compassion in a situation that does not require compassion, or when an individual withholds compassion when it is needed (Nussbaum, 2003). * The person has wrongly determined the judgement of seriousness, placing great importance on the wrong situations and not enough importance on significant situations (Nussbaum, 2003). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the moral distress felt when too much importance is placed on situations that don't require compassion. Case Study: Samantha has lost another item, this time it is her earing. The earing has no personal significance to her, as it is a standard sleeper, which can easily be replaced. Alice, again, evaluates the situation and decides that because Samantha became so distraught when Alice did not provide compassion last time, she would show compassion to Samantha this time. However, Alice experiences moral distress, as the situation is not serious and the loss of a trivial item does not require the expression of compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Compassion Fatigue === [[File:Canva - Woman Feeling Emotional Stress.jpg|thumb|''Figure 4.'' An illustration of how compassion fatigue can feel.]] * [[wikipedia:Compassion_fatigue|Compassion fatigue]] is described as actions or emotions resulting from hearing about a traumatic event and feeling stressed due to wanting to or actually helping the person who is suffering (Sabo, 2014). *Compassion fatigue is common in the healthcare profession, particularly among nurses (Dunn, 2019). *Nurses who are highly empathetic are at a greater risk of developing compassion fatigue (Sabo, 2014). *Describe the factors contributing to compassion fatigue (empathic ability, empathic response, and residual compassion stress) (Sabo, 2014). *Explain ways to avoid or reduce the chance of compassion fatigue. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}* We need to have a balance of providing compassion, but also receiving compassion ourselves to mitigate the cons of displaying compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}}{{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what are the pros and cons of compassion?' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == How Can We Foster Compassion? == There are ways we can foster compassion, mainly through compassion training. There have been many types of effective compassion training, with the most effective ones being mindful self-compassion, cognitively-based compassion training. === Mindful Self-Compassion === * Developed by Kristin Neff and Chris Germer (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Combines mindfulness and compassion training as well as [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|psychotherapy]] and personal development training (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Mindfulness training is necessary, as it allows us to detect when we are suffering so we can show ourselves kindness (Germer & Neff, 2019). *It is also necessary to stabilize our awareness of the confronting emotions triggered during self-compassion therapy (Germer & Neff, 2019). *These confronting emotions are associated with times in a person's life where they did not receive compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). Mindful self-compassion takes a therapeutic approach in addressing these old wounds with a new approach: mindfulness and self-compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Self-compassion training is necessary, as we often need to show loving awareness towards ourselves before we apply this to our experiences (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting that CBCT is successful. === Cognitively-Based Compassion Training === *Developed by Lobsang Tenzin Negi (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT is a form of contemplative practice, where an individual is encouraged to view others with love, kindness, empathy and compassion (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT builds on mindfulness techniques and uses various cognitive restructuring and affect fostering techniques (Cole et al., 2012). *The long term aim of CBCT is to generate a calmness of mind, which accepts and understands others (Cole et al., 2012). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting CBCT is successful. === Compassion Cultivation Training === *Based on Jinpa's definition of compassion involving four items (motivation, intentional, affective and cognitive) (Kirby, 2017). *Each session starts and ends with meditation (Kirby, 2017). *Meditation focus to foster compassion and loving-kindness towards others and the self (Kirby, 2017). == Conclusion == * Answer the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research) * Answer the focus questions * Summarize the content covered * Communicate the practical, take-home messages == See also == * [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] (Wikipedia) * [[What Matters/Compassion]] (Book chapter, 2021) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Constantinides, S. M., & Georges, J. M. (2022). To a centrality of compassion: operationalizing the emancipatory theory of compassion. ''Advances in Nursing Science'', ''45''(2), 114–126. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091221 Dunn, D. J. (2013, April). The theory of compassion energy. ''Beginnings Magazine'', ''1'', 277–304. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091221 Dutton, J. E., Hardin, A. E., & Workman, K. M. (2014). Compassion at work. ''The Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior'', ''1'', 277–304. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091221 Gilbert, P. (2020). Compassion: from its evolution to a psychotherapy. ''Frontiers in Psychology'',''11'', 1–31. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.586161. Kirby, J. N., Steindl, S.R., & Tellegen, C. L. (2017). A meta-analysis of compassion-based interventions: current state of knowledge and future directions. ''Behavior Therapy'', ''48''(6), 778–792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.06.003 Nussbaum, M. C. (2003). Compassion and terror. ''International Justice'', ''132''(1), 10–26. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20027819 Dutton, J. E., Hardin, A. E., & Workman, K. M. (2014). Compassion at work. ''The Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior'', ''1'', 277–304. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091221 Kirby, J. N., Steindl, S.R., & Tellegen, C. L. (2017). A meta-analysis of compassion-based interventions: current state of knowledge and future directions. ''Behavior Therapy'', ''48''(6), 778–792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.06.003 Nussbaum, M. C. (2003). Compassion and terror. ''International Justice'', ''132''(1), 10–26. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20027819 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rAEhGHcZ3Vw What is the difference between empathy and compassion?] (YouTube) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] eqfm7ma3giprdlo5j4pnrqhhfa0e621 2415726 2415705 2022-08-17T06:09:33Z U3203545 2947578 /* References */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Compassion:<br>What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * Explain how compassion is controversial as an emotion (not all scientists agree) (Kirby et al., 2017). * Explain why people are compelled to be compassionate or not compelled (illustrate the problem) * How do we measure compassion? * Summarize the advantages of compassion * Summarize the disadvantages of compassion * Summarize how we can foster compassion * Outline how psychological science can help with the problem {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is Compassion? * What are the Advantages of Compassion? * What are the Disadvantages of Compassion? * How can we Foster Compassion? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Compassion?== [[File:There's no crying in baseball! (4549295140) 2.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' A common display of compassion through comforting someone who is upset.]]There are many definitions of compassion, with the main ones stemming from Richard Lazarus and Jennifer Goetz et al. What Lazarus' and Goetz' definitions have in common is that compassion involves being effected by another persons suffering, having the desire to help them, and taking action to help them (Baer et al., 2016). In this chapter, we will be referring to a more detailed definition of compassion. [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] is an emotion expressed in reaction to the [[wikipedia:Suffering|suffering]] or low well-being of others (Nussbaum, 2003). It involves making a judgement, known as the judgement of seriousness, that someone is not coping well and that the situation is serious (Nussbaum, 2003). Therefore, compassion is not felt for people who loose insignificant items, such as a pair of socks or a hairbrush (Nussbaum, 2003). '''There are two main types of compassion:''' [[wikipedia:Radical_compassion|Radical compassion]], otherwise known as compassion for others, involves showing compassion to other people, through acknowledging their pain and coming up with a solution to relieve it (Cherry, 2021). [[wikipedia:Self-compassion|Self-compassion]] involves showing compassion to yourself in suffering and perceived inadequacy (Cherry, 2021). In Kathryn Stockett's novel 'The Help,' which was later adapted into a film, an African-American nanny whispers to the little girl she is babysitting: "You is kind, you is smart, you is important" (Kathryn Stockett, 2009, p. 443). This was a simple, yet caring way to encourage self-compassion in this young girl. '''What is the difference between compassion and empathy?''' People can often become confused between the terms compassion and [[wikipedia:Empathy|empathy]]. Empathy involves feeling what others are feeling and desiring to help them (Zimmer, 2019). Compassion involves a deep concern for others, a desire to help, AND taking action to help the person (Zimmer, 2019). While empathy and compassion both involve sharing the feelings of others and desiring to help them, compassion also involves taking action to help them (Zimmer, 2019).{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the judgement we make when choosing whether to show compassion based on the seriousness of a person's suffering. Case Study: Samantha is feeling down because she has lost her scrunchie. Samantha has other scrunchies that she can use and her lost scrunchie has no personal significance to her. Samantha's roommate, Alice, evaluates the situation and decides that although Samantha is upset, she is not seriously affected. Alice shows understanding of the loss but chooses not to show compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Evolution of Compassion == [[File:Baboon and baby Okavango delta.jpg|thumb|''Figure 2''. Compassion evolved as part of the care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young]] * Discuss how compassion leads back to [[wikipedia:Charles_darwin|Charles Darwin]] (1871) and how communities which had the largest number of sympathetic individuals thrived and reproduced the most offspring (Gilbert, 2020). * Discuss how currently, theorists have noted that compassion has reproductive advantages, as it is part of the evolved care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young (Gilbert, 2020). The quality of care impacts the offspring's [[wikipedia:Epigenetics|epigenetics]] and appraisal of threats (Gilbert, 2020). * Compassion has also evolved in primates, as it is an ideal feature in mate selection and allows for effective relationships with other primates (Gilbert, 2020). *[[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] studies have shown that being motivated to care, and showing self and radical compassion has benefits on physiological, psychological and social processes (Gilbert, 2015). *Physiological benefits include better functioning systems, such as the sympathetic/parasympathetic nervous system, cardiovascular system and immune system (Gilbert, 2015). *The psychological benefits center around reciprocity: when humans feel seen and supported and in turn are caring and supportive, their psychological functioning improves (Gilbert, 2015). *Oxytocin has been found to be one of the psychological mediators of compassion and caring behaviour (Gilbert, 2015). - links to prosocial behaviour. Table 1. ''Key Figures and their Evolutionary Theories on Compassion'' {| class="wikitable" !Important Figures !Evolutionary Theories |- | | |- | | |- | | |} == Compassion Theories == === The Emancipatory Theory of Compassion === * Dr. Jane Georges (suffering is universal and can therefore be relieved through showing compassion) (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * Also states that nurses, whether conscious of their actions or not, can create surroundings where suffering is sustained (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * '''Key Characteristics of Compassionate Behaviour (Constantinides, 2019):''' # Mindfulness (used to establish meaning and thoughtfulness as a reaction to human needs) # An acknowledgement of the uniqueness and spirituality of others # A willingness to understand # An ability to genuinely listen === The Theory of Compassion Energy === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Martha_E._Rogers|Martha Rogers]] based on her Science of Unitary Beings and Caring Science theories work (Dunn, 2019). * The Theory of Compassion Energy involves caregivers who have a desire to provide compassionate care by intentionally getting to know the person they are caring for through being there for them and nurturing them (Dunn, 2019). * When nurses and carers engage nurturingly with patients, they become energized and focused on meeting the needs of the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Positive outcomes result for both the carer and the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Compassion then becomes the driving force or energizer for caring (Dunn, 2019). === Theoretical Model of Self-Compassion === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Kristin_Neff|Kristin Neff]]<nowiki/>and involved self-compassion consisting of three groups of contrasting components: emotional responsivity, attention to personal suffering, and cognitive understanding (Neff et al., 2020). * Emotional response is made up of self-kindness vs. self-judgement, attention to personal suffering is composed of mindfulness vs. overidentification and cognitive understanding consists of isolation vs. common humanity (Neff et al., 2020). * These contrasting components interconnect as a system and can be measured individually or all together to make a total score (Neff et al., 2020). This is called the Self-Compassion Scale. * Explain the Self-Compassion Scale {{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what is compassion?' 'the evolution of compassion' and 'compassion theories.' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == What are the Pros of Compassion? == === Healing === * For the person receiving compassion. * Not only psychological healing (from grief) but also physical healing (from illness and harm). * Compassion can also help reduce anxiety, and increase positive emotions such as gratitude. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Compassion Satisfaction === * Satisfaction resulting from helping others. * Compassion is also associated with having a more prosocial identity (viewing oneself as caring). * Those who are compassionate are viewed more strongly as leaders. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Emotional Connection & Shared Positive Emotions === [[File:The Joy of Playing Together by Rasheedhrasheed.jpg|thumb|''Figure 3''. Demonstrates shared positive emotion (joy).]] * Compassion connects people psychologically and creates a stronger emotional connection. * This stronger connection may be due to the fact that compassion generates trust. * Alternatively, if an individual consistently shows compassion to another person, but does not receive it in return, may result in status differences or relational inequalities. * Compassion also generates shared positive emotions such as gratefulness and joy. * Compassion has also been found to improve collaboration in the workplace. * (Dutton et al., 2014). == What are the Cons of Compassion? == === Moral Distress === * Moral distress occurs when someone is considering showing compassion, but is unable to take the right action, does not effectively relieve others' suffering, or experiences secondary trauma or impairment resulting from extensive exposure to another person's suffering (Dutton et al., 2014). * Moral distress can also occur when an individual shows compassion in a situation that does not require compassion, or when an individual withholds compassion when it is needed (Nussbaum, 2003). * The person has wrongly determined the judgement of seriousness, placing great importance on the wrong situations and not enough importance on significant situations (Nussbaum, 2003). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the moral distress felt when too much importance is placed on situations that don't require compassion. Case Study: Samantha has lost another item, this time it is her earing. The earing has no personal significance to her, as it is a standard sleeper, which can easily be replaced. Alice, again, evaluates the situation and decides that because Samantha became so distraught when Alice did not provide compassion last time, she would show compassion to Samantha this time. However, Alice experiences moral distress, as the situation is not serious and the loss of a trivial item does not require the expression of compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Compassion Fatigue === [[File:Canva - Woman Feeling Emotional Stress.jpg|thumb|''Figure 4.'' An illustration of how compassion fatigue can feel.]] * [[wikipedia:Compassion_fatigue|Compassion fatigue]] is described as actions or emotions resulting from hearing about a traumatic event and feeling stressed due to wanting to or actually helping the person who is suffering (Sabo, 2014). *Compassion fatigue is common in the healthcare profession, particularly among nurses (Dunn, 2019). *Nurses who are highly empathetic are at a greater risk of developing compassion fatigue (Sabo, 2014). *Describe the factors contributing to compassion fatigue (empathic ability, empathic response, and residual compassion stress) (Sabo, 2014). *Explain ways to avoid or reduce the chance of compassion fatigue. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}* We need to have a balance of providing compassion, but also receiving compassion ourselves to mitigate the cons of displaying compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}}{{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what are the pros and cons of compassion?' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == How Can We Foster Compassion? == There are ways we can foster compassion, mainly through compassion training. There have been many types of effective compassion training, with the most effective ones being mindful self-compassion, cognitively-based compassion training. === Mindful Self-Compassion === * Developed by Kristin Neff and Chris Germer (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Combines mindfulness and compassion training as well as [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|psychotherapy]] and personal development training (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Mindfulness training is necessary, as it allows us to detect when we are suffering so we can show ourselves kindness (Germer & Neff, 2019). *It is also necessary to stabilize our awareness of the confronting emotions triggered during self-compassion therapy (Germer & Neff, 2019). *These confronting emotions are associated with times in a person's life where they did not receive compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). Mindful self-compassion takes a therapeutic approach in addressing these old wounds with a new approach: mindfulness and self-compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Self-compassion training is necessary, as we often need to show loving awareness towards ourselves before we apply this to our experiences (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting that CBCT is successful. === Cognitively-Based Compassion Training === *Developed by Lobsang Tenzin Negi (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT is a form of contemplative practice, where an individual is encouraged to view others with love, kindness, empathy and compassion (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT builds on mindfulness techniques and uses various cognitive restructuring and affect fostering techniques (Cole et al., 2012). *The long term aim of CBCT is to generate a calmness of mind, which accepts and understands others (Cole et al., 2012). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting CBCT is successful. === Compassion Cultivation Training === *Based on Jinpa's definition of compassion involving four items (motivation, intentional, affective and cognitive) (Kirby, 2017). *Each session starts and ends with meditation (Kirby, 2017). *Meditation focus to foster compassion and loving-kindness towards others and the self (Kirby, 2017). == Conclusion == * Answer the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research) * Answer the focus questions * Summarize the content covered * Communicate the practical, take-home messages == See also == * [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] (Wikipedia) * [[What Matters/Compassion]] (Book chapter, 2021) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Cole, S. P., Craighead, L. W., Dodson-Lavelle, B., Ozawa-de Silva, B., Pace, T. W. W., Raison, C. L., Reddy, S. D., & Tenzin Negi, L. (2012). Cognitive-based compassion training: a promising prevention strategy for at-risk adolescents. ''Journal of Child and Family Studies'', ''22'', 219–230. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-012-9571-7 Constantinides, S. M., & Georges, J. M. (2022). To a centrality of compassion: operationalizing the emancipatory theory of compassion. ''Advances in Nursing Science'', ''45''(2), 114–126. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091221 Constantinides, S. M. (2019). Compassionate knowing: building a concept grounded in watson’s theory of caring science. ''Nursing Science Quarterly'', ''32''(3), 219–225. doi:10.1177/0894318419845386 Dunn, D. J. (2013, April). The theory of compassion energy. ''Beginnings Magazine'', 1–4. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261753858_The_Theory_of_Compassion_Energy Dutton, J. E., Hardin, A. E., & Workman, K. M. (2014). Compassion at work. ''The Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior'', ''1'', 277–304. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091221 Goetz, J. L., Keltner, D., & Simon-Thomas, E. (2010). Compassion: an evolutionary analysis and empirical review. ''Psychological Bulletin'', ''136''(3), 351–374. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0018807 Germer, C., & Neff, K. (2019). Mindful self-compassion (MSC). In I. Itvzan (Ed.), ''The handbook of mindfulness-based programs: every established intervention, from medicine to education'' (pp. 357–367). London: Routledge. Gilbert, P. (2015).The evolution and social dynamics of compassion. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''9''(6), 239–254. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12176 Gilbert, P. (2020). Compassion: from its evolution to a psychotherapy. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11'', 1–31. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.586161. Kirby, J. N., Steindl, S.R., & Tellegen, C. L. (2017). A meta-analysis of compassion-based interventions: current state of knowledge and future directions. ''Behavior Therapy'', ''48''(6), 778–792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.06.003 Kathryn, S. (2009). Aibileen Chapter 34. In K. Stockett (Ed.), ''The Help'' (p. 443). The Penguin Group. Neff, K. D., Pommier, E., & Tóth-Király, I. (2020).The development and validation of the compassion scale. ''Assessment'', ''27''(1), 21–39. doi:10.1177/1073191119874108 Nussbaum, M. C. (2003). Compassion and terror. ''International Justice'', ''132''(1), 10–26. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20027819 Sabo, B. (2011). Reflecting on the concept of compassion fatigue. ''The Online Journal of Issues in Nursing'', ''16''(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.3912/OJIN.Vol16No01Man01 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rAEhGHcZ3Vw What is the difference between empathy and compassion?] Chip Zimmer (YouTube) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] cgzekohwlmw4zwi6cjw0603q78s57i0 2415734 2415726 2022-08-17T06:19:49Z U3203545 2947578 /* References */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Compassion:<br>What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * Explain how compassion is controversial as an emotion (not all scientists agree) (Kirby et al., 2017). * Explain why people are compelled to be compassionate or not compelled (illustrate the problem) * How do we measure compassion? * Summarize the advantages of compassion * Summarize the disadvantages of compassion * Summarize how we can foster compassion * Outline how psychological science can help with the problem {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is Compassion? * What are the Advantages of Compassion? * What are the Disadvantages of Compassion? * How can we Foster Compassion? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Compassion?== [[File:There's no crying in baseball! (4549295140) 2.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' A common display of compassion through comforting someone who is upset.]]There are many definitions of compassion, with the main ones stemming from Richard Lazarus and Jennifer Goetz et al. What Lazarus' and Goetz' definitions have in common is that compassion involves being effected by another persons suffering, having the desire to help them, and taking action to help them (Baer et al., 2016). In this chapter, we will be referring to a more detailed definition of compassion. [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] is an emotion expressed in reaction to the [[wikipedia:Suffering|suffering]] or low well-being of others (Nussbaum, 2003). It involves making a judgement, known as the judgement of seriousness, that someone is not coping well and that the situation is serious (Nussbaum, 2003). Therefore, compassion is not felt for people who loose insignificant items, such as a pair of socks or a hairbrush (Nussbaum, 2003). '''There are two main types of compassion:''' [[wikipedia:Radical_compassion|Radical compassion]], otherwise known as compassion for others, involves showing compassion to other people, through acknowledging their pain and coming up with a solution to relieve it (Cherry, 2021). [[wikipedia:Self-compassion|Self-compassion]] involves showing compassion to yourself in suffering and perceived inadequacy (Cherry, 2021). In Kathryn Stockett's novel 'The Help,' which was later adapted into a film, an African-American nanny whispers to the little girl she is babysitting: "You is kind, you is smart, you is important" (Kathryn Stockett, 2009, p. 443). This was a simple, yet caring way to encourage self-compassion in this young girl. '''What is the difference between compassion and empathy?''' People can often become confused between the terms compassion and [[wikipedia:Empathy|empathy]]. Empathy involves feeling what others are feeling and desiring to help them (Zimmer, 2019). Compassion involves a deep concern for others, a desire to help, AND taking action to help the person (Zimmer, 2019). While empathy and compassion both involve sharing the feelings of others and desiring to help them, compassion also involves taking action to help them (Zimmer, 2019).{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the judgement we make when choosing whether to show compassion based on the seriousness of a person's suffering. Case Study: Samantha is feeling down because she has lost her scrunchie. Samantha has other scrunchies that she can use and her lost scrunchie has no personal significance to her. Samantha's roommate, Alice, evaluates the situation and decides that although Samantha is upset, she is not seriously affected. Alice shows understanding of the loss but chooses not to show compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Evolution of Compassion == [[File:Baboon and baby Okavango delta.jpg|thumb|''Figure 2''. Compassion evolved as part of the care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young]] * Discuss how compassion leads back to [[wikipedia:Charles_darwin|Charles Darwin]] (1871) and how communities which had the largest number of sympathetic individuals thrived and reproduced the most offspring (Gilbert, 2020). * Discuss how currently, theorists have noted that compassion has reproductive advantages, as it is part of the evolved care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young (Gilbert, 2020). The quality of care impacts the offspring's [[wikipedia:Epigenetics|epigenetics]] and appraisal of threats (Gilbert, 2020). * Compassion has also evolved in primates, as it is an ideal feature in mate selection and allows for effective relationships with other primates (Gilbert, 2020). *[[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] studies have shown that being motivated to care, and showing self and radical compassion has benefits on physiological, psychological and social processes (Gilbert, 2015). *Physiological benefits include better functioning systems, such as the sympathetic/parasympathetic nervous system, cardiovascular system and immune system (Gilbert, 2015). *The psychological benefits center around reciprocity: when humans feel seen and supported and in turn are caring and supportive, their psychological functioning improves (Gilbert, 2015). *Oxytocin has been found to be one of the psychological mediators of compassion and caring behaviour (Gilbert, 2015). - links to prosocial behaviour. Table 1. ''Key Figures and their Evolutionary Theories on Compassion'' {| class="wikitable" !Important Figures !Evolutionary Theories |- | | |- | | |- | | |} == Compassion Theories == === The Emancipatory Theory of Compassion === * Dr. Jane Georges (suffering is universal and can therefore be relieved through showing compassion) (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * Also states that nurses, whether conscious of their actions or not, can create surroundings where suffering is sustained (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * '''Key Characteristics of Compassionate Behaviour (Constantinides, 2019):''' # Mindfulness (used to establish meaning and thoughtfulness as a reaction to human needs) # An acknowledgement of the uniqueness and spirituality of others # A willingness to understand # An ability to genuinely listen === The Theory of Compassion Energy === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Martha_E._Rogers|Martha Rogers]] based on her Science of Unitary Beings and Caring Science theories work (Dunn, 2019). * The Theory of Compassion Energy involves caregivers who have a desire to provide compassionate care by intentionally getting to know the person they are caring for through being there for them and nurturing them (Dunn, 2019). * When nurses and carers engage nurturingly with patients, they become energized and focused on meeting the needs of the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Positive outcomes result for both the carer and the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Compassion then becomes the driving force or energizer for caring (Dunn, 2019). === Theoretical Model of Self-Compassion === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Kristin_Neff|Kristin Neff]]<nowiki/>and involved self-compassion consisting of three groups of contrasting components: emotional responsivity, attention to personal suffering, and cognitive understanding (Neff et al., 2020). * Emotional response is made up of self-kindness vs. self-judgement, attention to personal suffering is composed of mindfulness vs. overidentification and cognitive understanding consists of isolation vs. common humanity (Neff et al., 2020). * These contrasting components interconnect as a system and can be measured individually or all together to make a total score (Neff et al., 2020). This is called the Self-Compassion Scale. * Explain the Self-Compassion Scale {{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what is compassion?' 'the evolution of compassion' and 'compassion theories.' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == What are the Pros of Compassion? == === Healing === * For the person receiving compassion. * Not only psychological healing (from grief) but also physical healing (from illness and harm). * Compassion can also help reduce anxiety, and increase positive emotions such as gratitude. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Compassion Satisfaction === * Satisfaction resulting from helping others. * Compassion is also associated with having a more prosocial identity (viewing oneself as caring). * Those who are compassionate are viewed more strongly as leaders. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Emotional Connection & Shared Positive Emotions === [[File:The Joy of Playing Together by Rasheedhrasheed.jpg|thumb|''Figure 3''. Demonstrates shared positive emotion (joy).]] * Compassion connects people psychologically and creates a stronger emotional connection. * This stronger connection may be due to the fact that compassion generates trust. * Alternatively, if an individual consistently shows compassion to another person, but does not receive it in return, may result in status differences or relational inequalities. * Compassion also generates shared positive emotions such as gratefulness and joy. * Compassion has also been found to improve collaboration in the workplace. * (Dutton et al., 2014). == What are the Cons of Compassion? == === Moral Distress === * Moral distress occurs when someone is considering showing compassion, but is unable to take the right action, does not effectively relieve others' suffering, or experiences secondary trauma or impairment resulting from extensive exposure to another person's suffering (Dutton et al., 2014). * Moral distress can also occur when an individual shows compassion in a situation that does not require compassion, or when an individual withholds compassion when it is needed (Nussbaum, 2003). * The person has wrongly determined the judgement of seriousness, placing great importance on the wrong situations and not enough importance on significant situations (Nussbaum, 2003). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the moral distress felt when too much importance is placed on situations that don't require compassion. Case Study: Samantha has lost another item, this time it is her earing. The earing has no personal significance to her, as it is a standard sleeper, which can easily be replaced. Alice, again, evaluates the situation and decides that because Samantha became so distraught when Alice did not provide compassion last time, she would show compassion to Samantha this time. However, Alice experiences moral distress, as the situation is not serious and the loss of a trivial item does not require the expression of compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Compassion Fatigue === [[File:Canva - Woman Feeling Emotional Stress.jpg|thumb|''Figure 4.'' An illustration of how compassion fatigue can feel.]] * [[wikipedia:Compassion_fatigue|Compassion fatigue]] is described as actions or emotions resulting from hearing about a traumatic event and feeling stressed due to wanting to or actually helping the person who is suffering (Sabo, 2014). *Compassion fatigue is common in the healthcare profession, particularly among nurses (Dunn, 2019). *Nurses who are highly empathetic are at a greater risk of developing compassion fatigue (Sabo, 2014). *Describe the factors contributing to compassion fatigue (empathic ability, empathic response, and residual compassion stress) (Sabo, 2014). *Explain ways to avoid or reduce the chance of compassion fatigue. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}* We need to have a balance of providing compassion, but also receiving compassion ourselves to mitigate the cons of displaying compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}}{{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what are the pros and cons of compassion?' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == How Can We Foster Compassion? == There are ways we can foster compassion, mainly through compassion training. There have been many types of effective compassion training, with the most effective ones being mindful self-compassion, cognitively-based compassion training. === Mindful Self-Compassion === * Developed by Kristin Neff and Chris Germer (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Combines mindfulness and compassion training as well as [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|psychotherapy]] and personal development training (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Mindfulness training is necessary, as it allows us to detect when we are suffering so we can show ourselves kindness (Germer & Neff, 2019). *It is also necessary to stabilize our awareness of the confronting emotions triggered during self-compassion therapy (Germer & Neff, 2019). *These confronting emotions are associated with times in a person's life where they did not receive compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). Mindful self-compassion takes a therapeutic approach in addressing these old wounds with a new approach: mindfulness and self-compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Self-compassion training is necessary, as we often need to show loving awareness towards ourselves before we apply this to our experiences (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting that CBCT is successful. === Cognitively-Based Compassion Training === *Developed by Lobsang Tenzin Negi (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT is a form of contemplative practice, where an individual is encouraged to view others with love, kindness, empathy and compassion (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT builds on mindfulness techniques and uses various cognitive restructuring and affect fostering techniques (Cole et al., 2012). *The long term aim of CBCT is to generate a calmness of mind, which accepts and understands others (Cole et al., 2012). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting CBCT is successful. === Compassion Cultivation Training === *Based on Jinpa's definition of compassion involving four items (motivation, intentional, affective and cognitive) (Kirby, 2017). *Each session starts and ends with meditation (Kirby, 2017). *Meditation focus to foster compassion and loving-kindness towards others and the self (Kirby, 2017). == Conclusion == * Answer the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research) * Answer the focus questions * Summarize the content covered * Communicate the practical, take-home messages == See also == * [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] (Wikipedia) * [[What Matters/Compassion]] (Book chapter, 2021) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Baer, R., Cavanagh, K., Gu, J., Jones, F., Strauss, C., & Taylor, B. L. (2016). What is compassion and how can we measure it? A review of definitions and measures. ''Clinical Psychology Review'', ''47'', 15–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2016.05.004 Cole, S. P., Craighead, L. W., Dodson-Lavelle, B., Ozawa-de Silva, B., Pace, T. W. W., Raison, C. L., Reddy, S. D., & Tenzin Negi, L. (2012). Cognitive-based compassion training: a promising prevention strategy for at-risk adolescents. ''Journal of Child and Family Studies'', ''22'', 219–230. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-012-9571-7 Constantinides, S. M., & Georges, J. M. (2022). To a centrality of compassion: operationalizing the emancipatory theory of compassion. ''Advances in Nursing Science'', ''45''(2), 114–126. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091221 Constantinides, S. M. (2019). Compassionate knowing: building a concept grounded in watson’s theory of caring science. ''Nursing Science Quarterly'', ''32''(3), 219–225. doi:10.1177/0894318419845386 Dunn, D. J. (2013, April). The theory of compassion energy. ''Beginnings Magazine'', 1–4. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261753858_The_Theory_of_Compassion_Energy Dutton, J. E., Hardin, A. E., & Workman, K. M. (2014). Compassion at work. ''The Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior'', ''1'', 277–304. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091221 Germer, C., & Neff, K. (2019). Mindful self-compassion (MSC). In I. Itvzan (Ed.), ''The handbook of mindfulness-based programs: every established intervention, from medicine to education'' (pp. 357–367). London: Routledge. Gilbert, P. (2015).The evolution and social dynamics of compassion. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''9''(6), 239–254. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12176 Gilbert, P. (2020). Compassion: from its evolution to a psychotherapy. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11'', 1–31. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.586161. Kirby, J. N., Steindl, S.R., & Tellegen, C. L. (2017). A meta-analysis of compassion-based interventions: current state of knowledge and future directions. ''Behavior Therapy'', ''48''(6), 778–792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.06.003 Kathryn, S. (2009). Aibileen Chapter 34. In K. Stockett (Ed.), ''The Help'' (p. 443). The Penguin Group. Neff, K. D., Pommier, E., & Tóth-Király, I. (2020).The development and validation of the compassion scale. ''Assessment'', ''27''(1), 21–39. doi:10.1177/1073191119874108 Nussbaum, M. C. (2003). Compassion and terror. ''International Justice'', ''132''(1), 10–26. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20027819 Sabo, B. (2011). Reflecting on the concept of compassion fatigue. ''The Online Journal of Issues in Nursing'', ''16''(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.3912/OJIN.Vol16No01Man01 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rAEhGHcZ3Vw What is the difference between empathy and compassion?] Chip Zimmer (YouTube) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] sul8czp70nbcx2mqnx5g8sgcjrolv0x 2415755 2415734 2022-08-17T06:33:43Z U3203545 2947578 /* References */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Compassion:<br>What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * Explain how compassion is controversial as an emotion (not all scientists agree) (Kirby et al., 2017). * Explain why people are compelled to be compassionate or not compelled (illustrate the problem) * How do we measure compassion? * Summarize the advantages of compassion * Summarize the disadvantages of compassion * Summarize how we can foster compassion * Outline how psychological science can help with the problem {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is Compassion? * What are the Advantages of Compassion? * What are the Disadvantages of Compassion? * How can we Foster Compassion? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Compassion?== [[File:There's no crying in baseball! (4549295140) 2.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' A common display of compassion through comforting someone who is upset.]]There are many definitions of compassion, with the main ones stemming from Richard Lazarus and Jennifer Goetz et al. What Lazarus' and Goetz' definitions have in common is that compassion involves being effected by another persons suffering, having the desire to help them, and taking action to help them (Baer et al., 2016). In this chapter, we will be referring to a more detailed definition of compassion. [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] is an emotion expressed in reaction to the [[wikipedia:Suffering|suffering]] or low well-being of others (Nussbaum, 2003). It involves making a judgement, known as the judgement of seriousness, that someone is not coping well and that the situation is serious (Nussbaum, 2003). Therefore, compassion is not felt for people who loose insignificant items, such as a pair of socks or a hairbrush (Nussbaum, 2003). '''There are two main types of compassion:''' [[wikipedia:Radical_compassion|Radical compassion]], otherwise known as compassion for others, involves showing compassion to other people, through acknowledging their pain and coming up with a solution to relieve it (Cherry, 2021). [[wikipedia:Self-compassion|Self-compassion]] involves showing compassion to yourself in suffering and perceived inadequacy (Cherry, 2021). In Kathryn Stockett's novel 'The Help,' which was later adapted into a film, an African-American nanny whispers to the little girl she is babysitting: "You is kind, you is smart, you is important" (Kathryn Stockett, 2009, p. 443). This was a simple, yet caring way to encourage self-compassion in this young girl. '''What is the difference between compassion and empathy?''' People can often become confused between the terms compassion and [[wikipedia:Empathy|empathy]]. Empathy involves feeling what others are feeling and desiring to help them (Zimmer, 2019). Compassion involves a deep concern for others, a desire to help, AND taking action to help the person (Zimmer, 2019). While empathy and compassion both involve sharing the feelings of others and desiring to help them, compassion also involves taking action to help them (Zimmer, 2019).{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the judgement we make when choosing whether to show compassion based on the seriousness of a person's suffering. Case Study: Samantha is feeling down because she has lost her scrunchie. Samantha has other scrunchies that she can use and her lost scrunchie has no personal significance to her. Samantha's roommate, Alice, evaluates the situation and decides that although Samantha is upset, she is not seriously affected. Alice shows understanding of the loss but chooses not to show compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Evolution of Compassion == [[File:Baboon and baby Okavango delta.jpg|thumb|''Figure 2''. Compassion evolved as part of the care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young]] * Discuss how compassion leads back to [[wikipedia:Charles_darwin|Charles Darwin]] (1871) and how communities which had the largest number of sympathetic individuals thrived and reproduced the most offspring (Gilbert, 2020). * Discuss how currently, theorists have noted that compassion has reproductive advantages, as it is part of the evolved care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young (Gilbert, 2020). The quality of care impacts the offspring's [[wikipedia:Epigenetics|epigenetics]] and appraisal of threats (Gilbert, 2020). * Compassion has also evolved in primates, as it is an ideal feature in mate selection and allows for effective relationships with other primates (Gilbert, 2020). *[[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] studies have shown that being motivated to care, and showing self and radical compassion has benefits on physiological, psychological and social processes (Gilbert, 2015). *Physiological benefits include better functioning systems, such as the sympathetic/parasympathetic nervous system, cardiovascular system and immune system (Gilbert, 2015). *The psychological benefits center around reciprocity: when humans feel seen and supported and in turn are caring and supportive, their psychological functioning improves (Gilbert, 2015). *Oxytocin has been found to be one of the psychological mediators of compassion and caring behaviour (Gilbert, 2015). - links to prosocial behaviour. Table 1. ''Key Figures and their Evolutionary Theories on Compassion'' {| class="wikitable" !Important Figures !Evolutionary Theories |- | | |- | | |- | | |} == Compassion Theories == === The Emancipatory Theory of Compassion === * Dr. Jane Georges (suffering is universal and can therefore be relieved through showing compassion) (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * Also states that nurses, whether conscious of their actions or not, can create surroundings where suffering is sustained (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * '''Key Characteristics of Compassionate Behaviour (Constantinides, 2019):''' # Mindfulness (used to establish meaning and thoughtfulness as a reaction to human needs) # An acknowledgement of the uniqueness and spirituality of others # A willingness to understand # An ability to genuinely listen === The Theory of Compassion Energy === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Martha_E._Rogers|Martha Rogers]] based on her Science of Unitary Beings and Caring Science theories work (Dunn, 2019). * The Theory of Compassion Energy involves caregivers who have a desire to provide compassionate care by intentionally getting to know the person they are caring for through being there for them and nurturing them (Dunn, 2019). * When nurses and carers engage nurturingly with patients, they become energized and focused on meeting the needs of the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Positive outcomes result for both the carer and the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Compassion then becomes the driving force or energizer for caring (Dunn, 2019). === Theoretical Model of Self-Compassion === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Kristin_Neff|Kristin Neff]]<nowiki/>and involved self-compassion consisting of three groups of contrasting components: emotional responsivity, attention to personal suffering, and cognitive understanding (Neff et al., 2020). * Emotional response is made up of self-kindness vs. self-judgement, attention to personal suffering is composed of mindfulness vs. overidentification and cognitive understanding consists of isolation vs. common humanity (Neff et al., 2020). * These contrasting components interconnect as a system and can be measured individually or all together to make a total score (Neff et al., 2020). This is called the Self-Compassion Scale. * Explain the Self-Compassion Scale {{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what is compassion?' 'the evolution of compassion' and 'compassion theories.' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == What are the Pros of Compassion? == === Healing === * For the person receiving compassion. * Not only psychological healing (from grief) but also physical healing (from illness and harm). * Compassion can also help reduce anxiety, and increase positive emotions such as gratitude. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Compassion Satisfaction === * Satisfaction resulting from helping others. * Compassion is also associated with having a more prosocial identity (viewing oneself as caring). * Those who are compassionate are viewed more strongly as leaders. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Emotional Connection & Shared Positive Emotions === [[File:The Joy of Playing Together by Rasheedhrasheed.jpg|thumb|''Figure 3''. Demonstrates shared positive emotion (joy).]] * Compassion connects people psychologically and creates a stronger emotional connection. * This stronger connection may be due to the fact that compassion generates trust. * Alternatively, if an individual consistently shows compassion to another person, but does not receive it in return, may result in status differences or relational inequalities. * Compassion also generates shared positive emotions such as gratefulness and joy. * Compassion has also been found to improve collaboration in the workplace. * (Dutton et al., 2014). == What are the Cons of Compassion? == === Moral Distress === * Moral distress occurs when someone is considering showing compassion, but is unable to take the right action, does not effectively relieve others' suffering, or experiences secondary trauma or impairment resulting from extensive exposure to another person's suffering (Dutton et al., 2014). * Moral distress can also occur when an individual shows compassion in a situation that does not require compassion, or when an individual withholds compassion when it is needed (Nussbaum, 2003). * The person has wrongly determined the judgement of seriousness, placing great importance on the wrong situations and not enough importance on significant situations (Nussbaum, 2003). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the moral distress felt when too much importance is placed on situations that don't require compassion. Case Study: Samantha has lost another item, this time it is her earing. The earing has no personal significance to her, as it is a standard sleeper, which can easily be replaced. Alice, again, evaluates the situation and decides that because Samantha became so distraught when Alice did not provide compassion last time, she would show compassion to Samantha this time. However, Alice experiences moral distress, as the situation is not serious and the loss of a trivial item does not require the expression of compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Compassion Fatigue === [[File:Canva - Woman Feeling Emotional Stress.jpg|thumb|''Figure 4.'' An illustration of how compassion fatigue can feel.]] * [[wikipedia:Compassion_fatigue|Compassion fatigue]] is described as actions or emotions resulting from hearing about a traumatic event and feeling stressed due to wanting to or actually helping the person who is suffering (Sabo, 2014). *Compassion fatigue is common in the healthcare profession, particularly among nurses (Dunn, 2019). *Nurses who are highly empathetic are at a greater risk of developing compassion fatigue (Sabo, 2014). *Describe the factors contributing to compassion fatigue (empathic ability, empathic response, and residual compassion stress) (Sabo, 2014). *Explain ways to avoid or reduce the chance of compassion fatigue. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}* We need to have a balance of providing compassion, but also receiving compassion ourselves to mitigate the cons of displaying compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}}{{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what are the pros and cons of compassion?' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == How Can We Foster Compassion? == There are ways we can foster compassion, mainly through compassion training. There have been many types of effective compassion training, with the most effective ones being mindful self-compassion, cognitively-based compassion training. === Mindful Self-Compassion === * Developed by Kristin Neff and Chris Germer (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Combines mindfulness and compassion training as well as [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|psychotherapy]] and personal development training (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Mindfulness training is necessary, as it allows us to detect when we are suffering so we can show ourselves kindness (Germer & Neff, 2019). *It is also necessary to stabilize our awareness of the confronting emotions triggered during self-compassion therapy (Germer & Neff, 2019). *These confronting emotions are associated with times in a person's life where they did not receive compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). Mindful self-compassion takes a therapeutic approach in addressing these old wounds with a new approach: mindfulness and self-compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Self-compassion training is necessary, as we often need to show loving awareness towards ourselves before we apply this to our experiences (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting that CBCT is successful. === Cognitively-Based Compassion Training === *Developed by Lobsang Tenzin Negi (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT is a form of contemplative practice, where an individual is encouraged to view others with love, kindness, empathy and compassion (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT builds on mindfulness techniques and uses various cognitive restructuring and affect fostering techniques (Cole et al., 2012). *The long term aim of CBCT is to generate a calmness of mind, which accepts and understands others (Cole et al., 2012). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting CBCT is successful. === Compassion Cultivation Training === *Based on Jinpa's definition of compassion involving four items (motivation, intentional, affective and cognitive) (Kirby, 2017). *Each session starts and ends with meditation (Kirby, 2017). *Meditation focus to foster compassion and loving-kindness towards others and the self (Kirby, 2017). == Conclusion == * Answer the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research) * Answer the focus questions * Summarize the content covered * Communicate the practical, take-home messages == See also == * [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] (Wikipedia) * [[What Matters/Compassion]] (Book chapter, 2021) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Baer, R., Cavanagh, K., Gu, J., Jones, F., Strauss, C., & Taylor, B. L. (2016). What is compassion and how can we measure it? A review of definitions and measures. ''Clinical Psychology Review'', ''47'', 15–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2016.05.004 Cherry, K. (2021, November 1). ''What is compassion''? Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-compassion-5207366 Cole, S. P., Craighead, L. W., Dodson-Lavelle, B., Ozawa-de Silva, B., Pace, T. W. W., Raison, C. L., Reddy, S. D., & Tenzin Negi, L. (2012). Cognitive-based compassion training: a promising prevention strategy for at-risk adolescents. ''Journal of Child and Family Studies'', ''22'', 219–230. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-012-9571-7 Constantinides, S. M., & Georges, J. M. (2022). To a centrality of compassion: operationalizing the emancipatory theory of compassion. ''Advances in Nursing Science'', ''45''(2), 114–126. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091221 Constantinides, S. M. (2019). Compassionate knowing: building a concept grounded in watson’s theory of caring science. ''Nursing Science Quarterly'', ''32''(3), 219–225. doi:10.1177/0894318419845386 Dunn, D. J. (2013, April). The theory of compassion energy. ''Beginnings Magazine'', 1–4. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261753858_The_Theory_of_Compassion_Energy Dutton, J. E., Hardin, A. E., & Workman, K. M. (2014). Compassion at work. ''The Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior'', ''1'', 277–304. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091221 Germer, C., & Neff, K. (2019). Mindful self-compassion (MSC). In I. Itvzan (Ed.), ''The handbook of mindfulness-based programs: every established intervention, from medicine to education'' (pp. 357–367). London: Routledge. Gilbert, P. (2015).The evolution and social dynamics of compassion. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''9''(6), 239–254. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12176 Gilbert, P. (2020). Compassion: from its evolution to a psychotherapy. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11'', 1–31. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.586161. Kirby, J. N., Steindl, S.R., & Tellegen, C. L. (2017). A meta-analysis of compassion-based interventions: current state of knowledge and future directions. ''Behavior Therapy'', ''48''(6), 778–792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.06.003 Kathryn, S. (2009). Aibileen Chapter 34. In K. Stockett (Ed.), ''The Help'' (p. 443). The Penguin Group. Neff, K. D., Pommier, E., & Tóth-Király, I. (2020).The development and validation of the compassion scale. ''Assessment'', ''27''(1), 21–39. doi:10.1177/1073191119874108 Nussbaum, M. C. (2003). Compassion and terror. ''International Justice'', ''132''(1), 10–26. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20027819 Sabo, B. (2011). Reflecting on the concept of compassion fatigue. ''The Online Journal of Issues in Nursing'', ''16''(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.3912/OJIN.Vol16No01Man01 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rAEhGHcZ3Vw What is the difference between empathy and compassion?] Chip Zimmer (YouTube) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] sepw2z5jq9r1u4qrk572ecaegw58trf 2415763 2415755 2022-08-17T06:51:06Z U3203545 2947578 /* Compassion Theories */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Compassion:<br>What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== * Explain how compassion is controversial as an emotion (not all scientists agree) (Kirby et al., 2017). * Explain why people are compelled to be compassionate or not compelled (illustrate the problem) * How do we measure compassion? * Summarize the advantages of compassion * Summarize the disadvantages of compassion * Summarize how we can foster compassion * Outline how psychological science can help with the problem {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is Compassion? * What are the Advantages of Compassion? * What are the Disadvantages of Compassion? * How can we Foster Compassion? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is Compassion?== [[File:There's no crying in baseball! (4549295140) 2.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' A common display of compassion through comforting someone who is upset.]]There are many definitions of compassion, with the main ones stemming from Richard Lazarus and Jennifer Goetz et al. What Lazarus' and Goetz' definitions have in common is that compassion involves being effected by another persons suffering, having the desire to help them, and taking action to help them (Baer et al., 2016). In this chapter, we will be referring to a more detailed definition of compassion. [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] is an emotion expressed in reaction to the [[wikipedia:Suffering|suffering]] or low well-being of others (Nussbaum, 2003). It involves making a judgement, known as the judgement of seriousness, that someone is not coping well and that the situation is serious (Nussbaum, 2003). Therefore, compassion is not felt for people who loose insignificant items, such as a pair of socks or a hairbrush (Nussbaum, 2003). '''There are two main types of compassion:''' [[wikipedia:Radical_compassion|Radical compassion]], otherwise known as compassion for others, involves showing compassion to other people, through acknowledging their pain and coming up with a solution to relieve it (Cherry, 2021). [[wikipedia:Self-compassion|Self-compassion]] involves showing compassion to yourself in suffering and perceived inadequacy (Cherry, 2021). In Kathryn Stockett's novel 'The Help,' which was later adapted into a film, an African-American nanny whispers to the little girl she is babysitting: "You is kind, you is smart, you is important" (Kathryn Stockett, 2009, p. 443). This was a simple, yet caring way to encourage self-compassion in this young girl. '''What is the difference between compassion and empathy?''' People can often become confused between the terms compassion and [[wikipedia:Empathy|empathy]]. Empathy involves feeling what others are feeling and desiring to help them (Zimmer, 2019). Compassion involves a deep concern for others, a desire to help, AND taking action to help the person (Zimmer, 2019). While empathy and compassion both involve sharing the feelings of others and desiring to help them, compassion also involves taking action to help them (Zimmer, 2019).{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the judgement we make when choosing whether to show compassion based on the seriousness of a person's suffering. Case Study: Samantha is feeling down because she has lost her scrunchie. Samantha has other scrunchies that she can use and her lost scrunchie has no personal significance to her. Samantha's roommate, Alice, evaluates the situation and decides that although Samantha is upset, she is not seriously affected. Alice shows understanding of the loss but chooses not to show compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} == The Evolution of Compassion == [[File:Baboon and baby Okavango delta.jpg|thumb|''Figure 2''. Compassion evolved as part of the care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young]] * Discuss how compassion leads back to [[wikipedia:Charles_darwin|Charles Darwin]] (1871) and how communities which had the largest number of sympathetic individuals thrived and reproduced the most offspring (Gilbert, 2020). * Discuss how currently, theorists have noted that compassion has reproductive advantages, as it is part of the evolved care-giving system of protecting and caring for the young (Gilbert, 2020). The quality of care impacts the offspring's [[wikipedia:Epigenetics|epigenetics]] and appraisal of threats (Gilbert, 2020). * Compassion has also evolved in primates, as it is an ideal feature in mate selection and allows for effective relationships with other primates (Gilbert, 2020). *[[wikipedia:Prosocial_behavior|Prosocial behaviour]] studies have shown that being motivated to care, and showing self and radical compassion has benefits on physiological, psychological and social processes (Gilbert, 2015). *Physiological benefits include better functioning systems, such as the sympathetic/parasympathetic nervous system, cardiovascular system and immune system (Gilbert, 2015). *The psychological benefits center around reciprocity: when humans feel seen and supported and in turn are caring and supportive, their psychological functioning improves (Gilbert, 2015). *Oxytocin has been found to be one of the psychological mediators of compassion and caring behaviour (Gilbert, 2015). - links to prosocial behaviour. Table 1. ''Key Figures and their Evolutionary Theories on Compassion'' {| class="wikitable" !Important Figures !Evolutionary Theories |- | | |- | | |- | | |} == Compassion Theories == * Insert key point here. === The Emancipatory Theory of Compassion === * Dr. Jane Georges (suffering is universal and can therefore be relieved through showing compassion) (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * Also states that nurses, whether conscious of their actions or not, can create surroundings where suffering is sustained (Constantinides & Georges, 2022). * '''Key Characteristics of Compassionate Behaviour (Constantinides, 2019):''' # Mindfulness (used to establish meaning and thoughtfulness as a reaction to human needs) # An acknowledgement of the uniqueness and spirituality of others # A willingness to understand # An ability to genuinely listen === The Theory of Compassion Energy === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Martha_E._Rogers|Martha Rogers]] based on her Science of Unitary Beings and Caring Science theories work (Dunn, 2019). * The Theory of Compassion Energy involves caregivers who have a desire to provide compassionate care by intentionally getting to know the person they are caring for through being there for them and nurturing them (Dunn, 2019). * When nurses and carers engage nurturingly with patients, they become energized and focused on meeting the needs of the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Positive outcomes result for both the carer and the patient (Dunn, 2019). * Compassion then becomes the driving force or energizer for caring (Dunn, 2019). === Theoretical Model of Self-Compassion === * Proposed by [[wikipedia:Kristin_Neff|Kristin Neff]]<nowiki/>and involved self-compassion consisting of three groups of contrasting components: emotional responsivity, attention to personal suffering, and cognitive understanding (Neff et al., 2020). * Emotional response is made up of self-kindness vs. self-judgement, attention to personal suffering is composed of mindfulness vs. overidentification and cognitive understanding consists of isolation vs. common humanity (Neff et al., 2020). * These contrasting components interconnect as a system and can be measured individually or all together to make a total score (Neff et al., 2020). This is called the Self-Compassion Scale. * Explain the Self-Compassion Scale {{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what is compassion?' 'the evolution of compassion' and 'compassion theories.' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == What are the Pros of Compassion? == * Insert key point here. === Healing === * For the person receiving compassion. * Not only psychological healing (from grief) but also physical healing (from illness and harm). * Compassion can also help reduce anxiety, and increase positive emotions such as gratitude. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Compassion Satisfaction === * Satisfaction resulting from helping others. * Compassion is also associated with having a more prosocial identity (viewing oneself as caring). * Those who are compassionate are viewed more strongly as leaders. * (Dutton et al., 2014). === Emotional Connection & Shared Positive Emotions === [[File:The Joy of Playing Together by Rasheedhrasheed.jpg|thumb|''Figure 3''. Demonstrates shared positive emotion (joy).]] * Compassion connects people psychologically and creates a stronger emotional connection. * This stronger connection may be due to the fact that compassion generates trust. * Alternatively, if an individual consistently shows compassion to another person, but does not receive it in return, may result in status differences or relational inequalities. * Compassion also generates shared positive emotions such as gratefulness and joy. * Compassion has also been found to improve collaboration in the workplace. * (Dutton et al., 2014). == What are the Cons of Compassion? == * Insert key point here. === Moral Distress === * Moral distress occurs when someone is considering showing compassion, but is unable to take the right action, does not effectively relieve others' suffering, or experiences secondary trauma or impairment resulting from extensive exposure to another person's suffering (Dutton et al., 2014). * Moral distress can also occur when an individual shows compassion in a situation that does not require compassion, or when an individual withholds compassion when it is needed (Nussbaum, 2003). * The person has wrongly determined the judgement of seriousness, placing great importance on the wrong situations and not enough importance on significant situations (Nussbaum, 2003). {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}The following case study demonstrates the moral distress felt when too much importance is placed on situations that don't require compassion. Case Study: Samantha has lost another item, this time it is her earing. The earing has no personal significance to her, as it is a standard sleeper, which can easily be replaced. Alice, again, evaluates the situation and decides that because Samantha became so distraught when Alice did not provide compassion last time, she would show compassion to Samantha this time. However, Alice experiences moral distress, as the situation is not serious and the loss of a trivial item does not require the expression of compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}} === Compassion Fatigue === [[File:Canva - Woman Feeling Emotional Stress.jpg|thumb|''Figure 4.'' An illustration of how compassion fatigue can feel.]] * [[wikipedia:Compassion_fatigue|Compassion fatigue]] is described as actions or emotions resulting from hearing about a traumatic event and feeling stressed due to wanting to or actually helping the person who is suffering (Sabo, 2014). *Compassion fatigue is common in the healthcare profession, particularly among nurses (Dunn, 2019). *Nurses who are highly empathetic are at a greater risk of developing compassion fatigue (Sabo, 2014). *Describe the factors contributing to compassion fatigue (empathic ability, empathic response, and residual compassion stress) (Sabo, 2014). *Explain ways to avoid or reduce the chance of compassion fatigue. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=1}}* We need to have a balance of providing compassion, but also receiving compassion ourselves to mitigate the cons of displaying compassion.{{RoundBoxBottom}}{{tip|Summary: * This box will include a summary of the sections 'what are the pros and cons of compassion?' * Dot points will be used to provide a concise overview * This will help the reader consolidate more complex ideas }} == How Can We Foster Compassion? == There are ways we can foster compassion, mainly through compassion training. There have been many types of effective compassion training, with the most effective ones being mindful self-compassion, cognitively-based compassion training and compassion cultivation training. === Mindful Self-Compassion === * Developed by Kristin Neff and Chris Germer (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Combines mindfulness and compassion training as well as [[wikipedia:Psychotherapy|psychotherapy]] and personal development training (Germer & Neff, 2019). * Mindfulness training is necessary, as it allows us to detect when we are suffering so we can show ourselves kindness (Germer & Neff, 2019). *It is also necessary to stabilize our awareness of the confronting emotions triggered during self-compassion therapy (Germer & Neff, 2019). *These confronting emotions are associated with times in a person's life where they did not receive compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). Mindful self-compassion takes a therapeutic approach in addressing these old wounds with a new approach: mindfulness and self-compassion (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Self-compassion training is necessary, as we often need to show loving awareness towards ourselves before we apply this to our experiences (Germer & Neff, 2019). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting that CBCT is successful. === Cognitively-Based Compassion Training === *Developed by Lobsang Tenzin Negi (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT is a form of contemplative practice, where an individual is encouraged to view others with love, kindness, empathy and compassion (Cole et al., 2012). *CBCT builds on mindfulness techniques and uses various cognitive restructuring and affect fostering techniques (Cole et al., 2012). *The long term aim of CBCT is to generate a calmness of mind, which accepts and understands others (Cole et al., 2012). *Summarize studies/evidence suggesting CBCT is successful. === Compassion Cultivation Training === *Based on Jinpa's definition of compassion involving four items (motivation, intentional, affective and cognitive) (Kirby, 2017). *Each session starts and ends with meditation (Kirby, 2017). *Meditation focus to foster compassion and loving-kindness towards others and the self (Kirby, 2017). == Conclusion == * Answer the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research) * Answer the focus questions * Summarize the content covered * Communicate the practical, take-home messages == See also == * [[wikipedia:Compassion|Compassion]] (Wikipedia) * [[What Matters/Compassion]] (Book chapter, 2021) ==References== {{Hanging indent|1= Baer, R., Cavanagh, K., Gu, J., Jones, F., Strauss, C., & Taylor, B. L. (2016). What is compassion and how can we measure it? A review of definitions and measures. ''Clinical Psychology Review'', ''47'', 15–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2016.05.004 Cherry, K. (2021, November 1). ''What is compassion''? Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-compassion-5207366 Cole, S. P., Craighead, L. W., Dodson-Lavelle, B., Ozawa-de Silva, B., Pace, T. W. W., Raison, C. L., Reddy, S. D., & Tenzin Negi, L. (2012). Cognitive-based compassion training: a promising prevention strategy for at-risk adolescents. ''Journal of Child and Family Studies'', ''22'', 219–230. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-012-9571-7 Constantinides, S. M., & Georges, J. M. (2022). To a centrality of compassion: operationalizing the emancipatory theory of compassion. ''Advances in Nursing Science'', ''45''(2), 114–126. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091221 Constantinides, S. M. (2019). Compassionate knowing: building a concept grounded in watson’s theory of caring science. ''Nursing Science Quarterly'', ''32''(3), 219–225. doi:10.1177/0894318419845386 Dunn, D. J. (2013, April). The theory of compassion energy. ''Beginnings Magazine'', 1–4. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261753858_The_Theory_of_Compassion_Energy Dutton, J. E., Hardin, A. E., & Workman, K. M. (2014). Compassion at work. ''The Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior'', ''1'', 277–304. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091221 Germer, C., & Neff, K. (2019). Mindful self-compassion (MSC). In I. Itvzan (Ed.), ''The handbook of mindfulness-based programs: every established intervention, from medicine to education'' (pp. 357–367). London: Routledge. Gilbert, P. (2015).The evolution and social dynamics of compassion. ''Social and Personality Psychology Compass'', ''9''(6), 239–254. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12176 Gilbert, P. (2020). Compassion: from its evolution to a psychotherapy. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''11'', 1–31. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.586161. Kirby, J. N., Steindl, S.R., & Tellegen, C. L. (2017). A meta-analysis of compassion-based interventions: current state of knowledge and future directions. ''Behavior Therapy'', ''48''(6), 778–792. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2017.06.003 Kathryn, S. (2009). Aibileen Chapter 34. In K. Stockett (Ed.), ''The Help'' (p. 443). The Penguin Group. Neff, K. D., Pommier, E., & Tóth-Király, I. (2020).The development and validation of the compassion scale. ''Assessment'', ''27''(1), 21–39. doi:10.1177/1073191119874108 Nussbaum, M. C. (2003). Compassion and terror. ''International Justice'', ''132''(1), 10–26. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20027819 Sabo, B. (2011). Reflecting on the concept of compassion fatigue. ''The Online Journal of Issues in Nursing'', ''16''(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.3912/OJIN.Vol16No01Man01 }} ==External links== * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rAEhGHcZ3Vw What is the difference between empathy and compassion?] Chip Zimmer (YouTube) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] g1qc9lbny3j4ro020kiba4uedqvz7nw 0 286371 2415587 2414751 2022-08-16T14:59:06Z Lbeaumont 278565 /* Experimentation */ Added UBI Pilots wikitext text/x-wiki —Unleashing collaboration == Introduction == [[File:3d10 fm de vilafranca.jpg|thumb| thumb | Unleash [[w:Collaboration|collaboration]].]] Almost all people on earth are ruled by obsolete [[w:Government|government]] systems that were developed centuries ago. For example, the [[w:Constitution_of_the_United_States|constitution of the United States]] was ratified in 1788, a full 50 years before the [[w:Electrical_telegraph|first telegram]] was sent by Samuel Morse in 1838, 115 years before the Wright Brothers [[w:Wright_brothers#First_powered_flight|first powered airplane flight]] in 1903, and 140 years before [[w:Alexander_Fleming|Alexander Fleming]] discovered [[w:Penicillin|penicillin]] in 1928, the first antibiotic. {{TOC right |limit=2}} Today we have indoor plumbing, air travel, space exploration, electric automobiles, smartphones, and advanced medical procedures. Technology evolves quickly because many innovations are subjected to selection pressures that test fitness for use. Similarly, we can accelerate the [[w:Evolvability|evolvability]] of government systems by harnessing variability and subjecting government policies to effective selection pressures. == Objectives == {{100%done}}{{By|lbeaumont}} The objective of this course is to accelerate the evolution of governments to better serve the needs of the people as we harness the [[wisdom]] of humanity. This is a course in the [[Unleashing_Creativity/possibilities_curriculum|''possibilities'' curriculum]], currently being developed as part of the [[Wisdom/Curriculum|Applied Wisdom Curriculum]]. If you wish to contact the instructor, please [[Special:Emailuser/Lbeaumont | click here to send me an email]] or leave a comment or question on the [[Talk:Evolving_Governments|discussion page]]. == Evolution == [[w:Evolution|Evolution]] occurs when variability is subjected to selection pressures. In [[w:Evolution|biological evolution]] living organisms are selected primarily based on reproductive success. In his book ''The Evolution of Everything''<ref>{{cite book|title=The Evolution of Everything: How New Ideas Emerge|last=Ridley|first=Matt|date=October 25, 2016|publisher=Harper Perennial|isbn=978-0062296016|pages=368|author-link=w:Matt_Ridley}}</ref> , [[w:Matt Ridley|Matt Ridley]] describes the evolution of the universe, morality, life, genes, culture, the economy, technology, the mind, personality, education, population, leadership, government, religion, money, the internet and the future. Each of these systems evolves based on specialized generation, variation, and selection mechanisms. [[w:Evolvability|Evolvability]] is the capacity of a system for [[w:Adaptation|adaptive evolution]]. Evolvability increases when [[w:Evolvability#Generating%20more%20variation|more variation is generated]] and when [[w:Evolvability#Enhancement%20of%20selection|selection pressures]] are enhanced. While these ideas are well studied in biological systems, they are not often analyzed and applied to [[w:Governance|governance]] systems. This course applies these concepts to governance systems. == Generating Variation == Generating variation is the first component of evolvability. There are several existing and potential sources of variation in governments. These include 1) history, 2) comparisons, 3) leadership and policy changes, and 4) experimentation. These are discussed further below. === History === Historians, [[w:Political philosophy|political philosophers]], [[w:Political science|political scientists]], and others have studied the structure and results of government systems throughout human history. Much is known about the results of various government approaches. By applying criteria for evaluating government results, the effectiveness of various government structures is evaluated. As we discuss in the [[Evolving Governments#Defining Democracy|sections on democracy]], various [[w:Types of democracy|forms of democracy]] have provided the best results to date. === Comparisons === Businesses routinely use [[w:Benchmarking|benchmarking]] to compare the results of various industry practices and identify best practices. Policy makers, government officials, and citizens have a similar opportunity to practice [[w:Comparative politics|comparative politics]] and compare the results of various governments. These are forms of [[w:Natural experiment|natural experiments]]. Examples of this work include: * The ''[[w:Freedom in the World|Freedom in the World]]'' report<ref>Freedom in the World, Freedom House, <nowiki>https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world</nowiki></ref> compiled by [[w:Freedom House|Freedom House]], * The [[w:Democracy Index|Democracy Index]], compiled by the [[w:Economist Intelligence Unit|Economist Intelligence Unit]]. * The [[w:Democracy Ranking|Democracy ranking]] compiled by the Association for Development and Advancement of the Democracy Award. * The [[w:Index of Freedom in the World|Index of Freedom in the World]], published by Canada’s Fraser Institute. * Indices published by the [[w:V-Dem Institute|Varieties of Democracy institute]], * The [[w:Worldwide Governance Indicators|Worldwide Governance Indicators]] compiled by the World Bank. * World Report 2022, published by [[w:Human Rights Watch|Human Rights Watch]],<ref>World Report 2022, Human Rights Watch. See: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2022</ref> * The [[w:Human Development Index|Human Development Index]] compiled by the United Nations, and * others in this [[w:List of freedom indices|list of freedom indices]]. Specialized comparisons, such as the [[w:Education Index|education index]], the [[w:Multidimensional Poverty Index|multidimensional poverty index]], the [[w:World Happiness Report|world happiness report]], and the [[w:Human Capital Index|Human Capital Index]] study the performance of various policies. === Assignment === # Find your country on one of the reports or indices listed above, or on some other reliable ranked evaluation. # If your country is ranked at the top, congratulations; enjoy your country’s success, and consider sharing successful ideas and policies with others. # Otherwise, study the policy in place at the highest-ranking countries and work to have them enacted appropriately in your country. === Leadership and Policy Changes === Leadership changes occur because of [[w:Term limit|term limits]], [[w:Election|elections]], [[w:Order of succession|succession]], [[w:Coup d'état|coups]], or [[w:Revolution|revolution]]. This provides citizens and researchers with an opportunity to evaluate the results obtained by one leader compared to others. This comparison is often difficult because of the complexity of government and the need to distinguish between local and global effects and short term and long-term effects. Access to reliable information regarding the effectiveness of various policies is often difficult to obtain and evaluate due to [[w:Propaganda|propaganda]], unreliable reporting, [[w:Media bias|media bias]], limited data availability, and the effort required to collect, analyze, and interpret the data. In addition, each of us is constrained by our [[w:Bounded rationality|bounded rationality]]—the limited capacity of people to direct attention to these issues and make optimal decisions. Policy changes also take place and provide opportunities and difficulties like those in evaluating leadership changes. === Experimentation === An [[w:Experiment|experiment]] is a procedure carried out to determine the effectiveness of something previously untried. Experiments provide insight into [[w:Causality|cause-and-effect]] by demonstrating what outcome occurs when a particular factor is manipulated. Experiments vary greatly in goal and scale but always rely on a repeatable procedure and logical analysis of the results. In a laboratory experiment condition are controlled, one factor to be studied is manipulated and the results are recorded, analyzed, studied, and reported. It is rarely feasible to carry out such experiments in social settings because of the difficulties and ethical concerns of manipulating groups of people. [[w:Natural experiment|Natural experimental studies]] are used in these cases. A [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]] (RCT) or Randomized Field Trial (RFT) is a form of scientific experiment used to control factors not under direct experimental control. Examples of RCTs are [[w:Clinical trial|clinical trials]] that compare the effects of drugs, surgical techniques, medical devices, diagnostic procedures, or other medical treatments. Participants who enroll in RCTs differ from one another in known and unknown ways that can influence study outcomes, and yet cannot be directly controlled. By randomly allocating participants among compared treatments, an RCT enables statistical control over these influences. Provided it is designed well, conducted properly, and enrolls enough participants, an RCT may achieve sufficient control over these confounding factors to deliver a useful comparison of the treatments studied. Randomly controlled trials can be used to conduct [[w:Policy experimentation|social experiments]], as the following examples show. The [[w:Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab|Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab]] (J-PAL) is an excellent example of using experimentation to inform policy decisions. The lab is a global research center working to reduce poverty by ensuring that policy is informed by [[Thinking Scientifically|scientific evidence]]. J-PAL conducts randomized impact evaluations to answer critical questions in the fight against poverty, and builds partnerships with governments, [[w:Non-governmental organization|NGOs]], donors, and others to generate new research, share knowledge, and scale up effective programs. Other organizations conducting actionable research using social experiments include the EdRedesign Lab<ref>The EdRedesign Lab, Harvard Graduate School of Education. See: <nowiki>https://edredesign.org/</nowiki></ref> , and the work of [[w:John A. List|John A. List]] in performing [[w:Field experiments|field experiments]] in economics. Experiments in government are carried out in various national and local settings. Ongoing experiments include: * Rank choice voting, also known as [[w:Instant-runoff voting|instant-runoff voting]], is a type of ranked preferential voting. It uses a majority voting rule in single-winner elections where there are more than two candidates. It has a significant and [[w:History and use of instant-runoff voting|growing history of use]] around the world, including [[w:Ranked-choice voting in the United States|within the United States]] where it is advocated by the [[w:FairVote|FairVote]] organization. * The [[w:FairVote|FairVote]] organization advocates within the United States for: ** [[w:Single transferable vote|Fair]] [[w:Proportional representation|Representation Voting]], ** [[w:Instant-runoff voting|Ranked Choice Voting]], ** the Constitutional Right to Vote, and ** the [[w:National Popular Vote Interstate Compact|National Popular Vote]]. * The Institute for Political Innovation<ref>The Institute for Political Innovation. See: <nowiki>https://political-innovation.org</nowiki></ref> advocates for: ** [[w:Top-four primary#Final%20Five%20Voting|Final-Five Voting]] which is a variation of a [[w:Top-four primary|Top-four primary]] soon to be used in Alaska, and ** Zero-Based Rule Making<ref>See: <nowiki>https://political-innovation.org/zero-basedrulemaking/</nowiki></ref> which promises to eliminate constraints on thinking and open new possibilities for [[Solving Problems|solving problems]]. This proposal is modeled on [[w:Zero-based budgeting|zero-based budgeting]] practices often used in business settings. * [[w:Liquid democracy|Liquid democracy]] is a form of [[w:Delegative democracy|delegative democracy]], whereby an electorate engages in collective decision-making through [[w:Direct democracy|direct]] participation and dynamic representation. This democratic system utilizes elements of both [[w:Direct democracy|direct]] and [[w:Representative democracy|representative democracy]]. Voters in a liquid democracy have the right to vote directly on all policy issues as in a direct democracy; voters also have the option to delegate their votes to someone who will vote on their behalf as in representative democracy. Any individual may be delegated votes (those delegated votes are termed "proxies") and these proxies may in turn delegate their vote as well as any votes they have been delegated by others resulting in "metadelegation". Several [[w:Liquid democracy#Examples|implementations are being used]]. * The GovLab<ref>https://thegovlab.org</ref> is relying on reproducible experiments and metrics to better understand what works (and what doesn’t) and to translate theory and hypotheses into actionable insights. They collaborate and connect with experts and practitioners across sectors and disciplines, levels of government, and geographies to learn how to govern more effectively and legitimately. * Several [[w:Basic income pilots|pilot programs are underway]] to experiment with various forms of [[Universal basic income|Universal Basic Income]]. * The [[w:Forward (United States)|Forward Party]] is a political action committee (PAC) that seeks to form a new centrist political party in the United States. Author Jim Manzi advocates institutionalized social experimentation.<ref>{{cite book|title=Uncontrolled: The Surprising Payoff of Trial-and-Error for Business, Politics, and Society  |last=Manzi|first=Jim  |date=May 1, 2012|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0465023240|pages=320|author-link=w:Jim_Manzi_(software_entrepreneur)}} Chapter 15.</ref> Decentralized experimentation would be encouraged and would be subjected to standardized experimental evaluation and reporting to Congress. He suggests conducting as many social policy randomized controlled trials as we do clinical trials, about 10,000 each year. ==== Assignment ==== # Choose some local setting where you can run an experiment. This may be a [[w:Student council|student council election]], a committee appointment, a local election, or some other arena. # Choose an innovation from the above list, or some other source. # Run a trial of the chosen innovation in the chosen setting. For example, use rank choice voting to select the student class president at a local school. # Reflect on what was learned from that experiment. # Consider how larger experiments can be carried out. # Engage with at least one of the organizations mentioned above. # Work with them to evolve government. == Selection Pressures == The evolution of government will depend on the selection pressures each government system is subjected to. Selection pressures have two parts 1) selection ''criteria''—identifying what we want—and 2) selection ''forces''—making changes that progress toward the selection criteria. These are the system [[w:Feedback|feedback]] mechanisms. Each is described below. == Selection Criteria == Selection criteria form the basis for choosing the best alternative from several available choices. Evolution is accelerated when useful selection criteria are coupled with effective selection forces. In this section we develop useful criteria for selecting the best government options. === Selecting Leaders === It may be easier to select [[Wisdom|wise]] leaders than it is to understand, evaluate, and select various policy options. ==== Assignment ==== # Assess the [[intellectual honesty]] of the candidates. Eliminate any candidate that is not intellectually honest. # Assess the [[Moral Reasoning|moral reasoning]] of the candidates. Eliminate any candidate that does not consistently demonstrate well developed moral reasoning. # Complete the [[Wisdom#Assessing Wisdom|Assessing Wisdom section]] of the Wikiversity course on [[Wisdom]]. # Follow the instructions and complete the [[Wisdom/wisdom assessment form|wisdom assessment form]] to evaluate the viable candidates. Establish a rank ordering of the most attractive candidates. # Consider supporting, campaigning, and voting for the candidate that scores best. Act to place wise leaders in office. # Make these important [[Wisdom#Wise Decision Making|decisions wisely]]. === Policy-based Selections === In addition to choosing wise leaders, it is helpful to advocate for policy positions that lead to [[w:Good government|good government]] and [[w:Good governance|good governance]]. The [[w:United Nations|United Nations]] is playing an increasing role in promoting good governance. According to former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, "Good governance is ensuring respect for human rights and the rule of law; strengthening democracy; promoting transparency and capacity in public administration." To implement this, the UN follows eight principles:<ref>What is Good Governance, UN ESCAP Report, July 10, 2009. See: <nowiki>https://www.unescap.org/resources/what-good-governance</nowiki></ref> * Participation – People can voice their own opinions through legitimate intermediate organizations or representatives. * [[w:Rule of law|Rule of Law]] – Legal frameworks are enforced impartially, especially on human right laws. * Consensus Orientation– Differing interests are mediated to meet the broad consensus on the best interests of a community. * Equity and Inclusiveness – People have opportunities to improve or maintain their well-being. * Effectiveness and Efficiency – Processes and institutions produce results that meet the needs of their community while making the best of their resources. * Accountability – Governmental institutions, private sectors, and civil society organizations are held accountable to the public and institutional stakeholders. * Transparency – Information is accessible to the public and is understandable and monitored. * Responsiveness – Institutions and processes serve all stakeholders. Going beyond these general principles, good government is most likely to mean supporting policies that strengthen the democratic processes. === Defining Democracy === Although not necessarily the best possible governance system, [[w:Democracy|democracy]] is widely acknowledged as the most effective governance system in wide use today. For example, [[w:Derek Bok|Derek Bok]] states “In this regard, it is noteworthy that almost all the countries in the world that rank highest in overall satisfaction with life have been successful democracies for more than 80 years.”<ref>{{cite book|title=The Politics of Happiness: What Government Can Learn from the New Research on Well-Being|last=Bok|first=Derek  |date=February 21, 2010|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691144894|pages=272|author-link=w:Derek_Bok}}</ref> Although democracy is generally understood to be defined by voting, no consensus exists on a precise definition of democracy. Karl Popper says that the "classical" view of democracy is "in brief, the theory that democracy is the rule of the people, and that the people have a right to rule." Kofi Annan states that "there are as many different forms of democracy as there are democratic nations in the world." One study identified 2,234 adjectives used in the English language to describe democracy.<ref>Gagnon, Jean-Paul (1 June 2018). "2,234 Descriptions of Democracy". Democratic Theory. 5 (1): 92–113. doi:10.3167/dt.2018.050107. ISSN 2332-8894. S2CID 149825810.</ref> Democratic principles require all eligible citizens being equal before the law and having equal access to legislative processes. For example, in a representative democracy, every vote has equal weight, no unreasonable restrictions can apply to anyone seeking to become a representative, and the freedom of its eligible citizens is secured by legitimized rights and liberties which are typically protected by a constitution. Freedom House provides this characterization of democracy: <blockquote> “Democracy means more than just majority rule, however. In its ideal form, it is a governing system based on the will and consent of the governed, institutions that are accountable to all citizens, adherence to the rule of law, and respect for human rights. It is a network of mutually reinforcing structures in which those exercising power are subject to checks both within and outside the state, for example, from independent courts, an independent press, and civil society. It requires an openness to alternations in power, with rival candidates or parties competing fairly to govern for the good of the public as a whole, not just themselves or those who voted for them. It creates a level playing field so that all people, no matter the circumstances of their birth or background, can enjoy the universal human rights to which they are entitled and participate in politics and governance.”<ref>Freedom in the World 2022, Freedom House, Page 5</ref> </blockquote> === Characteristics of Democracy === [[File:Women practice voting in Dayton Oct. 27, 1920.jpg|thumb|Women practice voting in Dayton Oct. 27, 1920]] [[w:Freedom House|Freedom House]] has established detailed criteria for evaluating various forms of democracy.<ref>Freedom in the World Research Methodology. See: <nowiki>https://freedomhouse.org/reports/freedom-world/freedom-world-research-methodology</nowiki> </ref> These criteria are summarized below: ==== Electoral process. ==== #'''Was the current head of government or other chief national authority elected through free and fair elections?''' Considerations include independent [[w:Election monitoring|election monitoring]], adequate time for candidates to enter and campaign, accurate [[w:Voter registration|registration of voters]], inclusion of women and minority candidates, opportunities for candidates to address voters, make speeches, hold public meetings, and obtain media access, use of [[w:Secret ballot|secret ballot]], lack of pressure or voter intimidation, transparent vote counting, access to voting places, and the [[w:Peaceful transition of power|peaceful transfer of power]]. #'''Were the current national legislative representatives elected through free and fair elections?''' The considerations are like the above. #'''Are the electoral laws and framework fair, and are they implemented impartially by the relevant election management bodies?''' Considerations include use of a fair legislative framework for conducting elections, an independent election commission, [[w:Universal suffrage|universal suffrage]], fair [[w:Electoral district|election districts]], and fair procedures for [[w:Electoral reform|electoral reform]]. ==== Political Pluralism and Participation ==== #'''Do the people have the right to organize in different political parties or other competitive political groupings of their choice, and is the system free of undue obstacles to the rise and fall of these competing parties or groupings?''' Considerations include opportunities to form [[w:Political party|political parties]], freedom to hold meetings, rallies, and obtain media access, fair and equitable rules for party financing, freedom of [[w:Freedom of assembly|peaceful assembly]], and opportunities for [[w:Independent politician|independent candidates]]. #'''Is there a realistic opportunity for the opposition to increase its support or gain power through elections?''' Considerations include freedom of opposition parties to increase their support base and compete in elections, are opposition parties in positions of authority, and is there a significant opposition vote? #'''Are the people’s political choices free from domination by forces that are external to the political sphere, or by political forces that employ extrapolitical means?''' Considerations include lack of intimidation by military, foreign powers, oligarchies, criminal organizations, or other powerful groups, absence of [[w:Bribery|bribery]], [[w:Corruption|corruption]], improper [[w:Quid pro quo|quid pro quo]], or other improper influences, lack of dominant political donors, transparent [[w:Campaign finance|campaign financing]], and accountability to the voters. #'''Do various segments of the population (including ethnic, racial, religious, gender, LGBT+, and other relevant groups) have full political rights and electoral opportunities?''' Considerations include addressing minority issues, participation of [[w:Minority group|minority groups]] in political life, full inclusion of women, and [[w:Citizenship|citizenship]] opportunities for minorities. ==== Functioning of government ==== #'''Do the freely elected head of government and national legislative representatives determine the policies of the government?''' Considerations include installation of the elected officials into office, ability to form a functioning government, non-interference by [[w:Non-state actor|nonstate actors]], lack of military influence on government operations, independence of the executive and legislative branches, and frequency of [[w:Bipartisanship|bipartisan]] actions. #'''Are safeguards against official corruption strong and effective?''' Considerations include effectiveness of anticorruption laws and programs, independent oversight and auditing, investigation of alleged corruption, and [[w:Whistleblower|whistleblower]] protections. #'''Does the government operate with openness and transparency?''' Considerations include ability of citizens to obtain accurate information about state operations, ability to petition government agencies for information, publication of state information, ability to access and comment on pending legislations, public review of budget processes, transparency in awarding contracts, and public scrutiny of [[w:Financial disclosure of public servants|government officials’ financial disclosure]]. ==== Additional discretionary political rights question ==== #'''Is the government or occupying power deliberately changing the ethnic composition of a country or territory so as to destroy a culture or tip the political balance in favor of another group?''' Considerations include providing incentives to change the [[w:Ethnic group|ethnic composition]] of a region, forcibly moving people into or out of certain regions, and arresting or killing members of certain ethnic groups. ==== Civil Liberties ==== ==== Freedom of Expression and belief ==== #'''Are there free and independent media?''' Considerations include [[w:Media (communication)|media]] [[w:Censorship|censorship]], pressure or surveillance, punishment of journalists, [[w:Freedom of speech|freedom of speech]] regarding criticism of government officials, government control of media, [[w:Editorial independence|editorial independence,]] nonpartisan coverage, government influence of media coverage, involvement of women and minorities, free expression in works of literature, and other cultural expressions. #'''Are individuals free to practice and express their religious faith or nonbelief in public and private?''' Considerations include [[w:Freedom of religion|freedom of religious]] institutions to function, freedom from harassment of minority faith members, lack of government involvement in appointing religious leaders, freedom to distribute religious writings, freedom to construct and occupy religious buildings, lack of government involvement in religious education, and freedom to eschew religious beliefs and practices. #'''Is there academic freedom, and is the educational system free from extensive political indoctrination?''' Considerations include [[w:Academic freedom|freedom of educators]] to pursue political activities, non-interference in school [[w:Curriculum|curriculums]], fair allocation of funding, freedom of student associations to pursue political activities, and freedom of students to support candidates of their choice. #'''Are individuals free to express their personal views on political or other sensitive topics without fear of surveillance or retribution?''' Considerations include the ability to engage in discussions, including [[w:Political criticism|political discussions]], in public, or private places, including online communications, and lack of surveillance of antigovernment conversations. ==== Associational and organizational rights ==== #I'''s there [[w:Freedom of assembly|freedom of assembly]]?''' Considerations include freedom to protest peacefully, lack of intimidation or harassment of peaceful protesters, censorship of peaceful protester’s communications, and freedom to petition the public, #'''Is there freedom for nongovernmental organizations, particularly those that are engaged in human rights– and governance-related work?''' Considerations include ease of creating [[w:Non-governmental organization|nongovernment organizations]], fair rules for financing the work, and freedom from government intimidation or harassment. #'''Is there freedom for trade unions and similar professional or labor organizations?''' Considerations include unfettered formation and operation of [[w:Trade union|trade unions]], lack of pressure to join or not join certain trade unions, ability to [[w:Strike action|strike]] without reprisals, [[w:Collective bargaining|collective bargaining]], and free operation of professional organizations. ==== Rule of Law ==== #'''Is there an independent judiciary?''' Considerations include noninterference by the executive branch or other influences, fair appointment of judges, impartial rulings by judges, compliance with judicial decisions, and the absence of powerful influences over judicial decisions. #'''Does due process prevail in civil and criminal matters?''' Considerations include [[w:Presumption of innocence|presumption of innocence]], access to effective [[w:Counsel|counsel]], fair [[w:Trial|trial]], fair access to the [[w:Judiciary|court system]], independent [[w:Prosecutor|prosecutors]], fair and effective law enforcement, and upholding of [[w:Due process|due process]] without interference. #'''Is there protection from the illegitimate use of physical force and freedom from war and insurgencies?''' Considerations include absence of excessive force during arrest and detainment, humane conditions in pretrial detention facilities and prisons, effective redress of abuse, absence of [[w:Corporal punishment|corporal punishment]], minimal application of [[w:Corporal punishment|capital punishment]], lack of violent crime, and safety for the population. #'''Do laws, policies, and practices guarantee equal treatment of various segments of the population?''' Considerations include the ability of distinctive or minority groups to exercise their [[w:Human rights|human rights]], lack of violence against such groups, lack of discrimination against such groups, granting of [[w:Right of asylum|asylum]], and protection of [[w:Human rights|human rights]]. ==== Personal autonomy and individual rights ==== #'''Do individuals enjoy freedom of movement, including the ability to change their place of residence, employment, or education?''' Considerations include freedom of foreign travel, freedom of movement within the country, lack of bribery and other corruption, safe travel, and equal rights for women. #'''Are individuals able to exercise the right to own property and establish private businesses without undue interference from state or nonstate actors?''' Considerations include the ability to purchase or sell land and other property, equal [[w:Women'27s rights|rights for women]], lack of favoritism, [[w:Cronyism|cronyism]], [[w:Bribery|bribery]], [[w:Extortion|extortion]], and other forms of [[w:Political corruption|corruption]], and ease of doing business, #'''Do individuals enjoy personal social freedoms, including choice of marriage partner and size of family, protection from domestic violence, and control over appearance?''' Considerations include lack of personal and domestic violence, freedom to [[w:Same-sex marriage|marry your chosen partner]], fair divorce and child custody decisions, and free choice of dress and appearance. #'''Do individuals enjoy equality of opportunity and freedom from economic exploitation?''' Considerations include lack of worker exploitation, economic opportunity, fair competition, and absence of [[w:Human trafficking|human trafficking]]. While the Freedom House characteristics of democracy criteria are extensive, a more extensive set of criteria is used by the [[w:V-Dem Institute|V-Dem institute]] to evaluate democracies around the world. Their document “V-Dem Methodology v11.1”<ref>V-Dem Methodology v11.1 See: <nowiki>https://www.v-dem.net/static/website/img/refs/methodologyv111.pdf</nowiki></ref> describes their methodology in detail. Interested students can study that document for more detail. Other authors advocate for additional characteristics including increasing [[w:Human capital|human capital]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Uncontrolled: The Surprising Payoff of Trial-and-Error for Business, Politics, and Society  |last=Manzi|first=Jim  |date=May 1, 2012|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0465023240|pages=320|author-link=w:Jim_Manzi_(software_entrepreneur)}} Chapter 15.</ref> through more effective and relevant education<ref>The Relevant Education Project. See: <nowiki>https://relevant.education</nowiki></ref>, improving our shared knowledge base, increasing [[Emotional Competency|emotional intelligence]], and increasing our [[w:Collective intelligence|collective intelligence]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Listening Society: A Metamodern Guide to Politics|last=Freinacht  |first=Hanzi  |date=March 10, 2017|publisher=Metamoderna ApS|isbn=978-8799973903|pages=414}} Page 91 of 405</ref>^,<ref>See, for example the MIT Center for Collective Intelligence. <nowiki>https://cci.mit.edu</nowiki></ref> === Assignment === # Study the above criteria used to evaluate democracies. # Find where your country ranks on the Freedom House Freedom in the world report. # Identify areas for improvement. # Advocate for policies that improve attainment of these criteria within your government. === Results-based selections === Better governance systems attain better results. A governance system can be evaluated by the contribution it makes toward helping the governed organization reach its goals. If the governed organization is a corporation, then the best governance system is the one that results in the most profits, along with consideration of customer satisfaction, employee satisfaction, relevant regulations, and social responsibility. For other organizations, the effectiveness of a governance system can be judged by how well the governed organization meets its stated mission. In the case of international, national, state, regional, or local governments the mission will be assumed to be the [[w:Well-being|well-being]] of the people. One attractive option recognizes that “There are powerful arguments for making happiness a focal point for government policy.”<ref>{{cite book|title=The Politics of Happiness: What Government Can Learn from the New Research on Well-Being|last=Bok|first=Derek  |date=February 21, 2010|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691144894|pages=272|author-link=w:Derek_Bok}}</ref> Because happiness is often fleeting, we propose a more substantial and enduring basis for evaluating and selecting government systems. [[File:Evaluating Good Government.jpg|thumb|Better governments allow more people to meet more of their needs.]] Here we suggest that <blockquote> '''The government that meets more of the needs of more of the people is the better system.'''<ref>Good Government, Substack Article, Leland Beaumont, July 17, 2022</ref> </blockquote> To be specific, in this definition we use [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow’s hierarchy of needs]]<ref>Researchers continue to refine and extend Maslow’s original thesis. It may be wise to use these updated views rather than Maslow’s original thesis.  </ref> as our reference standard for defining the needs of the people. A population where more people are meeting more of their higher-level needs is benefiting from the better governance system. The fewer people who have unmet needs the better. The more people who have high level needs met the better.<ref>It may be wise to consider it unacceptable to leave the basic needs of anyone unmet. Therefore, it may be important to meet everyone’s basic needs before turning attention to meeting the higher-level needs of the few. This suggests a [[w:Minimax#Maximin|Maximin]] approach and is consistent with the doctrine of sufficiency.</ref> Alternative standards might include measures of: * Adherence to the [[w:Universal Declaration of Human Rights|Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], * [[w:Well-being|Well-being]], * [[w:Subjective well-being|Subjective well-being]], or * Some blend, weighing, or aggregation of these. In any case, the question of “what is the better government system?” can be answered [[w:Empiricism|empirically]] rather than hypothetically or speculatively. Evaluating results would require an independent rating agency, such as the [[w:Government Accountability Office|Government Accountability Office]], a [[w:Nationally recognized statistical rating organization|nationally recognized statistical rating organization]], or other organizations, such as [[w:Freedom House|Freedom House]], to study, analyze, and publish results. === Assignment === # Read the essay [[/Good Government/]]. # Estimate where you are now on Maslow’s needs hierarchy. # Use your estimate of the well-being of the population of your country or region to draw a diagram like the one shown above on the right. == Selection Forces == [[File:Vote Carefully.jpg|thumb|Vote conscientiously to evolve governments.]] Selection forces—actions that select for the preferred outcome—are the engine of evolution. Within a nation with a functioning democracy, selection forces include: * Voting. There are good arguments supporting the conclusion that citizens in a democracy have a moral duty to vote.<ref>Christiano, Tom and Sameer Bajaj, "Democracy", ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Spring 2022 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <<nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2022/entries/democracy/</nowiki>>. Section 4.3.1.</ref> Register to vote, study the candidates and the issues, and vote in every election you are eligible to vote in. * Campaigning; * supporting desirable candidates; * Supporting desirable policy and legislation; * Communicating with elected officials; * Financial contributions; * influencing public opinion, and * running for office. Options are more difficult in non-democratic nations. In this case, read the book ''From Dictatorship to Democracy: A Conceptual Framework for Liberation''<ref>{{cite book|title=From Dictatorship to Democracy: A Conceptual Framework for Liberation|last=Sharp|first=Gene|date=September 4, 2012|publisher=The New Press|isbn=978-1595588500|pages=160|author-link=w:Gene_Sharp}}</ref> and complete the [[Intentional Evolution#Assignment 18|final assignment]] in the [[Intentional Evolution]] course. The Wikiversity course [[Confronting Tyranny]] may also be helpful. == Possibilities == Imagine how it can be! === Assignment === This assignment is entirely optional, and it is likely that most students will skip it. The assignment is provided here to stimulate the imagination of interested students. # Read the book ''The Listening Society: A Metamodern Guide to Politics''.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Listening Society: A Metamodern Guide to Politics|last=Freinacht  |first=Hanzi  |date=March 10, 2017|publisher=Metamoderna ApS|isbn=978-8799973903|pages=414}}</ref> # Read the book ''Nordic Ideology: A Metamodern Guide to Politics''.<ref>[1] {{cite book|title=Nordic Ideology: A Metamodern Guide to Politics|last=Freinacht  |first=Hanzi  |date=May 29, 2019|publisher=Metamoderna ApS|isbn=978-8799973927|pages=495}}</ref> # Study the work of the [[Level 5 Research Center]]. # Study the work of the [[Wisdom Research|Wisdom and the Future Research Center]]. # Study the course [[A Journey to GameB]]. # Participate in the research project to [[Living Wisely/Improving our Social Operating Systems|improve our social operating systems]]. # Read the essay “3 Design principles for Protopian Governance".<ref>3 Design principles for Protopian Governance, Hanzi Freinacht, May 22, 2022, See: <nowiki>https://medium.com/@hanzifreinacht/3-design-principles-for-protopian-governance-bc2bfa7faa9a</nowiki></ref> # Study courses in the [[Unleashing Creativity/possibilities curriculum|possibilities curriculum]]. # Read the essay [[Assessing Human Rights/Beyond Olympic Gold|Beyond Olympic gold]]. ## Work to [[Assessing Human Rights|advance human rights worldwide]]. # Read the [[w:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] article on Global Democracy.<ref>Kuyper, Jonathan, "Global Democracy", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <<nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/global-democracy/</nowiki>>.</ref> # Complete the Wikiversity course [[Intentional Evolution|Intentional evolution]]. ##Complete the [[Intentional Evolution#Assignment 18|final assignment]] in the [[Intentional Evolution]] course. # Complete the Wikiversity course [[Envisioning Our Future]]. ## Write down [[Envisioning Our Future#Write Down Your Vision of Our Future|your vision of our future]]. ## Use the essay you wrote as a guide toward action. ## Act to make the future you envision a reality. == Assignment == # [[Living Wisely|Live wisely]]. # Read the essay [[Exploring Worldviews/Aligning worldviews|Aligning Worldviews]]. ## Align your worldview with reality. # Complete the course [[Intentional Evolution]]. ## Apply the principles taught in the Intentional Evolution course to accelerate the evolution of governments. # Become an informed and engaged citizen. # Practice [[Level 5 Research Center#Values|pro-social values]]. # Collaborate with others who practice [[Level 5 Research Center#Values|pro-social values]]. # Without compromising your values, [[Finding Common Ground|seek common ground]] with those who do not practice [[Level 5 Research Center#Values|pro-social values]]. ## Complete the Wikiversity course [[Transcending Conflict|Transcending conflict]]. ### Work to transcend conflict. ## Complete the Wikiversity course [[Finding Common Ground|Finding common ground]]. ### Seek common ground # Challenge, confront, and [[w:Persuasion|persuade]] those who do not practice [[Level 5 Research Center#Values|pro-social values]]. ## [[w:The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People#Habit%205:%20%22Seek%20first%20to%20understand%2C%20then%20to%20be%20understood%22|Seek first to understand, then to be understood]]. ## As a gentle starting point, become comfortable using [[w:The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People#Habit%205:%20%22Seek%20first%20to%20understand%2C%20then%20to%20be%20understood%22|these phrases]] in [[Practicing Dialogue|dialogue]] to encourage the participants to act in good faith. ## Support and vote for political leaders who support values and policies that advance this evolutionary worldview. ## Protect your own safety. ## Complete the Wikiversity course [[Finding Courage]]. ###Find the moral courage to act according to your well-chosen values and confront antagonists. ## Apply suitable techniques discussed in the book ''From Dictatorship to Democracy: A Conceptual Framework for Liberation''.<ref>Sharp, Gene (September 4, 2012). From Dictatorship to Democracy: A Conceptual Framework for Liberation. The New Press. pp. 160. ISBN 978-1595588500.</ref> ## Complete the Wikiversity course on [[Confronting Tyranny]]. ###Confront tyranny # Unleash [[w:Collaboration|collaboration]]. # [[Living Wisely/Seeking Real Good|Seek real good]]. == Further Reading == Students who are interested in learning more about evolving governments may wish to read these books: * {{cite book |last=Bevir |first=Mark |author-link= |date=October 25, 2012 |title=Governance: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=OUP Oxford |pages=147 |isbn=978-0199606412}} * {{cite book |last=Crick |first=Bernard |author-link= |date=October 10, 2002 | title=Democracy: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=OUP Oxford |pages=145 |isbn=978-0192802507}} * {{cite book |last=Snyder |first=Timothy |author-link=w:Timothy_D._Snyder |date=February 28, 2017 |title=On Tyranny: Twenty Lessons from the Twentieth Century |publisher=Crown |pages=128 |isbn=978-0804190114}} * {{cite book |last=Freinacht |first=Hanzi |date=March 10, 2017 |title=The Listening Society: A Metamodern Guide to Politics |publisher=Metamoderna ApS |pages=414 |isbn=978-8799973903}} * {{cite book |last=Freinacht |first=Hanzi |date=May 29, 2019 |title=Nordic Ideology: A Metamodern Guide to Politics |publisher=Metamoderna ApS |pages=495 |isbn=978-8799973927}} Nordic Ideology * {{cite book |last=Sharp |first=Gene |author-link=w:Gene_Sharp |date=September 4, 2012 |title=From Dictatorship to Democracy: A Conceptual Framework for Liberation |publisher=The New Press |pages=160 |isbn=978-1595588500}} * {{cite book |last=Manzi |first=Jim |author-link=w:Jim_Manzi_(software_entrepreneur) |date=May 1, 2012 |title=Uncontrolled: The Surprising Payoff of Trial-and-Error for Business, Politics, and Society |publisher=Basic Books |pages=320 |isbn=978-0465023240}} * {{cite book |last1=Gehl |first1=Katherine M. |last2=Porter |first2=Michael E. |author-link=w:Michael_Porter |date=June 23, 2020 |title=The Politics Industry: How Political Innovation Can Break Partisan Gridlock and Save Our Democracy |publisher=Harvard Business Review Press |pages=272 |isbn=978-1633699236}} * {{cite book |last=Bok |first=Derek |author-link=w:Derek_Bok |date=February 21, 2010 |title=The Politics of Happiness: What Government Can Learn from the New Research on Well-Being |publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=272 |isbn=978-0691144894}} * {{cite book |last=Reich |first=Robert B. |date=February 20, 2018 |title=The Common Good |publisher=Knopf |pages=208 |isbn=978-0525520498 |author-link=w:Robert_Reich }} * {{cite book |last=Christakis |first=Nicholas A. |author-link=w:Nicholas_Christakis |date=March 26, 2019 |title=Blueprint: The Evolutionary Origins of a Good Society |publisher=Little, Brown Spark |pages=441 |isbn=978-0316230032}} * {{cite book |last=Ridley |first=Matt |author-link=w:Matt_Ridley |date=October 25, 2016 |title=The Evolution of Everything: How New Ideas Emerge |publisher=Harper Perennial |pages=368 |isbn=978-0062296016}} * {{cite book |last=Camp |first=Robert C. |date=May 1, 1989 |title=Benchmarking: The Search for Industry Best Practices That Lead to Superior Performance |publisher=Amer Society for Quality |pages=299 |isbn=978-0873890588}} * The Modern Political Traditions: Hobbes to Habermas, Wondrium I have not yet read the following books, but they seem interesting and relevant. They are listed here to invite further research. *''The Why Axis'', John A. List. *''The J Curve: A New Way to Understand Why Nations Rise and Fall,'' by Ian Bremmer == References == <references/> [[Category:Government]] [[Category:Applied Wisdom]] [[Category:Philosophy]] [[Category:Courses]] {{Possibilities}} dzpdse1c5gst7fuq3f9cwh45eavkn1c 2415589 2415587 2022-08-16T15:09:24Z Lbeaumont 278565 /* Further Reading */ Added Collapse and What we owe the future wikitext text/x-wiki —Unleashing collaboration == Introduction == [[File:3d10 fm de vilafranca.jpg|thumb| thumb | Unleash [[w:Collaboration|collaboration]].]] Almost all people on earth are ruled by obsolete [[w:Government|government]] systems that were developed centuries ago. For example, the [[w:Constitution_of_the_United_States|constitution of the United States]] was ratified in 1788, a full 50 years before the [[w:Electrical_telegraph|first telegram]] was sent by Samuel Morse in 1838, 115 years before the Wright Brothers [[w:Wright_brothers#First_powered_flight|first powered airplane flight]] in 1903, and 140 years before [[w:Alexander_Fleming|Alexander Fleming]] discovered [[w:Penicillin|penicillin]] in 1928, the first antibiotic. {{TOC right |limit=2}} Today we have indoor plumbing, air travel, space exploration, electric automobiles, smartphones, and advanced medical procedures. Technology evolves quickly because many innovations are subjected to selection pressures that test fitness for use. Similarly, we can accelerate the [[w:Evolvability|evolvability]] of government systems by harnessing variability and subjecting government policies to effective selection pressures. == Objectives == {{100%done}}{{By|lbeaumont}} The objective of this course is to accelerate the evolution of governments to better serve the needs of the people as we harness the [[wisdom]] of humanity. This is a course in the [[Unleashing_Creativity/possibilities_curriculum|''possibilities'' curriculum]], currently being developed as part of the [[Wisdom/Curriculum|Applied Wisdom Curriculum]]. If you wish to contact the instructor, please [[Special:Emailuser/Lbeaumont | click here to send me an email]] or leave a comment or question on the [[Talk:Evolving_Governments|discussion page]]. == Evolution == [[w:Evolution|Evolution]] occurs when variability is subjected to selection pressures. In [[w:Evolution|biological evolution]] living organisms are selected primarily based on reproductive success. In his book ''The Evolution of Everything''<ref>{{cite book|title=The Evolution of Everything: How New Ideas Emerge|last=Ridley|first=Matt|date=October 25, 2016|publisher=Harper Perennial|isbn=978-0062296016|pages=368|author-link=w:Matt_Ridley}}</ref> , [[w:Matt Ridley|Matt Ridley]] describes the evolution of the universe, morality, life, genes, culture, the economy, technology, the mind, personality, education, population, leadership, government, religion, money, the internet and the future. Each of these systems evolves based on specialized generation, variation, and selection mechanisms. [[w:Evolvability|Evolvability]] is the capacity of a system for [[w:Adaptation|adaptive evolution]]. Evolvability increases when [[w:Evolvability#Generating%20more%20variation|more variation is generated]] and when [[w:Evolvability#Enhancement%20of%20selection|selection pressures]] are enhanced. While these ideas are well studied in biological systems, they are not often analyzed and applied to [[w:Governance|governance]] systems. This course applies these concepts to governance systems. == Generating Variation == Generating variation is the first component of evolvability. There are several existing and potential sources of variation in governments. These include 1) history, 2) comparisons, 3) leadership and policy changes, and 4) experimentation. These are discussed further below. === History === Historians, [[w:Political philosophy|political philosophers]], [[w:Political science|political scientists]], and others have studied the structure and results of government systems throughout human history. Much is known about the results of various government approaches. By applying criteria for evaluating government results, the effectiveness of various government structures is evaluated. As we discuss in the [[Evolving Governments#Defining Democracy|sections on democracy]], various [[w:Types of democracy|forms of democracy]] have provided the best results to date. === Comparisons === Businesses routinely use [[w:Benchmarking|benchmarking]] to compare the results of various industry practices and identify best practices. Policy makers, government officials, and citizens have a similar opportunity to practice [[w:Comparative politics|comparative politics]] and compare the results of various governments. These are forms of [[w:Natural experiment|natural experiments]]. Examples of this work include: * The ''[[w:Freedom in the World|Freedom in the World]]'' report<ref>Freedom in the World, Freedom House, <nowiki>https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world</nowiki></ref> compiled by [[w:Freedom House|Freedom House]], * The [[w:Democracy Index|Democracy Index]], compiled by the [[w:Economist Intelligence Unit|Economist Intelligence Unit]]. * The [[w:Democracy Ranking|Democracy ranking]] compiled by the Association for Development and Advancement of the Democracy Award. * The [[w:Index of Freedom in the World|Index of Freedom in the World]], published by Canada’s Fraser Institute. * Indices published by the [[w:V-Dem Institute|Varieties of Democracy institute]], * The [[w:Worldwide Governance Indicators|Worldwide Governance Indicators]] compiled by the World Bank. * World Report 2022, published by [[w:Human Rights Watch|Human Rights Watch]],<ref>World Report 2022, Human Rights Watch. See: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2022</ref> * The [[w:Human Development Index|Human Development Index]] compiled by the United Nations, and * others in this [[w:List of freedom indices|list of freedom indices]]. Specialized comparisons, such as the [[w:Education Index|education index]], the [[w:Multidimensional Poverty Index|multidimensional poverty index]], the [[w:World Happiness Report|world happiness report]], and the [[w:Human Capital Index|Human Capital Index]] study the performance of various policies. === Assignment === # Find your country on one of the reports or indices listed above, or on some other reliable ranked evaluation. # If your country is ranked at the top, congratulations; enjoy your country’s success, and consider sharing successful ideas and policies with others. # Otherwise, study the policy in place at the highest-ranking countries and work to have them enacted appropriately in your country. === Leadership and Policy Changes === Leadership changes occur because of [[w:Term limit|term limits]], [[w:Election|elections]], [[w:Order of succession|succession]], [[w:Coup d'état|coups]], or [[w:Revolution|revolution]]. This provides citizens and researchers with an opportunity to evaluate the results obtained by one leader compared to others. This comparison is often difficult because of the complexity of government and the need to distinguish between local and global effects and short term and long-term effects. Access to reliable information regarding the effectiveness of various policies is often difficult to obtain and evaluate due to [[w:Propaganda|propaganda]], unreliable reporting, [[w:Media bias|media bias]], limited data availability, and the effort required to collect, analyze, and interpret the data. In addition, each of us is constrained by our [[w:Bounded rationality|bounded rationality]]—the limited capacity of people to direct attention to these issues and make optimal decisions. Policy changes also take place and provide opportunities and difficulties like those in evaluating leadership changes. === Experimentation === An [[w:Experiment|experiment]] is a procedure carried out to determine the effectiveness of something previously untried. Experiments provide insight into [[w:Causality|cause-and-effect]] by demonstrating what outcome occurs when a particular factor is manipulated. Experiments vary greatly in goal and scale but always rely on a repeatable procedure and logical analysis of the results. In a laboratory experiment condition are controlled, one factor to be studied is manipulated and the results are recorded, analyzed, studied, and reported. It is rarely feasible to carry out such experiments in social settings because of the difficulties and ethical concerns of manipulating groups of people. [[w:Natural experiment|Natural experimental studies]] are used in these cases. A [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]] (RCT) or Randomized Field Trial (RFT) is a form of scientific experiment used to control factors not under direct experimental control. Examples of RCTs are [[w:Clinical trial|clinical trials]] that compare the effects of drugs, surgical techniques, medical devices, diagnostic procedures, or other medical treatments. Participants who enroll in RCTs differ from one another in known and unknown ways that can influence study outcomes, and yet cannot be directly controlled. By randomly allocating participants among compared treatments, an RCT enables statistical control over these influences. Provided it is designed well, conducted properly, and enrolls enough participants, an RCT may achieve sufficient control over these confounding factors to deliver a useful comparison of the treatments studied. Randomly controlled trials can be used to conduct [[w:Policy experimentation|social experiments]], as the following examples show. The [[w:Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab|Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab]] (J-PAL) is an excellent example of using experimentation to inform policy decisions. The lab is a global research center working to reduce poverty by ensuring that policy is informed by [[Thinking Scientifically|scientific evidence]]. J-PAL conducts randomized impact evaluations to answer critical questions in the fight against poverty, and builds partnerships with governments, [[w:Non-governmental organization|NGOs]], donors, and others to generate new research, share knowledge, and scale up effective programs. Other organizations conducting actionable research using social experiments include the EdRedesign Lab<ref>The EdRedesign Lab, Harvard Graduate School of Education. See: <nowiki>https://edredesign.org/</nowiki></ref> , and the work of [[w:John A. List|John A. List]] in performing [[w:Field experiments|field experiments]] in economics. Experiments in government are carried out in various national and local settings. Ongoing experiments include: * Rank choice voting, also known as [[w:Instant-runoff voting|instant-runoff voting]], is a type of ranked preferential voting. It uses a majority voting rule in single-winner elections where there are more than two candidates. It has a significant and [[w:History and use of instant-runoff voting|growing history of use]] around the world, including [[w:Ranked-choice voting in the United States|within the United States]] where it is advocated by the [[w:FairVote|FairVote]] organization. * The [[w:FairVote|FairVote]] organization advocates within the United States for: ** [[w:Single transferable vote|Fair]] [[w:Proportional representation|Representation Voting]], ** [[w:Instant-runoff voting|Ranked Choice Voting]], ** the Constitutional Right to Vote, and ** the [[w:National Popular Vote Interstate Compact|National Popular Vote]]. * The Institute for Political Innovation<ref>The Institute for Political Innovation. See: <nowiki>https://political-innovation.org</nowiki></ref> advocates for: ** [[w:Top-four primary#Final%20Five%20Voting|Final-Five Voting]] which is a variation of a [[w:Top-four primary|Top-four primary]] soon to be used in Alaska, and ** Zero-Based Rule Making<ref>See: <nowiki>https://political-innovation.org/zero-basedrulemaking/</nowiki></ref> which promises to eliminate constraints on thinking and open new possibilities for [[Solving Problems|solving problems]]. This proposal is modeled on [[w:Zero-based budgeting|zero-based budgeting]] practices often used in business settings. * [[w:Liquid democracy|Liquid democracy]] is a form of [[w:Delegative democracy|delegative democracy]], whereby an electorate engages in collective decision-making through [[w:Direct democracy|direct]] participation and dynamic representation. This democratic system utilizes elements of both [[w:Direct democracy|direct]] and [[w:Representative democracy|representative democracy]]. Voters in a liquid democracy have the right to vote directly on all policy issues as in a direct democracy; voters also have the option to delegate their votes to someone who will vote on their behalf as in representative democracy. Any individual may be delegated votes (those delegated votes are termed "proxies") and these proxies may in turn delegate their vote as well as any votes they have been delegated by others resulting in "metadelegation". Several [[w:Liquid democracy#Examples|implementations are being used]]. * The GovLab<ref>https://thegovlab.org</ref> is relying on reproducible experiments and metrics to better understand what works (and what doesn’t) and to translate theory and hypotheses into actionable insights. They collaborate and connect with experts and practitioners across sectors and disciplines, levels of government, and geographies to learn how to govern more effectively and legitimately. * Several [[w:Basic income pilots|pilot programs are underway]] to experiment with various forms of [[Universal basic income|Universal Basic Income]]. * The [[w:Forward (United States)|Forward Party]] is a political action committee (PAC) that seeks to form a new centrist political party in the United States. Author Jim Manzi advocates institutionalized social experimentation.<ref>{{cite book|title=Uncontrolled: The Surprising Payoff of Trial-and-Error for Business, Politics, and Society  |last=Manzi|first=Jim  |date=May 1, 2012|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0465023240|pages=320|author-link=w:Jim_Manzi_(software_entrepreneur)}} Chapter 15.</ref> Decentralized experimentation would be encouraged and would be subjected to standardized experimental evaluation and reporting to Congress. He suggests conducting as many social policy randomized controlled trials as we do clinical trials, about 10,000 each year. ==== Assignment ==== # Choose some local setting where you can run an experiment. This may be a [[w:Student council|student council election]], a committee appointment, a local election, or some other arena. # Choose an innovation from the above list, or some other source. # Run a trial of the chosen innovation in the chosen setting. For example, use rank choice voting to select the student class president at a local school. # Reflect on what was learned from that experiment. # Consider how larger experiments can be carried out. # Engage with at least one of the organizations mentioned above. # Work with them to evolve government. == Selection Pressures == The evolution of government will depend on the selection pressures each government system is subjected to. Selection pressures have two parts 1) selection ''criteria''—identifying what we want—and 2) selection ''forces''—making changes that progress toward the selection criteria. These are the system [[w:Feedback|feedback]] mechanisms. Each is described below. == Selection Criteria == Selection criteria form the basis for choosing the best alternative from several available choices. Evolution is accelerated when useful selection criteria are coupled with effective selection forces. In this section we develop useful criteria for selecting the best government options. === Selecting Leaders === It may be easier to select [[Wisdom|wise]] leaders than it is to understand, evaluate, and select various policy options. ==== Assignment ==== # Assess the [[intellectual honesty]] of the candidates. Eliminate any candidate that is not intellectually honest. # Assess the [[Moral Reasoning|moral reasoning]] of the candidates. Eliminate any candidate that does not consistently demonstrate well developed moral reasoning. # Complete the [[Wisdom#Assessing Wisdom|Assessing Wisdom section]] of the Wikiversity course on [[Wisdom]]. # Follow the instructions and complete the [[Wisdom/wisdom assessment form|wisdom assessment form]] to evaluate the viable candidates. Establish a rank ordering of the most attractive candidates. # Consider supporting, campaigning, and voting for the candidate that scores best. Act to place wise leaders in office. # Make these important [[Wisdom#Wise Decision Making|decisions wisely]]. === Policy-based Selections === In addition to choosing wise leaders, it is helpful to advocate for policy positions that lead to [[w:Good government|good government]] and [[w:Good governance|good governance]]. The [[w:United Nations|United Nations]] is playing an increasing role in promoting good governance. According to former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, "Good governance is ensuring respect for human rights and the rule of law; strengthening democracy; promoting transparency and capacity in public administration." To implement this, the UN follows eight principles:<ref>What is Good Governance, UN ESCAP Report, July 10, 2009. See: <nowiki>https://www.unescap.org/resources/what-good-governance</nowiki></ref> * Participation – People can voice their own opinions through legitimate intermediate organizations or representatives. * [[w:Rule of law|Rule of Law]] – Legal frameworks are enforced impartially, especially on human right laws. * Consensus Orientation– Differing interests are mediated to meet the broad consensus on the best interests of a community. * Equity and Inclusiveness – People have opportunities to improve or maintain their well-being. * Effectiveness and Efficiency – Processes and institutions produce results that meet the needs of their community while making the best of their resources. * Accountability – Governmental institutions, private sectors, and civil society organizations are held accountable to the public and institutional stakeholders. * Transparency – Information is accessible to the public and is understandable and monitored. * Responsiveness – Institutions and processes serve all stakeholders. Going beyond these general principles, good government is most likely to mean supporting policies that strengthen the democratic processes. === Defining Democracy === Although not necessarily the best possible governance system, [[w:Democracy|democracy]] is widely acknowledged as the most effective governance system in wide use today. For example, [[w:Derek Bok|Derek Bok]] states “In this regard, it is noteworthy that almost all the countries in the world that rank highest in overall satisfaction with life have been successful democracies for more than 80 years.”<ref>{{cite book|title=The Politics of Happiness: What Government Can Learn from the New Research on Well-Being|last=Bok|first=Derek  |date=February 21, 2010|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691144894|pages=272|author-link=w:Derek_Bok}}</ref> Although democracy is generally understood to be defined by voting, no consensus exists on a precise definition of democracy. Karl Popper says that the "classical" view of democracy is "in brief, the theory that democracy is the rule of the people, and that the people have a right to rule." Kofi Annan states that "there are as many different forms of democracy as there are democratic nations in the world." One study identified 2,234 adjectives used in the English language to describe democracy.<ref>Gagnon, Jean-Paul (1 June 2018). "2,234 Descriptions of Democracy". Democratic Theory. 5 (1): 92–113. doi:10.3167/dt.2018.050107. ISSN 2332-8894. S2CID 149825810.</ref> Democratic principles require all eligible citizens being equal before the law and having equal access to legislative processes. For example, in a representative democracy, every vote has equal weight, no unreasonable restrictions can apply to anyone seeking to become a representative, and the freedom of its eligible citizens is secured by legitimized rights and liberties which are typically protected by a constitution. Freedom House provides this characterization of democracy: <blockquote> “Democracy means more than just majority rule, however. In its ideal form, it is a governing system based on the will and consent of the governed, institutions that are accountable to all citizens, adherence to the rule of law, and respect for human rights. It is a network of mutually reinforcing structures in which those exercising power are subject to checks both within and outside the state, for example, from independent courts, an independent press, and civil society. It requires an openness to alternations in power, with rival candidates or parties competing fairly to govern for the good of the public as a whole, not just themselves or those who voted for them. It creates a level playing field so that all people, no matter the circumstances of their birth or background, can enjoy the universal human rights to which they are entitled and participate in politics and governance.”<ref>Freedom in the World 2022, Freedom House, Page 5</ref> </blockquote> === Characteristics of Democracy === [[File:Women practice voting in Dayton Oct. 27, 1920.jpg|thumb|Women practice voting in Dayton Oct. 27, 1920]] [[w:Freedom House|Freedom House]] has established detailed criteria for evaluating various forms of democracy.<ref>Freedom in the World Research Methodology. See: <nowiki>https://freedomhouse.org/reports/freedom-world/freedom-world-research-methodology</nowiki> </ref> These criteria are summarized below: ==== Electoral process. ==== #'''Was the current head of government or other chief national authority elected through free and fair elections?''' Considerations include independent [[w:Election monitoring|election monitoring]], adequate time for candidates to enter and campaign, accurate [[w:Voter registration|registration of voters]], inclusion of women and minority candidates, opportunities for candidates to address voters, make speeches, hold public meetings, and obtain media access, use of [[w:Secret ballot|secret ballot]], lack of pressure or voter intimidation, transparent vote counting, access to voting places, and the [[w:Peaceful transition of power|peaceful transfer of power]]. #'''Were the current national legislative representatives elected through free and fair elections?''' The considerations are like the above. #'''Are the electoral laws and framework fair, and are they implemented impartially by the relevant election management bodies?''' Considerations include use of a fair legislative framework for conducting elections, an independent election commission, [[w:Universal suffrage|universal suffrage]], fair [[w:Electoral district|election districts]], and fair procedures for [[w:Electoral reform|electoral reform]]. ==== Political Pluralism and Participation ==== #'''Do the people have the right to organize in different political parties or other competitive political groupings of their choice, and is the system free of undue obstacles to the rise and fall of these competing parties or groupings?''' Considerations include opportunities to form [[w:Political party|political parties]], freedom to hold meetings, rallies, and obtain media access, fair and equitable rules for party financing, freedom of [[w:Freedom of assembly|peaceful assembly]], and opportunities for [[w:Independent politician|independent candidates]]. #'''Is there a realistic opportunity for the opposition to increase its support or gain power through elections?''' Considerations include freedom of opposition parties to increase their support base and compete in elections, are opposition parties in positions of authority, and is there a significant opposition vote? #'''Are the people’s political choices free from domination by forces that are external to the political sphere, or by political forces that employ extrapolitical means?''' Considerations include lack of intimidation by military, foreign powers, oligarchies, criminal organizations, or other powerful groups, absence of [[w:Bribery|bribery]], [[w:Corruption|corruption]], improper [[w:Quid pro quo|quid pro quo]], or other improper influences, lack of dominant political donors, transparent [[w:Campaign finance|campaign financing]], and accountability to the voters. #'''Do various segments of the population (including ethnic, racial, religious, gender, LGBT+, and other relevant groups) have full political rights and electoral opportunities?''' Considerations include addressing minority issues, participation of [[w:Minority group|minority groups]] in political life, full inclusion of women, and [[w:Citizenship|citizenship]] opportunities for minorities. ==== Functioning of government ==== #'''Do the freely elected head of government and national legislative representatives determine the policies of the government?''' Considerations include installation of the elected officials into office, ability to form a functioning government, non-interference by [[w:Non-state actor|nonstate actors]], lack of military influence on government operations, independence of the executive and legislative branches, and frequency of [[w:Bipartisanship|bipartisan]] actions. #'''Are safeguards against official corruption strong and effective?''' Considerations include effectiveness of anticorruption laws and programs, independent oversight and auditing, investigation of alleged corruption, and [[w:Whistleblower|whistleblower]] protections. #'''Does the government operate with openness and transparency?''' Considerations include ability of citizens to obtain accurate information about state operations, ability to petition government agencies for information, publication of state information, ability to access and comment on pending legislations, public review of budget processes, transparency in awarding contracts, and public scrutiny of [[w:Financial disclosure of public servants|government officials’ financial disclosure]]. ==== Additional discretionary political rights question ==== #'''Is the government or occupying power deliberately changing the ethnic composition of a country or territory so as to destroy a culture or tip the political balance in favor of another group?''' Considerations include providing incentives to change the [[w:Ethnic group|ethnic composition]] of a region, forcibly moving people into or out of certain regions, and arresting or killing members of certain ethnic groups. ==== Civil Liberties ==== ==== Freedom of Expression and belief ==== #'''Are there free and independent media?''' Considerations include [[w:Media (communication)|media]] [[w:Censorship|censorship]], pressure or surveillance, punishment of journalists, [[w:Freedom of speech|freedom of speech]] regarding criticism of government officials, government control of media, [[w:Editorial independence|editorial independence,]] nonpartisan coverage, government influence of media coverage, involvement of women and minorities, free expression in works of literature, and other cultural expressions. #'''Are individuals free to practice and express their religious faith or nonbelief in public and private?''' Considerations include [[w:Freedom of religion|freedom of religious]] institutions to function, freedom from harassment of minority faith members, lack of government involvement in appointing religious leaders, freedom to distribute religious writings, freedom to construct and occupy religious buildings, lack of government involvement in religious education, and freedom to eschew religious beliefs and practices. #'''Is there academic freedom, and is the educational system free from extensive political indoctrination?''' Considerations include [[w:Academic freedom|freedom of educators]] to pursue political activities, non-interference in school [[w:Curriculum|curriculums]], fair allocation of funding, freedom of student associations to pursue political activities, and freedom of students to support candidates of their choice. #'''Are individuals free to express their personal views on political or other sensitive topics without fear of surveillance or retribution?''' Considerations include the ability to engage in discussions, including [[w:Political criticism|political discussions]], in public, or private places, including online communications, and lack of surveillance of antigovernment conversations. ==== Associational and organizational rights ==== #I'''s there [[w:Freedom of assembly|freedom of assembly]]?''' Considerations include freedom to protest peacefully, lack of intimidation or harassment of peaceful protesters, censorship of peaceful protester’s communications, and freedom to petition the public, #'''Is there freedom for nongovernmental organizations, particularly those that are engaged in human rights– and governance-related work?''' Considerations include ease of creating [[w:Non-governmental organization|nongovernment organizations]], fair rules for financing the work, and freedom from government intimidation or harassment. #'''Is there freedom for trade unions and similar professional or labor organizations?''' Considerations include unfettered formation and operation of [[w:Trade union|trade unions]], lack of pressure to join or not join certain trade unions, ability to [[w:Strike action|strike]] without reprisals, [[w:Collective bargaining|collective bargaining]], and free operation of professional organizations. ==== Rule of Law ==== #'''Is there an independent judiciary?''' Considerations include noninterference by the executive branch or other influences, fair appointment of judges, impartial rulings by judges, compliance with judicial decisions, and the absence of powerful influences over judicial decisions. #'''Does due process prevail in civil and criminal matters?''' Considerations include [[w:Presumption of innocence|presumption of innocence]], access to effective [[w:Counsel|counsel]], fair [[w:Trial|trial]], fair access to the [[w:Judiciary|court system]], independent [[w:Prosecutor|prosecutors]], fair and effective law enforcement, and upholding of [[w:Due process|due process]] without interference. #'''Is there protection from the illegitimate use of physical force and freedom from war and insurgencies?''' Considerations include absence of excessive force during arrest and detainment, humane conditions in pretrial detention facilities and prisons, effective redress of abuse, absence of [[w:Corporal punishment|corporal punishment]], minimal application of [[w:Corporal punishment|capital punishment]], lack of violent crime, and safety for the population. #'''Do laws, policies, and practices guarantee equal treatment of various segments of the population?''' Considerations include the ability of distinctive or minority groups to exercise their [[w:Human rights|human rights]], lack of violence against such groups, lack of discrimination against such groups, granting of [[w:Right of asylum|asylum]], and protection of [[w:Human rights|human rights]]. ==== Personal autonomy and individual rights ==== #'''Do individuals enjoy freedom of movement, including the ability to change their place of residence, employment, or education?''' Considerations include freedom of foreign travel, freedom of movement within the country, lack of bribery and other corruption, safe travel, and equal rights for women. #'''Are individuals able to exercise the right to own property and establish private businesses without undue interference from state or nonstate actors?''' Considerations include the ability to purchase or sell land and other property, equal [[w:Women'27s rights|rights for women]], lack of favoritism, [[w:Cronyism|cronyism]], [[w:Bribery|bribery]], [[w:Extortion|extortion]], and other forms of [[w:Political corruption|corruption]], and ease of doing business, #'''Do individuals enjoy personal social freedoms, including choice of marriage partner and size of family, protection from domestic violence, and control over appearance?''' Considerations include lack of personal and domestic violence, freedom to [[w:Same-sex marriage|marry your chosen partner]], fair divorce and child custody decisions, and free choice of dress and appearance. #'''Do individuals enjoy equality of opportunity and freedom from economic exploitation?''' Considerations include lack of worker exploitation, economic opportunity, fair competition, and absence of [[w:Human trafficking|human trafficking]]. While the Freedom House characteristics of democracy criteria are extensive, a more extensive set of criteria is used by the [[w:V-Dem Institute|V-Dem institute]] to evaluate democracies around the world. Their document “V-Dem Methodology v11.1”<ref>V-Dem Methodology v11.1 See: <nowiki>https://www.v-dem.net/static/website/img/refs/methodologyv111.pdf</nowiki></ref> describes their methodology in detail. Interested students can study that document for more detail. Other authors advocate for additional characteristics including increasing [[w:Human capital|human capital]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Uncontrolled: The Surprising Payoff of Trial-and-Error for Business, Politics, and Society  |last=Manzi|first=Jim  |date=May 1, 2012|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0465023240|pages=320|author-link=w:Jim_Manzi_(software_entrepreneur)}} Chapter 15.</ref> through more effective and relevant education<ref>The Relevant Education Project. See: <nowiki>https://relevant.education</nowiki></ref>, improving our shared knowledge base, increasing [[Emotional Competency|emotional intelligence]], and increasing our [[w:Collective intelligence|collective intelligence]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Listening Society: A Metamodern Guide to Politics|last=Freinacht  |first=Hanzi  |date=March 10, 2017|publisher=Metamoderna ApS|isbn=978-8799973903|pages=414}} Page 91 of 405</ref>^,<ref>See, for example the MIT Center for Collective Intelligence. <nowiki>https://cci.mit.edu</nowiki></ref> === Assignment === # Study the above criteria used to evaluate democracies. # Find where your country ranks on the Freedom House Freedom in the world report. # Identify areas for improvement. # Advocate for policies that improve attainment of these criteria within your government. === Results-based selections === Better governance systems attain better results. A governance system can be evaluated by the contribution it makes toward helping the governed organization reach its goals. If the governed organization is a corporation, then the best governance system is the one that results in the most profits, along with consideration of customer satisfaction, employee satisfaction, relevant regulations, and social responsibility. For other organizations, the effectiveness of a governance system can be judged by how well the governed organization meets its stated mission. In the case of international, national, state, regional, or local governments the mission will be assumed to be the [[w:Well-being|well-being]] of the people. One attractive option recognizes that “There are powerful arguments for making happiness a focal point for government policy.”<ref>{{cite book|title=The Politics of Happiness: What Government Can Learn from the New Research on Well-Being|last=Bok|first=Derek  |date=February 21, 2010|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691144894|pages=272|author-link=w:Derek_Bok}}</ref> Because happiness is often fleeting, we propose a more substantial and enduring basis for evaluating and selecting government systems. [[File:Evaluating Good Government.jpg|thumb|Better governments allow more people to meet more of their needs.]] Here we suggest that <blockquote> '''The government that meets more of the needs of more of the people is the better system.'''<ref>Good Government, Substack Article, Leland Beaumont, July 17, 2022</ref> </blockquote> To be specific, in this definition we use [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow’s hierarchy of needs]]<ref>Researchers continue to refine and extend Maslow’s original thesis. It may be wise to use these updated views rather than Maslow’s original thesis.  </ref> as our reference standard for defining the needs of the people. A population where more people are meeting more of their higher-level needs is benefiting from the better governance system. The fewer people who have unmet needs the better. The more people who have high level needs met the better.<ref>It may be wise to consider it unacceptable to leave the basic needs of anyone unmet. Therefore, it may be important to meet everyone’s basic needs before turning attention to meeting the higher-level needs of the few. This suggests a [[w:Minimax#Maximin|Maximin]] approach and is consistent with the doctrine of sufficiency.</ref> Alternative standards might include measures of: * Adherence to the [[w:Universal Declaration of Human Rights|Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], * [[w:Well-being|Well-being]], * [[w:Subjective well-being|Subjective well-being]], or * Some blend, weighing, or aggregation of these. In any case, the question of “what is the better government system?” can be answered [[w:Empiricism|empirically]] rather than hypothetically or speculatively. Evaluating results would require an independent rating agency, such as the [[w:Government Accountability Office|Government Accountability Office]], a [[w:Nationally recognized statistical rating organization|nationally recognized statistical rating organization]], or other organizations, such as [[w:Freedom House|Freedom House]], to study, analyze, and publish results. === Assignment === # Read the essay [[/Good Government/]]. # Estimate where you are now on Maslow’s needs hierarchy. # Use your estimate of the well-being of the population of your country or region to draw a diagram like the one shown above on the right. == Selection Forces == [[File:Vote Carefully.jpg|thumb|Vote conscientiously to evolve governments.]] Selection forces—actions that select for the preferred outcome—are the engine of evolution. Within a nation with a functioning democracy, selection forces include: * Voting. There are good arguments supporting the conclusion that citizens in a democracy have a moral duty to vote.<ref>Christiano, Tom and Sameer Bajaj, "Democracy", ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Spring 2022 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <<nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2022/entries/democracy/</nowiki>>. Section 4.3.1.</ref> Register to vote, study the candidates and the issues, and vote in every election you are eligible to vote in. * Campaigning; * supporting desirable candidates; * Supporting desirable policy and legislation; * Communicating with elected officials; * Financial contributions; * influencing public opinion, and * running for office. Options are more difficult in non-democratic nations. In this case, read the book ''From Dictatorship to Democracy: A Conceptual Framework for Liberation''<ref>{{cite book|title=From Dictatorship to Democracy: A Conceptual Framework for Liberation|last=Sharp|first=Gene|date=September 4, 2012|publisher=The New Press|isbn=978-1595588500|pages=160|author-link=w:Gene_Sharp}}</ref> and complete the [[Intentional Evolution#Assignment 18|final assignment]] in the [[Intentional Evolution]] course. The Wikiversity course [[Confronting Tyranny]] may also be helpful. == Possibilities == Imagine how it can be! === Assignment === This assignment is entirely optional, and it is likely that most students will skip it. The assignment is provided here to stimulate the imagination of interested students. # Read the book ''The Listening Society: A Metamodern Guide to Politics''.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Listening Society: A Metamodern Guide to Politics|last=Freinacht  |first=Hanzi  |date=March 10, 2017|publisher=Metamoderna ApS|isbn=978-8799973903|pages=414}}</ref> # Read the book ''Nordic Ideology: A Metamodern Guide to Politics''.<ref>[1] {{cite book|title=Nordic Ideology: A Metamodern Guide to Politics|last=Freinacht  |first=Hanzi  |date=May 29, 2019|publisher=Metamoderna ApS|isbn=978-8799973927|pages=495}}</ref> # Study the work of the [[Level 5 Research Center]]. # Study the work of the [[Wisdom Research|Wisdom and the Future Research Center]]. # Study the course [[A Journey to GameB]]. # Participate in the research project to [[Living Wisely/Improving our Social Operating Systems|improve our social operating systems]]. # Read the essay “3 Design principles for Protopian Governance".<ref>3 Design principles for Protopian Governance, Hanzi Freinacht, May 22, 2022, See: <nowiki>https://medium.com/@hanzifreinacht/3-design-principles-for-protopian-governance-bc2bfa7faa9a</nowiki></ref> # Study courses in the [[Unleashing Creativity/possibilities curriculum|possibilities curriculum]]. # Read the essay [[Assessing Human Rights/Beyond Olympic Gold|Beyond Olympic gold]]. ## Work to [[Assessing Human Rights|advance human rights worldwide]]. # Read the [[w:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] article on Global Democracy.<ref>Kuyper, Jonathan, "Global Democracy", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <<nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/global-democracy/</nowiki>>.</ref> # Complete the Wikiversity course [[Intentional Evolution|Intentional evolution]]. ##Complete the [[Intentional Evolution#Assignment 18|final assignment]] in the [[Intentional Evolution]] course. # Complete the Wikiversity course [[Envisioning Our Future]]. ## Write down [[Envisioning Our Future#Write Down Your Vision of Our Future|your vision of our future]]. ## Use the essay you wrote as a guide toward action. ## Act to make the future you envision a reality. == Assignment == # [[Living Wisely|Live wisely]]. # Read the essay [[Exploring Worldviews/Aligning worldviews|Aligning Worldviews]]. ## Align your worldview with reality. # Complete the course [[Intentional Evolution]]. ## Apply the principles taught in the Intentional Evolution course to accelerate the evolution of governments. # Become an informed and engaged citizen. # Practice [[Level 5 Research Center#Values|pro-social values]]. # Collaborate with others who practice [[Level 5 Research Center#Values|pro-social values]]. # Without compromising your values, [[Finding Common Ground|seek common ground]] with those who do not practice [[Level 5 Research Center#Values|pro-social values]]. ## Complete the Wikiversity course [[Transcending Conflict|Transcending conflict]]. ### Work to transcend conflict. ## Complete the Wikiversity course [[Finding Common Ground|Finding common ground]]. ### Seek common ground # Challenge, confront, and [[w:Persuasion|persuade]] those who do not practice [[Level 5 Research Center#Values|pro-social values]]. ## [[w:The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People#Habit%205:%20%22Seek%20first%20to%20understand%2C%20then%20to%20be%20understood%22|Seek first to understand, then to be understood]]. ## As a gentle starting point, become comfortable using [[w:The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People#Habit%205:%20%22Seek%20first%20to%20understand%2C%20then%20to%20be%20understood%22|these phrases]] in [[Practicing Dialogue|dialogue]] to encourage the participants to act in good faith. ## Support and vote for political leaders who support values and policies that advance this evolutionary worldview. ## Protect your own safety. ## Complete the Wikiversity course [[Finding Courage]]. ###Find the moral courage to act according to your well-chosen values and confront antagonists. ## Apply suitable techniques discussed in the book ''From Dictatorship to Democracy: A Conceptual Framework for Liberation''.<ref>Sharp, Gene (September 4, 2012). From Dictatorship to Democracy: A Conceptual Framework for Liberation. The New Press. pp. 160. ISBN 978-1595588500.</ref> ## Complete the Wikiversity course on [[Confronting Tyranny]]. ###Confront tyranny # Unleash [[w:Collaboration|collaboration]]. # [[Living Wisely/Seeking Real Good|Seek real good]]. == Further Reading == Students who are interested in learning more about evolving governments may wish to read these books: * {{cite book |last=Bevir |first=Mark |author-link= |date=October 25, 2012 |title=Governance: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=OUP Oxford |pages=147 |isbn=978-0199606412}} * {{cite book |last=Crick |first=Bernard |author-link= |date=October 10, 2002 | title=Democracy: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=OUP Oxford |pages=145 |isbn=978-0192802507}} * {{cite book |last=Snyder |first=Timothy |author-link=w:Timothy_D._Snyder |date=February 28, 2017 |title=On Tyranny: Twenty Lessons from the Twentieth Century |publisher=Crown |pages=128 |isbn=978-0804190114}} * {{cite book |last=Freinacht |first=Hanzi |date=March 10, 2017 |title=The Listening Society: A Metamodern Guide to Politics |publisher=Metamoderna ApS |pages=414 |isbn=978-8799973903}} * {{cite book |last=Freinacht |first=Hanzi |date=May 29, 2019 |title=Nordic Ideology: A Metamodern Guide to Politics |publisher=Metamoderna ApS |pages=495 |isbn=978-8799973927}} Nordic Ideology * {{cite book |last=Sharp |first=Gene |author-link=w:Gene_Sharp |date=September 4, 2012 |title=From Dictatorship to Democracy: A Conceptual Framework for Liberation |publisher=The New Press |pages=160 |isbn=978-1595588500}} * {{cite book |last=Manzi |first=Jim |author-link=w:Jim_Manzi_(software_entrepreneur) |date=May 1, 2012 |title=Uncontrolled: The Surprising Payoff of Trial-and-Error for Business, Politics, and Society |publisher=Basic Books |pages=320 |isbn=978-0465023240}} * {{cite book |last1=Gehl |first1=Katherine M. |last2=Porter |first2=Michael E. |author-link=w:Michael_Porter |date=June 23, 2020 |title=The Politics Industry: How Political Innovation Can Break Partisan Gridlock and Save Our Democracy |publisher=Harvard Business Review Press |pages=272 |isbn=978-1633699236}} * {{cite book |last=Bok |first=Derek |author-link=w:Derek_Bok |date=February 21, 2010 |title=The Politics of Happiness: What Government Can Learn from the New Research on Well-Being |publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=272 |isbn=978-0691144894}} * {{cite book |last=Reich |first=Robert B. |date=February 20, 2018 |title=The Common Good |publisher=Knopf |pages=208 |isbn=978-0525520498 |author-link=w:Robert_Reich }} * {{cite book |last=Christakis |first=Nicholas A. |author-link=w:Nicholas_Christakis |date=March 26, 2019 |title=Blueprint: The Evolutionary Origins of a Good Society |publisher=Little, Brown Spark |pages=441 |isbn=978-0316230032}} * {{cite book |last=Ridley |first=Matt |author-link=w:Matt_Ridley |date=October 25, 2016 |title=The Evolution of Everything: How New Ideas Emerge |publisher=Harper Perennial |pages=368 |isbn=978-0062296016}} *{{cite book |last=Diamond |first=Jared |author-link=w:Jared_Diamond |date=January 4, 2011 |title=Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed |publisher=Penguin Books |pages=608 |isbn=978-0143117001}} * {{cite book |last=Camp |first=Robert C. |date=May 1, 1989 |title=Benchmarking: The Search for Industry Best Practices That Lead to Superior Performance |publisher=Amer Society for Quality |pages=299 |isbn=978-0873890588}} * The Modern Political Traditions: Hobbes to Habermas, Wondrium I have not yet read the following books, but they seem interesting and relevant. They are listed here to invite further research. *''The Why Axis'', John A. List. *''The J Curve: A New Way to Understand Why Nations Rise and Fall,'' by Ian Bremmer *{{cite book |last=MacAskill |first=William |author-link=w:William_MacAskill |date=August 16, 2022 |title=What We Owe the Future Hardcover |publisher=Basic Books |pages=352 |isbn=978-1541618626}} == References == <references/> [[Category:Government]] [[Category:Applied Wisdom]] [[Category:Philosophy]] [[Category:Courses]] {{Possibilities}} taj6h1mxu2b2l2iz72gfaxgxt4pn738 2415621 2415589 2022-08-16T18:34:04Z Lbeaumont 278565 /* Further Reading */ Added The Decentralist wikitext text/x-wiki —Unleashing collaboration == Introduction == [[File:3d10 fm de vilafranca.jpg|thumb| thumb | Unleash [[w:Collaboration|collaboration]].]] Almost all people on earth are ruled by obsolete [[w:Government|government]] systems that were developed centuries ago. For example, the [[w:Constitution_of_the_United_States|constitution of the United States]] was ratified in 1788, a full 50 years before the [[w:Electrical_telegraph|first telegram]] was sent by Samuel Morse in 1838, 115 years before the Wright Brothers [[w:Wright_brothers#First_powered_flight|first powered airplane flight]] in 1903, and 140 years before [[w:Alexander_Fleming|Alexander Fleming]] discovered [[w:Penicillin|penicillin]] in 1928, the first antibiotic. {{TOC right |limit=2}} Today we have indoor plumbing, air travel, space exploration, electric automobiles, smartphones, and advanced medical procedures. Technology evolves quickly because many innovations are subjected to selection pressures that test fitness for use. Similarly, we can accelerate the [[w:Evolvability|evolvability]] of government systems by harnessing variability and subjecting government policies to effective selection pressures. == Objectives == {{100%done}}{{By|lbeaumont}} The objective of this course is to accelerate the evolution of governments to better serve the needs of the people as we harness the [[wisdom]] of humanity. This is a course in the [[Unleashing_Creativity/possibilities_curriculum|''possibilities'' curriculum]], currently being developed as part of the [[Wisdom/Curriculum|Applied Wisdom Curriculum]]. If you wish to contact the instructor, please [[Special:Emailuser/Lbeaumont | click here to send me an email]] or leave a comment or question on the [[Talk:Evolving_Governments|discussion page]]. == Evolution == [[w:Evolution|Evolution]] occurs when variability is subjected to selection pressures. In [[w:Evolution|biological evolution]] living organisms are selected primarily based on reproductive success. In his book ''The Evolution of Everything''<ref>{{cite book|title=The Evolution of Everything: How New Ideas Emerge|last=Ridley|first=Matt|date=October 25, 2016|publisher=Harper Perennial|isbn=978-0062296016|pages=368|author-link=w:Matt_Ridley}}</ref> , [[w:Matt Ridley|Matt Ridley]] describes the evolution of the universe, morality, life, genes, culture, the economy, technology, the mind, personality, education, population, leadership, government, religion, money, the internet and the future. Each of these systems evolves based on specialized generation, variation, and selection mechanisms. [[w:Evolvability|Evolvability]] is the capacity of a system for [[w:Adaptation|adaptive evolution]]. Evolvability increases when [[w:Evolvability#Generating%20more%20variation|more variation is generated]] and when [[w:Evolvability#Enhancement%20of%20selection|selection pressures]] are enhanced. While these ideas are well studied in biological systems, they are not often analyzed and applied to [[w:Governance|governance]] systems. This course applies these concepts to governance systems. == Generating Variation == Generating variation is the first component of evolvability. There are several existing and potential sources of variation in governments. These include 1) history, 2) comparisons, 3) leadership and policy changes, and 4) experimentation. These are discussed further below. === History === Historians, [[w:Political philosophy|political philosophers]], [[w:Political science|political scientists]], and others have studied the structure and results of government systems throughout human history. Much is known about the results of various government approaches. By applying criteria for evaluating government results, the effectiveness of various government structures is evaluated. As we discuss in the [[Evolving Governments#Defining Democracy|sections on democracy]], various [[w:Types of democracy|forms of democracy]] have provided the best results to date. === Comparisons === Businesses routinely use [[w:Benchmarking|benchmarking]] to compare the results of various industry practices and identify best practices. Policy makers, government officials, and citizens have a similar opportunity to practice [[w:Comparative politics|comparative politics]] and compare the results of various governments. These are forms of [[w:Natural experiment|natural experiments]]. Examples of this work include: * The ''[[w:Freedom in the World|Freedom in the World]]'' report<ref>Freedom in the World, Freedom House, <nowiki>https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world</nowiki></ref> compiled by [[w:Freedom House|Freedom House]], * The [[w:Democracy Index|Democracy Index]], compiled by the [[w:Economist Intelligence Unit|Economist Intelligence Unit]]. * The [[w:Democracy Ranking|Democracy ranking]] compiled by the Association for Development and Advancement of the Democracy Award. * The [[w:Index of Freedom in the World|Index of Freedom in the World]], published by Canada’s Fraser Institute. * Indices published by the [[w:V-Dem Institute|Varieties of Democracy institute]], * The [[w:Worldwide Governance Indicators|Worldwide Governance Indicators]] compiled by the World Bank. * World Report 2022, published by [[w:Human Rights Watch|Human Rights Watch]],<ref>World Report 2022, Human Rights Watch. See: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2022</ref> * The [[w:Human Development Index|Human Development Index]] compiled by the United Nations, and * others in this [[w:List of freedom indices|list of freedom indices]]. Specialized comparisons, such as the [[w:Education Index|education index]], the [[w:Multidimensional Poverty Index|multidimensional poverty index]], the [[w:World Happiness Report|world happiness report]], and the [[w:Human Capital Index|Human Capital Index]] study the performance of various policies. === Assignment === # Find your country on one of the reports or indices listed above, or on some other reliable ranked evaluation. # If your country is ranked at the top, congratulations; enjoy your country’s success, and consider sharing successful ideas and policies with others. # Otherwise, study the policy in place at the highest-ranking countries and work to have them enacted appropriately in your country. === Leadership and Policy Changes === Leadership changes occur because of [[w:Term limit|term limits]], [[w:Election|elections]], [[w:Order of succession|succession]], [[w:Coup d'état|coups]], or [[w:Revolution|revolution]]. This provides citizens and researchers with an opportunity to evaluate the results obtained by one leader compared to others. This comparison is often difficult because of the complexity of government and the need to distinguish between local and global effects and short term and long-term effects. Access to reliable information regarding the effectiveness of various policies is often difficult to obtain and evaluate due to [[w:Propaganda|propaganda]], unreliable reporting, [[w:Media bias|media bias]], limited data availability, and the effort required to collect, analyze, and interpret the data. In addition, each of us is constrained by our [[w:Bounded rationality|bounded rationality]]—the limited capacity of people to direct attention to these issues and make optimal decisions. Policy changes also take place and provide opportunities and difficulties like those in evaluating leadership changes. === Experimentation === An [[w:Experiment|experiment]] is a procedure carried out to determine the effectiveness of something previously untried. Experiments provide insight into [[w:Causality|cause-and-effect]] by demonstrating what outcome occurs when a particular factor is manipulated. Experiments vary greatly in goal and scale but always rely on a repeatable procedure and logical analysis of the results. In a laboratory experiment condition are controlled, one factor to be studied is manipulated and the results are recorded, analyzed, studied, and reported. It is rarely feasible to carry out such experiments in social settings because of the difficulties and ethical concerns of manipulating groups of people. [[w:Natural experiment|Natural experimental studies]] are used in these cases. A [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]] (RCT) or Randomized Field Trial (RFT) is a form of scientific experiment used to control factors not under direct experimental control. Examples of RCTs are [[w:Clinical trial|clinical trials]] that compare the effects of drugs, surgical techniques, medical devices, diagnostic procedures, or other medical treatments. Participants who enroll in RCTs differ from one another in known and unknown ways that can influence study outcomes, and yet cannot be directly controlled. By randomly allocating participants among compared treatments, an RCT enables statistical control over these influences. Provided it is designed well, conducted properly, and enrolls enough participants, an RCT may achieve sufficient control over these confounding factors to deliver a useful comparison of the treatments studied. Randomly controlled trials can be used to conduct [[w:Policy experimentation|social experiments]], as the following examples show. The [[w:Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab|Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab]] (J-PAL) is an excellent example of using experimentation to inform policy decisions. The lab is a global research center working to reduce poverty by ensuring that policy is informed by [[Thinking Scientifically|scientific evidence]]. J-PAL conducts randomized impact evaluations to answer critical questions in the fight against poverty, and builds partnerships with governments, [[w:Non-governmental organization|NGOs]], donors, and others to generate new research, share knowledge, and scale up effective programs. Other organizations conducting actionable research using social experiments include the EdRedesign Lab<ref>The EdRedesign Lab, Harvard Graduate School of Education. See: <nowiki>https://edredesign.org/</nowiki></ref> , and the work of [[w:John A. List|John A. List]] in performing [[w:Field experiments|field experiments]] in economics. Experiments in government are carried out in various national and local settings. Ongoing experiments include: * Rank choice voting, also known as [[w:Instant-runoff voting|instant-runoff voting]], is a type of ranked preferential voting. It uses a majority voting rule in single-winner elections where there are more than two candidates. It has a significant and [[w:History and use of instant-runoff voting|growing history of use]] around the world, including [[w:Ranked-choice voting in the United States|within the United States]] where it is advocated by the [[w:FairVote|FairVote]] organization. * The [[w:FairVote|FairVote]] organization advocates within the United States for: ** [[w:Single transferable vote|Fair]] [[w:Proportional representation|Representation Voting]], ** [[w:Instant-runoff voting|Ranked Choice Voting]], ** the Constitutional Right to Vote, and ** the [[w:National Popular Vote Interstate Compact|National Popular Vote]]. * The Institute for Political Innovation<ref>The Institute for Political Innovation. See: <nowiki>https://political-innovation.org</nowiki></ref> advocates for: ** [[w:Top-four primary#Final%20Five%20Voting|Final-Five Voting]] which is a variation of a [[w:Top-four primary|Top-four primary]] soon to be used in Alaska, and ** Zero-Based Rule Making<ref>See: <nowiki>https://political-innovation.org/zero-basedrulemaking/</nowiki></ref> which promises to eliminate constraints on thinking and open new possibilities for [[Solving Problems|solving problems]]. This proposal is modeled on [[w:Zero-based budgeting|zero-based budgeting]] practices often used in business settings. * [[w:Liquid democracy|Liquid democracy]] is a form of [[w:Delegative democracy|delegative democracy]], whereby an electorate engages in collective decision-making through [[w:Direct democracy|direct]] participation and dynamic representation. This democratic system utilizes elements of both [[w:Direct democracy|direct]] and [[w:Representative democracy|representative democracy]]. Voters in a liquid democracy have the right to vote directly on all policy issues as in a direct democracy; voters also have the option to delegate their votes to someone who will vote on their behalf as in representative democracy. Any individual may be delegated votes (those delegated votes are termed "proxies") and these proxies may in turn delegate their vote as well as any votes they have been delegated by others resulting in "metadelegation". Several [[w:Liquid democracy#Examples|implementations are being used]]. * The GovLab<ref>https://thegovlab.org</ref> is relying on reproducible experiments and metrics to better understand what works (and what doesn’t) and to translate theory and hypotheses into actionable insights. They collaborate and connect with experts and practitioners across sectors and disciplines, levels of government, and geographies to learn how to govern more effectively and legitimately. * Several [[w:Basic income pilots|pilot programs are underway]] to experiment with various forms of [[Universal basic income|Universal Basic Income]]. * The [[w:Forward (United States)|Forward Party]] is a political action committee (PAC) that seeks to form a new centrist political party in the United States. Author Jim Manzi advocates institutionalized social experimentation.<ref>{{cite book|title=Uncontrolled: The Surprising Payoff of Trial-and-Error for Business, Politics, and Society  |last=Manzi|first=Jim  |date=May 1, 2012|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0465023240|pages=320|author-link=w:Jim_Manzi_(software_entrepreneur)}} Chapter 15.</ref> Decentralized experimentation would be encouraged and would be subjected to standardized experimental evaluation and reporting to Congress. He suggests conducting as many social policy randomized controlled trials as we do clinical trials, about 10,000 each year. ==== Assignment ==== # Choose some local setting where you can run an experiment. This may be a [[w:Student council|student council election]], a committee appointment, a local election, or some other arena. # Choose an innovation from the above list, or some other source. # Run a trial of the chosen innovation in the chosen setting. For example, use rank choice voting to select the student class president at a local school. # Reflect on what was learned from that experiment. # Consider how larger experiments can be carried out. # Engage with at least one of the organizations mentioned above. # Work with them to evolve government. == Selection Pressures == The evolution of government will depend on the selection pressures each government system is subjected to. Selection pressures have two parts 1) selection ''criteria''—identifying what we want—and 2) selection ''forces''—making changes that progress toward the selection criteria. These are the system [[w:Feedback|feedback]] mechanisms. Each is described below. == Selection Criteria == Selection criteria form the basis for choosing the best alternative from several available choices. Evolution is accelerated when useful selection criteria are coupled with effective selection forces. In this section we develop useful criteria for selecting the best government options. === Selecting Leaders === It may be easier to select [[Wisdom|wise]] leaders than it is to understand, evaluate, and select various policy options. ==== Assignment ==== # Assess the [[intellectual honesty]] of the candidates. Eliminate any candidate that is not intellectually honest. # Assess the [[Moral Reasoning|moral reasoning]] of the candidates. Eliminate any candidate that does not consistently demonstrate well developed moral reasoning. # Complete the [[Wisdom#Assessing Wisdom|Assessing Wisdom section]] of the Wikiversity course on [[Wisdom]]. # Follow the instructions and complete the [[Wisdom/wisdom assessment form|wisdom assessment form]] to evaluate the viable candidates. Establish a rank ordering of the most attractive candidates. # Consider supporting, campaigning, and voting for the candidate that scores best. Act to place wise leaders in office. # Make these important [[Wisdom#Wise Decision Making|decisions wisely]]. === Policy-based Selections === In addition to choosing wise leaders, it is helpful to advocate for policy positions that lead to [[w:Good government|good government]] and [[w:Good governance|good governance]]. The [[w:United Nations|United Nations]] is playing an increasing role in promoting good governance. According to former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, "Good governance is ensuring respect for human rights and the rule of law; strengthening democracy; promoting transparency and capacity in public administration." To implement this, the UN follows eight principles:<ref>What is Good Governance, UN ESCAP Report, July 10, 2009. See: <nowiki>https://www.unescap.org/resources/what-good-governance</nowiki></ref> * Participation – People can voice their own opinions through legitimate intermediate organizations or representatives. * [[w:Rule of law|Rule of Law]] – Legal frameworks are enforced impartially, especially on human right laws. * Consensus Orientation– Differing interests are mediated to meet the broad consensus on the best interests of a community. * Equity and Inclusiveness – People have opportunities to improve or maintain their well-being. * Effectiveness and Efficiency – Processes and institutions produce results that meet the needs of their community while making the best of their resources. * Accountability – Governmental institutions, private sectors, and civil society organizations are held accountable to the public and institutional stakeholders. * Transparency – Information is accessible to the public and is understandable and monitored. * Responsiveness – Institutions and processes serve all stakeholders. Going beyond these general principles, good government is most likely to mean supporting policies that strengthen the democratic processes. === Defining Democracy === Although not necessarily the best possible governance system, [[w:Democracy|democracy]] is widely acknowledged as the most effective governance system in wide use today. For example, [[w:Derek Bok|Derek Bok]] states “In this regard, it is noteworthy that almost all the countries in the world that rank highest in overall satisfaction with life have been successful democracies for more than 80 years.”<ref>{{cite book|title=The Politics of Happiness: What Government Can Learn from the New Research on Well-Being|last=Bok|first=Derek  |date=February 21, 2010|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691144894|pages=272|author-link=w:Derek_Bok}}</ref> Although democracy is generally understood to be defined by voting, no consensus exists on a precise definition of democracy. Karl Popper says that the "classical" view of democracy is "in brief, the theory that democracy is the rule of the people, and that the people have a right to rule." Kofi Annan states that "there are as many different forms of democracy as there are democratic nations in the world." One study identified 2,234 adjectives used in the English language to describe democracy.<ref>Gagnon, Jean-Paul (1 June 2018). "2,234 Descriptions of Democracy". Democratic Theory. 5 (1): 92–113. doi:10.3167/dt.2018.050107. ISSN 2332-8894. S2CID 149825810.</ref> Democratic principles require all eligible citizens being equal before the law and having equal access to legislative processes. For example, in a representative democracy, every vote has equal weight, no unreasonable restrictions can apply to anyone seeking to become a representative, and the freedom of its eligible citizens is secured by legitimized rights and liberties which are typically protected by a constitution. Freedom House provides this characterization of democracy: <blockquote> “Democracy means more than just majority rule, however. In its ideal form, it is a governing system based on the will and consent of the governed, institutions that are accountable to all citizens, adherence to the rule of law, and respect for human rights. It is a network of mutually reinforcing structures in which those exercising power are subject to checks both within and outside the state, for example, from independent courts, an independent press, and civil society. It requires an openness to alternations in power, with rival candidates or parties competing fairly to govern for the good of the public as a whole, not just themselves or those who voted for them. It creates a level playing field so that all people, no matter the circumstances of their birth or background, can enjoy the universal human rights to which they are entitled and participate in politics and governance.”<ref>Freedom in the World 2022, Freedom House, Page 5</ref> </blockquote> === Characteristics of Democracy === [[File:Women practice voting in Dayton Oct. 27, 1920.jpg|thumb|Women practice voting in Dayton Oct. 27, 1920]] [[w:Freedom House|Freedom House]] has established detailed criteria for evaluating various forms of democracy.<ref>Freedom in the World Research Methodology. See: <nowiki>https://freedomhouse.org/reports/freedom-world/freedom-world-research-methodology</nowiki> </ref> These criteria are summarized below: ==== Electoral process. ==== #'''Was the current head of government or other chief national authority elected through free and fair elections?''' Considerations include independent [[w:Election monitoring|election monitoring]], adequate time for candidates to enter and campaign, accurate [[w:Voter registration|registration of voters]], inclusion of women and minority candidates, opportunities for candidates to address voters, make speeches, hold public meetings, and obtain media access, use of [[w:Secret ballot|secret ballot]], lack of pressure or voter intimidation, transparent vote counting, access to voting places, and the [[w:Peaceful transition of power|peaceful transfer of power]]. #'''Were the current national legislative representatives elected through free and fair elections?''' The considerations are like the above. #'''Are the electoral laws and framework fair, and are they implemented impartially by the relevant election management bodies?''' Considerations include use of a fair legislative framework for conducting elections, an independent election commission, [[w:Universal suffrage|universal suffrage]], fair [[w:Electoral district|election districts]], and fair procedures for [[w:Electoral reform|electoral reform]]. ==== Political Pluralism and Participation ==== #'''Do the people have the right to organize in different political parties or other competitive political groupings of their choice, and is the system free of undue obstacles to the rise and fall of these competing parties or groupings?''' Considerations include opportunities to form [[w:Political party|political parties]], freedom to hold meetings, rallies, and obtain media access, fair and equitable rules for party financing, freedom of [[w:Freedom of assembly|peaceful assembly]], and opportunities for [[w:Independent politician|independent candidates]]. #'''Is there a realistic opportunity for the opposition to increase its support or gain power through elections?''' Considerations include freedom of opposition parties to increase their support base and compete in elections, are opposition parties in positions of authority, and is there a significant opposition vote? #'''Are the people’s political choices free from domination by forces that are external to the political sphere, or by political forces that employ extrapolitical means?''' Considerations include lack of intimidation by military, foreign powers, oligarchies, criminal organizations, or other powerful groups, absence of [[w:Bribery|bribery]], [[w:Corruption|corruption]], improper [[w:Quid pro quo|quid pro quo]], or other improper influences, lack of dominant political donors, transparent [[w:Campaign finance|campaign financing]], and accountability to the voters. #'''Do various segments of the population (including ethnic, racial, religious, gender, LGBT+, and other relevant groups) have full political rights and electoral opportunities?''' Considerations include addressing minority issues, participation of [[w:Minority group|minority groups]] in political life, full inclusion of women, and [[w:Citizenship|citizenship]] opportunities for minorities. ==== Functioning of government ==== #'''Do the freely elected head of government and national legislative representatives determine the policies of the government?''' Considerations include installation of the elected officials into office, ability to form a functioning government, non-interference by [[w:Non-state actor|nonstate actors]], lack of military influence on government operations, independence of the executive and legislative branches, and frequency of [[w:Bipartisanship|bipartisan]] actions. #'''Are safeguards against official corruption strong and effective?''' Considerations include effectiveness of anticorruption laws and programs, independent oversight and auditing, investigation of alleged corruption, and [[w:Whistleblower|whistleblower]] protections. #'''Does the government operate with openness and transparency?''' Considerations include ability of citizens to obtain accurate information about state operations, ability to petition government agencies for information, publication of state information, ability to access and comment on pending legislations, public review of budget processes, transparency in awarding contracts, and public scrutiny of [[w:Financial disclosure of public servants|government officials’ financial disclosure]]. ==== Additional discretionary political rights question ==== #'''Is the government or occupying power deliberately changing the ethnic composition of a country or territory so as to destroy a culture or tip the political balance in favor of another group?''' Considerations include providing incentives to change the [[w:Ethnic group|ethnic composition]] of a region, forcibly moving people into or out of certain regions, and arresting or killing members of certain ethnic groups. ==== Civil Liberties ==== ==== Freedom of Expression and belief ==== #'''Are there free and independent media?''' Considerations include [[w:Media (communication)|media]] [[w:Censorship|censorship]], pressure or surveillance, punishment of journalists, [[w:Freedom of speech|freedom of speech]] regarding criticism of government officials, government control of media, [[w:Editorial independence|editorial independence,]] nonpartisan coverage, government influence of media coverage, involvement of women and minorities, free expression in works of literature, and other cultural expressions. #'''Are individuals free to practice and express their religious faith or nonbelief in public and private?''' Considerations include [[w:Freedom of religion|freedom of religious]] institutions to function, freedom from harassment of minority faith members, lack of government involvement in appointing religious leaders, freedom to distribute religious writings, freedom to construct and occupy religious buildings, lack of government involvement in religious education, and freedom to eschew religious beliefs and practices. #'''Is there academic freedom, and is the educational system free from extensive political indoctrination?''' Considerations include [[w:Academic freedom|freedom of educators]] to pursue political activities, non-interference in school [[w:Curriculum|curriculums]], fair allocation of funding, freedom of student associations to pursue political activities, and freedom of students to support candidates of their choice. #'''Are individuals free to express their personal views on political or other sensitive topics without fear of surveillance or retribution?''' Considerations include the ability to engage in discussions, including [[w:Political criticism|political discussions]], in public, or private places, including online communications, and lack of surveillance of antigovernment conversations. ==== Associational and organizational rights ==== #I'''s there [[w:Freedom of assembly|freedom of assembly]]?''' Considerations include freedom to protest peacefully, lack of intimidation or harassment of peaceful protesters, censorship of peaceful protester’s communications, and freedom to petition the public, #'''Is there freedom for nongovernmental organizations, particularly those that are engaged in human rights– and governance-related work?''' Considerations include ease of creating [[w:Non-governmental organization|nongovernment organizations]], fair rules for financing the work, and freedom from government intimidation or harassment. #'''Is there freedom for trade unions and similar professional or labor organizations?''' Considerations include unfettered formation and operation of [[w:Trade union|trade unions]], lack of pressure to join or not join certain trade unions, ability to [[w:Strike action|strike]] without reprisals, [[w:Collective bargaining|collective bargaining]], and free operation of professional organizations. ==== Rule of Law ==== #'''Is there an independent judiciary?''' Considerations include noninterference by the executive branch or other influences, fair appointment of judges, impartial rulings by judges, compliance with judicial decisions, and the absence of powerful influences over judicial decisions. #'''Does due process prevail in civil and criminal matters?''' Considerations include [[w:Presumption of innocence|presumption of innocence]], access to effective [[w:Counsel|counsel]], fair [[w:Trial|trial]], fair access to the [[w:Judiciary|court system]], independent [[w:Prosecutor|prosecutors]], fair and effective law enforcement, and upholding of [[w:Due process|due process]] without interference. #'''Is there protection from the illegitimate use of physical force and freedom from war and insurgencies?''' Considerations include absence of excessive force during arrest and detainment, humane conditions in pretrial detention facilities and prisons, effective redress of abuse, absence of [[w:Corporal punishment|corporal punishment]], minimal application of [[w:Corporal punishment|capital punishment]], lack of violent crime, and safety for the population. #'''Do laws, policies, and practices guarantee equal treatment of various segments of the population?''' Considerations include the ability of distinctive or minority groups to exercise their [[w:Human rights|human rights]], lack of violence against such groups, lack of discrimination against such groups, granting of [[w:Right of asylum|asylum]], and protection of [[w:Human rights|human rights]]. ==== Personal autonomy and individual rights ==== #'''Do individuals enjoy freedom of movement, including the ability to change their place of residence, employment, or education?''' Considerations include freedom of foreign travel, freedom of movement within the country, lack of bribery and other corruption, safe travel, and equal rights for women. #'''Are individuals able to exercise the right to own property and establish private businesses without undue interference from state or nonstate actors?''' Considerations include the ability to purchase or sell land and other property, equal [[w:Women'27s rights|rights for women]], lack of favoritism, [[w:Cronyism|cronyism]], [[w:Bribery|bribery]], [[w:Extortion|extortion]], and other forms of [[w:Political corruption|corruption]], and ease of doing business, #'''Do individuals enjoy personal social freedoms, including choice of marriage partner and size of family, protection from domestic violence, and control over appearance?''' Considerations include lack of personal and domestic violence, freedom to [[w:Same-sex marriage|marry your chosen partner]], fair divorce and child custody decisions, and free choice of dress and appearance. #'''Do individuals enjoy equality of opportunity and freedom from economic exploitation?''' Considerations include lack of worker exploitation, economic opportunity, fair competition, and absence of [[w:Human trafficking|human trafficking]]. While the Freedom House characteristics of democracy criteria are extensive, a more extensive set of criteria is used by the [[w:V-Dem Institute|V-Dem institute]] to evaluate democracies around the world. Their document “V-Dem Methodology v11.1”<ref>V-Dem Methodology v11.1 See: <nowiki>https://www.v-dem.net/static/website/img/refs/methodologyv111.pdf</nowiki></ref> describes their methodology in detail. Interested students can study that document for more detail. Other authors advocate for additional characteristics including increasing [[w:Human capital|human capital]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Uncontrolled: The Surprising Payoff of Trial-and-Error for Business, Politics, and Society  |last=Manzi|first=Jim  |date=May 1, 2012|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0465023240|pages=320|author-link=w:Jim_Manzi_(software_entrepreneur)}} Chapter 15.</ref> through more effective and relevant education<ref>The Relevant Education Project. See: <nowiki>https://relevant.education</nowiki></ref>, improving our shared knowledge base, increasing [[Emotional Competency|emotional intelligence]], and increasing our [[w:Collective intelligence|collective intelligence]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Listening Society: A Metamodern Guide to Politics|last=Freinacht  |first=Hanzi  |date=March 10, 2017|publisher=Metamoderna ApS|isbn=978-8799973903|pages=414}} Page 91 of 405</ref>^,<ref>See, for example the MIT Center for Collective Intelligence. <nowiki>https://cci.mit.edu</nowiki></ref> === Assignment === # Study the above criteria used to evaluate democracies. # Find where your country ranks on the Freedom House Freedom in the world report. # Identify areas for improvement. # Advocate for policies that improve attainment of these criteria within your government. === Results-based selections === Better governance systems attain better results. A governance system can be evaluated by the contribution it makes toward helping the governed organization reach its goals. If the governed organization is a corporation, then the best governance system is the one that results in the most profits, along with consideration of customer satisfaction, employee satisfaction, relevant regulations, and social responsibility. For other organizations, the effectiveness of a governance system can be judged by how well the governed organization meets its stated mission. In the case of international, national, state, regional, or local governments the mission will be assumed to be the [[w:Well-being|well-being]] of the people. One attractive option recognizes that “There are powerful arguments for making happiness a focal point for government policy.”<ref>{{cite book|title=The Politics of Happiness: What Government Can Learn from the New Research on Well-Being|last=Bok|first=Derek  |date=February 21, 2010|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691144894|pages=272|author-link=w:Derek_Bok}}</ref> Because happiness is often fleeting, we propose a more substantial and enduring basis for evaluating and selecting government systems. [[File:Evaluating Good Government.jpg|thumb|Better governments allow more people to meet more of their needs.]] Here we suggest that <blockquote> '''The government that meets more of the needs of more of the people is the better system.'''<ref>Good Government, Substack Article, Leland Beaumont, July 17, 2022</ref> </blockquote> To be specific, in this definition we use [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow’s hierarchy of needs]]<ref>Researchers continue to refine and extend Maslow’s original thesis. It may be wise to use these updated views rather than Maslow’s original thesis.  </ref> as our reference standard for defining the needs of the people. A population where more people are meeting more of their higher-level needs is benefiting from the better governance system. The fewer people who have unmet needs the better. The more people who have high level needs met the better.<ref>It may be wise to consider it unacceptable to leave the basic needs of anyone unmet. Therefore, it may be important to meet everyone’s basic needs before turning attention to meeting the higher-level needs of the few. This suggests a [[w:Minimax#Maximin|Maximin]] approach and is consistent with the doctrine of sufficiency.</ref> Alternative standards might include measures of: * Adherence to the [[w:Universal Declaration of Human Rights|Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], * [[w:Well-being|Well-being]], * [[w:Subjective well-being|Subjective well-being]], or * Some blend, weighing, or aggregation of these. In any case, the question of “what is the better government system?” can be answered [[w:Empiricism|empirically]] rather than hypothetically or speculatively. Evaluating results would require an independent rating agency, such as the [[w:Government Accountability Office|Government Accountability Office]], a [[w:Nationally recognized statistical rating organization|nationally recognized statistical rating organization]], or other organizations, such as [[w:Freedom House|Freedom House]], to study, analyze, and publish results. === Assignment === # Read the essay [[/Good Government/]]. # Estimate where you are now on Maslow’s needs hierarchy. # Use your estimate of the well-being of the population of your country or region to draw a diagram like the one shown above on the right. == Selection Forces == [[File:Vote Carefully.jpg|thumb|Vote conscientiously to evolve governments.]] Selection forces—actions that select for the preferred outcome—are the engine of evolution. Within a nation with a functioning democracy, selection forces include: * Voting. There are good arguments supporting the conclusion that citizens in a democracy have a moral duty to vote.<ref>Christiano, Tom and Sameer Bajaj, "Democracy", ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Spring 2022 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <<nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2022/entries/democracy/</nowiki>>. Section 4.3.1.</ref> Register to vote, study the candidates and the issues, and vote in every election you are eligible to vote in. * Campaigning; * supporting desirable candidates; * Supporting desirable policy and legislation; * Communicating with elected officials; * Financial contributions; * influencing public opinion, and * running for office. Options are more difficult in non-democratic nations. In this case, read the book ''From Dictatorship to Democracy: A Conceptual Framework for Liberation''<ref>{{cite book|title=From Dictatorship to Democracy: A Conceptual Framework for Liberation|last=Sharp|first=Gene|date=September 4, 2012|publisher=The New Press|isbn=978-1595588500|pages=160|author-link=w:Gene_Sharp}}</ref> and complete the [[Intentional Evolution#Assignment 18|final assignment]] in the [[Intentional Evolution]] course. The Wikiversity course [[Confronting Tyranny]] may also be helpful. == Possibilities == Imagine how it can be! === Assignment === This assignment is entirely optional, and it is likely that most students will skip it. The assignment is provided here to stimulate the imagination of interested students. # Read the book ''The Listening Society: A Metamodern Guide to Politics''.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Listening Society: A Metamodern Guide to Politics|last=Freinacht  |first=Hanzi  |date=March 10, 2017|publisher=Metamoderna ApS|isbn=978-8799973903|pages=414}}</ref> # Read the book ''Nordic Ideology: A Metamodern Guide to Politics''.<ref>[1] {{cite book|title=Nordic Ideology: A Metamodern Guide to Politics|last=Freinacht  |first=Hanzi  |date=May 29, 2019|publisher=Metamoderna ApS|isbn=978-8799973927|pages=495}}</ref> # Study the work of the [[Level 5 Research Center]]. # Study the work of the [[Wisdom Research|Wisdom and the Future Research Center]]. # Study the course [[A Journey to GameB]]. # Participate in the research project to [[Living Wisely/Improving our Social Operating Systems|improve our social operating systems]]. # Read the essay “3 Design principles for Protopian Governance".<ref>3 Design principles for Protopian Governance, Hanzi Freinacht, May 22, 2022, See: <nowiki>https://medium.com/@hanzifreinacht/3-design-principles-for-protopian-governance-bc2bfa7faa9a</nowiki></ref> # Study courses in the [[Unleashing Creativity/possibilities curriculum|possibilities curriculum]]. # Read the essay [[Assessing Human Rights/Beyond Olympic Gold|Beyond Olympic gold]]. ## Work to [[Assessing Human Rights|advance human rights worldwide]]. # Read the [[w:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] article on Global Democracy.<ref>Kuyper, Jonathan, "Global Democracy", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <<nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/global-democracy/</nowiki>>.</ref> # Complete the Wikiversity course [[Intentional Evolution|Intentional evolution]]. ##Complete the [[Intentional Evolution#Assignment 18|final assignment]] in the [[Intentional Evolution]] course. # Complete the Wikiversity course [[Envisioning Our Future]]. ## Write down [[Envisioning Our Future#Write Down Your Vision of Our Future|your vision of our future]]. ## Use the essay you wrote as a guide toward action. ## Act to make the future you envision a reality. == Assignment == # [[Living Wisely|Live wisely]]. # Read the essay [[Exploring Worldviews/Aligning worldviews|Aligning Worldviews]]. ## Align your worldview with reality. # Complete the course [[Intentional Evolution]]. ## Apply the principles taught in the Intentional Evolution course to accelerate the evolution of governments. # Become an informed and engaged citizen. # Practice [[Level 5 Research Center#Values|pro-social values]]. # Collaborate with others who practice [[Level 5 Research Center#Values|pro-social values]]. # Without compromising your values, [[Finding Common Ground|seek common ground]] with those who do not practice [[Level 5 Research Center#Values|pro-social values]]. ## Complete the Wikiversity course [[Transcending Conflict|Transcending conflict]]. ### Work to transcend conflict. ## Complete the Wikiversity course [[Finding Common Ground|Finding common ground]]. ### Seek common ground # Challenge, confront, and [[w:Persuasion|persuade]] those who do not practice [[Level 5 Research Center#Values|pro-social values]]. ## [[w:The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People#Habit%205:%20%22Seek%20first%20to%20understand%2C%20then%20to%20be%20understood%22|Seek first to understand, then to be understood]]. ## As a gentle starting point, become comfortable using [[w:The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People#Habit%205:%20%22Seek%20first%20to%20understand%2C%20then%20to%20be%20understood%22|these phrases]] in [[Practicing Dialogue|dialogue]] to encourage the participants to act in good faith. ## Support and vote for political leaders who support values and policies that advance this evolutionary worldview. ## Protect your own safety. ## Complete the Wikiversity course [[Finding Courage]]. ###Find the moral courage to act according to your well-chosen values and confront antagonists. ## Apply suitable techniques discussed in the book ''From Dictatorship to Democracy: A Conceptual Framework for Liberation''.<ref>Sharp, Gene (September 4, 2012). From Dictatorship to Democracy: A Conceptual Framework for Liberation. The New Press. pp. 160. ISBN 978-1595588500.</ref> ## Complete the Wikiversity course on [[Confronting Tyranny]]. ###Confront tyranny # Unleash [[w:Collaboration|collaboration]]. # [[Living Wisely/Seeking Real Good|Seek real good]]. == Further Reading == Students who are interested in learning more about evolving governments may wish to read these books: * {{cite book |last=Bevir |first=Mark |author-link= |date=October 25, 2012 |title=Governance: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=OUP Oxford |pages=147 |isbn=978-0199606412}} * {{cite book |last=Crick |first=Bernard |author-link= |date=October 10, 2002 | title=Democracy: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=OUP Oxford |pages=145 |isbn=978-0192802507}} * {{cite book |last=Snyder |first=Timothy |author-link=w:Timothy_D._Snyder |date=February 28, 2017 |title=On Tyranny: Twenty Lessons from the Twentieth Century |publisher=Crown |pages=128 |isbn=978-0804190114}} * {{cite book |last=Freinacht |first=Hanzi |date=March 10, 2017 |title=The Listening Society: A Metamodern Guide to Politics |publisher=Metamoderna ApS |pages=414 |isbn=978-8799973903}} * {{cite book |last=Freinacht |first=Hanzi |date=May 29, 2019 |title=Nordic Ideology: A Metamodern Guide to Politics |publisher=Metamoderna ApS |pages=495 |isbn=978-8799973927}} Nordic Ideology * {{cite book |last=Sharp |first=Gene |author-link=w:Gene_Sharp |date=September 4, 2012 |title=From Dictatorship to Democracy: A Conceptual Framework for Liberation |publisher=The New Press |pages=160 |isbn=978-1595588500}} * {{cite book |last=Manzi |first=Jim |author-link=w:Jim_Manzi_(software_entrepreneur) |date=May 1, 2012 |title=Uncontrolled: The Surprising Payoff of Trial-and-Error for Business, Politics, and Society |publisher=Basic Books |pages=320 |isbn=978-0465023240}} * {{cite book |last1=Gehl |first1=Katherine M. |last2=Porter |first2=Michael E. |author-link=w:Michael_Porter |date=June 23, 2020 |title=The Politics Industry: How Political Innovation Can Break Partisan Gridlock and Save Our Democracy |publisher=Harvard Business Review Press |pages=272 |isbn=978-1633699236}} * {{cite book |last=Bok |first=Derek |author-link=w:Derek_Bok |date=February 21, 2010 |title=The Politics of Happiness: What Government Can Learn from the New Research on Well-Being |publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=272 |isbn=978-0691144894}} * {{cite book |last=Reich |first=Robert B. |date=February 20, 2018 |title=The Common Good |publisher=Knopf |pages=208 |isbn=978-0525520498 |author-link=w:Robert_Reich }} * {{cite book |last=Christakis |first=Nicholas A. |author-link=w:Nicholas_Christakis |date=March 26, 2019 |title=Blueprint: The Evolutionary Origins of a Good Society |publisher=Little, Brown Spark |pages=441 |isbn=978-0316230032}} * {{cite book |last=Ridley |first=Matt |author-link=w:Matt_Ridley |date=October 25, 2016 |title=The Evolution of Everything: How New Ideas Emerge |publisher=Harper Perennial |pages=368 |isbn=978-0062296016}} *{{cite book |last=Diamond |first=Jared |author-link=w:Jared_Diamond |date=January 4, 2011 |title=Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed |publisher=Penguin Books |pages=608 |isbn=978-0143117001}} * {{cite book |last=Camp |first=Robert C. |date=May 1, 1989 |title=Benchmarking: The Search for Industry Best Practices That Lead to Superior Performance |publisher=Amer Society for Quality |pages=299 |isbn=978-0873890588}} * The Modern Political Traditions: Hobbes to Habermas, Wondrium I have not yet read the following books, but they seem interesting and relevant. They are listed here to invite further research. *{{cite book |last1=Gneezy |first1=Uri |last2=List |first2=John |date=January 1, 2015 |title=The Why Axis: Hidden Motives and the Undiscovered Economics of Everyday Life |publisher=Cornerstone |pages= |isbn=978-1847946751}} *{{cite book |last=Bremmer |first=Ian |author-link=w:Ian_Bremmer |date=September 11, 2007 |title=The J Curve: A New Way to Understand Why Nations Rise and Fall |publisher=Simon & Schuster|pages=336|isbn=978-0743274722}} *{{cite book |last=MacAskill |first=William |author-link=w:William_MacAskill |date=August 16, 2022 |title=What We Owe the Future Hardcover |publisher=Basic Books |pages=352 |isbn=978-1541618626}} *{{cite book |last=Borders |first=Max |date=May 2, 2022|title=The Decentralist: Mission, Morality, and Meaning in the Age of Crypto |publisher=Social Evolution |pages=214 |isbn=978-1732039421}} == References == <references/> [[Category:Government]] [[Category:Applied Wisdom]] [[Category:Philosophy]] [[Category:Courses]] {{Possibilities}} stqxhnlfpk04hobf28wejx4bs6r8v6w 2415830 2415621 2022-08-17T11:57:07Z Lbeaumont 278565 /* Comparisons */ Bulletized list and added entries wikitext text/x-wiki —Unleashing collaboration == Introduction == [[File:3d10 fm de vilafranca.jpg|thumb| thumb | Unleash [[w:Collaboration|collaboration]].]] Almost all people on earth are ruled by obsolete [[w:Government|government]] systems that were developed centuries ago. For example, the [[w:Constitution_of_the_United_States|constitution of the United States]] was ratified in 1788, a full 50 years before the [[w:Electrical_telegraph|first telegram]] was sent by Samuel Morse in 1838, 115 years before the Wright Brothers [[w:Wright_brothers#First_powered_flight|first powered airplane flight]] in 1903, and 140 years before [[w:Alexander_Fleming|Alexander Fleming]] discovered [[w:Penicillin|penicillin]] in 1928, the first antibiotic. {{TOC right |limit=2}} Today we have indoor plumbing, air travel, space exploration, electric automobiles, smartphones, and advanced medical procedures. Technology evolves quickly because many innovations are subjected to selection pressures that test fitness for use. Similarly, we can accelerate the [[w:Evolvability|evolvability]] of government systems by harnessing variability and subjecting government policies to effective selection pressures. == Objectives == {{100%done}}{{By|lbeaumont}} The objective of this course is to accelerate the evolution of governments to better serve the needs of the people as we harness the [[wisdom]] of humanity. This is a course in the [[Unleashing_Creativity/possibilities_curriculum|''possibilities'' curriculum]], currently being developed as part of the [[Wisdom/Curriculum|Applied Wisdom Curriculum]]. If you wish to contact the instructor, please [[Special:Emailuser/Lbeaumont | click here to send me an email]] or leave a comment or question on the [[Talk:Evolving_Governments|discussion page]]. == Evolution == [[w:Evolution|Evolution]] occurs when variability is subjected to selection pressures. In [[w:Evolution|biological evolution]] living organisms are selected primarily based on reproductive success. In his book ''The Evolution of Everything''<ref>{{cite book|title=The Evolution of Everything: How New Ideas Emerge|last=Ridley|first=Matt|date=October 25, 2016|publisher=Harper Perennial|isbn=978-0062296016|pages=368|author-link=w:Matt_Ridley}}</ref> , [[w:Matt Ridley|Matt Ridley]] describes the evolution of the universe, morality, life, genes, culture, the economy, technology, the mind, personality, education, population, leadership, government, religion, money, the internet and the future. Each of these systems evolves based on specialized generation, variation, and selection mechanisms. [[w:Evolvability|Evolvability]] is the capacity of a system for [[w:Adaptation|adaptive evolution]]. Evolvability increases when [[w:Evolvability#Generating%20more%20variation|more variation is generated]] and when [[w:Evolvability#Enhancement%20of%20selection|selection pressures]] are enhanced. While these ideas are well studied in biological systems, they are not often analyzed and applied to [[w:Governance|governance]] systems. This course applies these concepts to governance systems. == Generating Variation == Generating variation is the first component of evolvability. There are several existing and potential sources of variation in governments. These include 1) history, 2) comparisons, 3) leadership and policy changes, and 4) experimentation. These are discussed further below. === History === Historians, [[w:Political philosophy|political philosophers]], [[w:Political science|political scientists]], and others have studied the structure and results of government systems throughout human history. Much is known about the results of various government approaches. By applying criteria for evaluating government results, the effectiveness of various government structures is evaluated. As we discuss in the [[Evolving Governments#Defining Democracy|sections on democracy]], various [[w:Types of democracy|forms of democracy]] have provided the best results to date. === Comparisons === Businesses routinely use [[w:Benchmarking|benchmarking]] to compare the results of various industry practices and identify best practices. Policy makers, government officials, and citizens have a similar opportunity to practice [[w:Comparative politics|comparative politics]] and compare the results of various governments. These are forms of [[w:Natural experiment|natural experiments]]. Examples of this work include: * The ''[[w:Freedom in the World|Freedom in the World]]'' report<ref>Freedom in the World, Freedom House, <nowiki>https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world</nowiki></ref> compiled by [[w:Freedom House|Freedom House]], * The [[w:Democracy Index|Democracy Index]], compiled by the [[w:Economist Intelligence Unit|Economist Intelligence Unit]]. * The [[w:Democracy Ranking|Democracy ranking]] compiled by the Association for Development and Advancement of the Democracy Award. * The [[w:Index of Freedom in the World|Index of Freedom in the World]], published by Canada’s Fraser Institute. * Indices published by the [[w:V-Dem Institute|Varieties of Democracy institute]], * The [[w:Worldwide Governance Indicators|Worldwide Governance Indicators]] compiled by the World Bank. * World Report 2022, published by [[w:Human Rights Watch|Human Rights Watch]],<ref>World Report 2022, Human Rights Watch. See: https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2022</ref> * The [[w:Human Development Index|Human Development Index]] compiled by the United Nations, and * others in this [[w:List of freedom indices|list of freedom indices]]. Several specialized comparisons study the performance of various policies. Examples include: *the [[w:Education Index|education index]], *the [[w:Multidimensional Poverty Index|multidimensional poverty index]], *the [[w:World Happiness Report|world happiness report]], *the [[w:Human Capital Index|Human Capital Index]], *the World Health Organization [[w:World_Health_Organization_ranking_of_health_systems_in_2000|ranking of health systems in 2000]], *the [[w:List_of_countries_by_quality_of_healthcare|list of countries by quality of healthcare]] published by the OECD, and * a [[w:List_of_countries_by_life_expectancy|list of countries by life expectancy]]. === Assignment === # Find your country on one of the reports or indices listed above, or on some other reliable ranked evaluation. # If your country is ranked at the top, congratulations; enjoy your country’s success, and consider sharing successful ideas and policies with others. # Otherwise, study the policy in place at the highest-ranking countries and work to have them enacted appropriately in your country. === Leadership and Policy Changes === Leadership changes occur because of [[w:Term limit|term limits]], [[w:Election|elections]], [[w:Order of succession|succession]], [[w:Coup d'état|coups]], or [[w:Revolution|revolution]]. This provides citizens and researchers with an opportunity to evaluate the results obtained by one leader compared to others. This comparison is often difficult because of the complexity of government and the need to distinguish between local and global effects and short term and long-term effects. Access to reliable information regarding the effectiveness of various policies is often difficult to obtain and evaluate due to [[w:Propaganda|propaganda]], unreliable reporting, [[w:Media bias|media bias]], limited data availability, and the effort required to collect, analyze, and interpret the data. In addition, each of us is constrained by our [[w:Bounded rationality|bounded rationality]]—the limited capacity of people to direct attention to these issues and make optimal decisions. Policy changes also take place and provide opportunities and difficulties like those in evaluating leadership changes. === Experimentation === An [[w:Experiment|experiment]] is a procedure carried out to determine the effectiveness of something previously untried. Experiments provide insight into [[w:Causality|cause-and-effect]] by demonstrating what outcome occurs when a particular factor is manipulated. Experiments vary greatly in goal and scale but always rely on a repeatable procedure and logical analysis of the results. In a laboratory experiment condition are controlled, one factor to be studied is manipulated and the results are recorded, analyzed, studied, and reported. It is rarely feasible to carry out such experiments in social settings because of the difficulties and ethical concerns of manipulating groups of people. [[w:Natural experiment|Natural experimental studies]] are used in these cases. A [[w:Randomized controlled trial|randomized controlled trial]] (RCT) or Randomized Field Trial (RFT) is a form of scientific experiment used to control factors not under direct experimental control. Examples of RCTs are [[w:Clinical trial|clinical trials]] that compare the effects of drugs, surgical techniques, medical devices, diagnostic procedures, or other medical treatments. Participants who enroll in RCTs differ from one another in known and unknown ways that can influence study outcomes, and yet cannot be directly controlled. By randomly allocating participants among compared treatments, an RCT enables statistical control over these influences. Provided it is designed well, conducted properly, and enrolls enough participants, an RCT may achieve sufficient control over these confounding factors to deliver a useful comparison of the treatments studied. Randomly controlled trials can be used to conduct [[w:Policy experimentation|social experiments]], as the following examples show. The [[w:Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab|Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab]] (J-PAL) is an excellent example of using experimentation to inform policy decisions. The lab is a global research center working to reduce poverty by ensuring that policy is informed by [[Thinking Scientifically|scientific evidence]]. J-PAL conducts randomized impact evaluations to answer critical questions in the fight against poverty, and builds partnerships with governments, [[w:Non-governmental organization|NGOs]], donors, and others to generate new research, share knowledge, and scale up effective programs. Other organizations conducting actionable research using social experiments include the EdRedesign Lab<ref>The EdRedesign Lab, Harvard Graduate School of Education. See: <nowiki>https://edredesign.org/</nowiki></ref> , and the work of [[w:John A. List|John A. List]] in performing [[w:Field experiments|field experiments]] in economics. Experiments in government are carried out in various national and local settings. Ongoing experiments include: * Rank choice voting, also known as [[w:Instant-runoff voting|instant-runoff voting]], is a type of ranked preferential voting. It uses a majority voting rule in single-winner elections where there are more than two candidates. It has a significant and [[w:History and use of instant-runoff voting|growing history of use]] around the world, including [[w:Ranked-choice voting in the United States|within the United States]] where it is advocated by the [[w:FairVote|FairVote]] organization. * The [[w:FairVote|FairVote]] organization advocates within the United States for: ** [[w:Single transferable vote|Fair]] [[w:Proportional representation|Representation Voting]], ** [[w:Instant-runoff voting|Ranked Choice Voting]], ** the Constitutional Right to Vote, and ** the [[w:National Popular Vote Interstate Compact|National Popular Vote]]. * The Institute for Political Innovation<ref>The Institute for Political Innovation. See: <nowiki>https://political-innovation.org</nowiki></ref> advocates for: ** [[w:Top-four primary#Final%20Five%20Voting|Final-Five Voting]] which is a variation of a [[w:Top-four primary|Top-four primary]] soon to be used in Alaska, and ** Zero-Based Rule Making<ref>See: <nowiki>https://political-innovation.org/zero-basedrulemaking/</nowiki></ref> which promises to eliminate constraints on thinking and open new possibilities for [[Solving Problems|solving problems]]. This proposal is modeled on [[w:Zero-based budgeting|zero-based budgeting]] practices often used in business settings. * [[w:Liquid democracy|Liquid democracy]] is a form of [[w:Delegative democracy|delegative democracy]], whereby an electorate engages in collective decision-making through [[w:Direct democracy|direct]] participation and dynamic representation. This democratic system utilizes elements of both [[w:Direct democracy|direct]] and [[w:Representative democracy|representative democracy]]. Voters in a liquid democracy have the right to vote directly on all policy issues as in a direct democracy; voters also have the option to delegate their votes to someone who will vote on their behalf as in representative democracy. Any individual may be delegated votes (those delegated votes are termed "proxies") and these proxies may in turn delegate their vote as well as any votes they have been delegated by others resulting in "metadelegation". Several [[w:Liquid democracy#Examples|implementations are being used]]. * The GovLab<ref>https://thegovlab.org</ref> is relying on reproducible experiments and metrics to better understand what works (and what doesn’t) and to translate theory and hypotheses into actionable insights. They collaborate and connect with experts and practitioners across sectors and disciplines, levels of government, and geographies to learn how to govern more effectively and legitimately. * Several [[w:Basic income pilots|pilot programs are underway]] to experiment with various forms of [[Universal basic income|Universal Basic Income]]. * The [[w:Forward (United States)|Forward Party]] is a political action committee (PAC) that seeks to form a new centrist political party in the United States. Author Jim Manzi advocates institutionalized social experimentation.<ref>{{cite book|title=Uncontrolled: The Surprising Payoff of Trial-and-Error for Business, Politics, and Society  |last=Manzi|first=Jim  |date=May 1, 2012|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0465023240|pages=320|author-link=w:Jim_Manzi_(software_entrepreneur)}} Chapter 15.</ref> Decentralized experimentation would be encouraged and would be subjected to standardized experimental evaluation and reporting to Congress. He suggests conducting as many social policy randomized controlled trials as we do clinical trials, about 10,000 each year. ==== Assignment ==== # Choose some local setting where you can run an experiment. This may be a [[w:Student council|student council election]], a committee appointment, a local election, or some other arena. # Choose an innovation from the above list, or some other source. # Run a trial of the chosen innovation in the chosen setting. For example, use rank choice voting to select the student class president at a local school. # Reflect on what was learned from that experiment. # Consider how larger experiments can be carried out. # Engage with at least one of the organizations mentioned above. # Work with them to evolve government. == Selection Pressures == The evolution of government will depend on the selection pressures each government system is subjected to. Selection pressures have two parts 1) selection ''criteria''—identifying what we want—and 2) selection ''forces''—making changes that progress toward the selection criteria. These are the system [[w:Feedback|feedback]] mechanisms. Each is described below. == Selection Criteria == Selection criteria form the basis for choosing the best alternative from several available choices. Evolution is accelerated when useful selection criteria are coupled with effective selection forces. In this section we develop useful criteria for selecting the best government options. === Selecting Leaders === It may be easier to select [[Wisdom|wise]] leaders than it is to understand, evaluate, and select various policy options. ==== Assignment ==== # Assess the [[intellectual honesty]] of the candidates. Eliminate any candidate that is not intellectually honest. # Assess the [[Moral Reasoning|moral reasoning]] of the candidates. Eliminate any candidate that does not consistently demonstrate well developed moral reasoning. # Complete the [[Wisdom#Assessing Wisdom|Assessing Wisdom section]] of the Wikiversity course on [[Wisdom]]. # Follow the instructions and complete the [[Wisdom/wisdom assessment form|wisdom assessment form]] to evaluate the viable candidates. Establish a rank ordering of the most attractive candidates. # Consider supporting, campaigning, and voting for the candidate that scores best. Act to place wise leaders in office. # Make these important [[Wisdom#Wise Decision Making|decisions wisely]]. === Policy-based Selections === In addition to choosing wise leaders, it is helpful to advocate for policy positions that lead to [[w:Good government|good government]] and [[w:Good governance|good governance]]. The [[w:United Nations|United Nations]] is playing an increasing role in promoting good governance. According to former UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, "Good governance is ensuring respect for human rights and the rule of law; strengthening democracy; promoting transparency and capacity in public administration." To implement this, the UN follows eight principles:<ref>What is Good Governance, UN ESCAP Report, July 10, 2009. See: <nowiki>https://www.unescap.org/resources/what-good-governance</nowiki></ref> * Participation – People can voice their own opinions through legitimate intermediate organizations or representatives. * [[w:Rule of law|Rule of Law]] – Legal frameworks are enforced impartially, especially on human right laws. * Consensus Orientation– Differing interests are mediated to meet the broad consensus on the best interests of a community. * Equity and Inclusiveness – People have opportunities to improve or maintain their well-being. * Effectiveness and Efficiency – Processes and institutions produce results that meet the needs of their community while making the best of their resources. * Accountability – Governmental institutions, private sectors, and civil society organizations are held accountable to the public and institutional stakeholders. * Transparency – Information is accessible to the public and is understandable and monitored. * Responsiveness – Institutions and processes serve all stakeholders. Going beyond these general principles, good government is most likely to mean supporting policies that strengthen the democratic processes. === Defining Democracy === Although not necessarily the best possible governance system, [[w:Democracy|democracy]] is widely acknowledged as the most effective governance system in wide use today. For example, [[w:Derek Bok|Derek Bok]] states “In this regard, it is noteworthy that almost all the countries in the world that rank highest in overall satisfaction with life have been successful democracies for more than 80 years.”<ref>{{cite book|title=The Politics of Happiness: What Government Can Learn from the New Research on Well-Being|last=Bok|first=Derek  |date=February 21, 2010|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691144894|pages=272|author-link=w:Derek_Bok}}</ref> Although democracy is generally understood to be defined by voting, no consensus exists on a precise definition of democracy. Karl Popper says that the "classical" view of democracy is "in brief, the theory that democracy is the rule of the people, and that the people have a right to rule." Kofi Annan states that "there are as many different forms of democracy as there are democratic nations in the world." One study identified 2,234 adjectives used in the English language to describe democracy.<ref>Gagnon, Jean-Paul (1 June 2018). "2,234 Descriptions of Democracy". Democratic Theory. 5 (1): 92–113. doi:10.3167/dt.2018.050107. ISSN 2332-8894. S2CID 149825810.</ref> Democratic principles require all eligible citizens being equal before the law and having equal access to legislative processes. For example, in a representative democracy, every vote has equal weight, no unreasonable restrictions can apply to anyone seeking to become a representative, and the freedom of its eligible citizens is secured by legitimized rights and liberties which are typically protected by a constitution. Freedom House provides this characterization of democracy: <blockquote> “Democracy means more than just majority rule, however. In its ideal form, it is a governing system based on the will and consent of the governed, institutions that are accountable to all citizens, adherence to the rule of law, and respect for human rights. It is a network of mutually reinforcing structures in which those exercising power are subject to checks both within and outside the state, for example, from independent courts, an independent press, and civil society. It requires an openness to alternations in power, with rival candidates or parties competing fairly to govern for the good of the public as a whole, not just themselves or those who voted for them. It creates a level playing field so that all people, no matter the circumstances of their birth or background, can enjoy the universal human rights to which they are entitled and participate in politics and governance.”<ref>Freedom in the World 2022, Freedom House, Page 5</ref> </blockquote> === Characteristics of Democracy === [[File:Women practice voting in Dayton Oct. 27, 1920.jpg|thumb|Women practice voting in Dayton Oct. 27, 1920]] [[w:Freedom House|Freedom House]] has established detailed criteria for evaluating various forms of democracy.<ref>Freedom in the World Research Methodology. See: <nowiki>https://freedomhouse.org/reports/freedom-world/freedom-world-research-methodology</nowiki> </ref> These criteria are summarized below: ==== Electoral process. ==== #'''Was the current head of government or other chief national authority elected through free and fair elections?''' Considerations include independent [[w:Election monitoring|election monitoring]], adequate time for candidates to enter and campaign, accurate [[w:Voter registration|registration of voters]], inclusion of women and minority candidates, opportunities for candidates to address voters, make speeches, hold public meetings, and obtain media access, use of [[w:Secret ballot|secret ballot]], lack of pressure or voter intimidation, transparent vote counting, access to voting places, and the [[w:Peaceful transition of power|peaceful transfer of power]]. #'''Were the current national legislative representatives elected through free and fair elections?''' The considerations are like the above. #'''Are the electoral laws and framework fair, and are they implemented impartially by the relevant election management bodies?''' Considerations include use of a fair legislative framework for conducting elections, an independent election commission, [[w:Universal suffrage|universal suffrage]], fair [[w:Electoral district|election districts]], and fair procedures for [[w:Electoral reform|electoral reform]]. ==== Political Pluralism and Participation ==== #'''Do the people have the right to organize in different political parties or other competitive political groupings of their choice, and is the system free of undue obstacles to the rise and fall of these competing parties or groupings?''' Considerations include opportunities to form [[w:Political party|political parties]], freedom to hold meetings, rallies, and obtain media access, fair and equitable rules for party financing, freedom of [[w:Freedom of assembly|peaceful assembly]], and opportunities for [[w:Independent politician|independent candidates]]. #'''Is there a realistic opportunity for the opposition to increase its support or gain power through elections?''' Considerations include freedom of opposition parties to increase their support base and compete in elections, are opposition parties in positions of authority, and is there a significant opposition vote? #'''Are the people’s political choices free from domination by forces that are external to the political sphere, or by political forces that employ extrapolitical means?''' Considerations include lack of intimidation by military, foreign powers, oligarchies, criminal organizations, or other powerful groups, absence of [[w:Bribery|bribery]], [[w:Corruption|corruption]], improper [[w:Quid pro quo|quid pro quo]], or other improper influences, lack of dominant political donors, transparent [[w:Campaign finance|campaign financing]], and accountability to the voters. #'''Do various segments of the population (including ethnic, racial, religious, gender, LGBT+, and other relevant groups) have full political rights and electoral opportunities?''' Considerations include addressing minority issues, participation of [[w:Minority group|minority groups]] in political life, full inclusion of women, and [[w:Citizenship|citizenship]] opportunities for minorities. ==== Functioning of government ==== #'''Do the freely elected head of government and national legislative representatives determine the policies of the government?''' Considerations include installation of the elected officials into office, ability to form a functioning government, non-interference by [[w:Non-state actor|nonstate actors]], lack of military influence on government operations, independence of the executive and legislative branches, and frequency of [[w:Bipartisanship|bipartisan]] actions. #'''Are safeguards against official corruption strong and effective?''' Considerations include effectiveness of anticorruption laws and programs, independent oversight and auditing, investigation of alleged corruption, and [[w:Whistleblower|whistleblower]] protections. #'''Does the government operate with openness and transparency?''' Considerations include ability of citizens to obtain accurate information about state operations, ability to petition government agencies for information, publication of state information, ability to access and comment on pending legislations, public review of budget processes, transparency in awarding contracts, and public scrutiny of [[w:Financial disclosure of public servants|government officials’ financial disclosure]]. ==== Additional discretionary political rights question ==== #'''Is the government or occupying power deliberately changing the ethnic composition of a country or territory so as to destroy a culture or tip the political balance in favor of another group?''' Considerations include providing incentives to change the [[w:Ethnic group|ethnic composition]] of a region, forcibly moving people into or out of certain regions, and arresting or killing members of certain ethnic groups. ==== Civil Liberties ==== ==== Freedom of Expression and belief ==== #'''Are there free and independent media?''' Considerations include [[w:Media (communication)|media]] [[w:Censorship|censorship]], pressure or surveillance, punishment of journalists, [[w:Freedom of speech|freedom of speech]] regarding criticism of government officials, government control of media, [[w:Editorial independence|editorial independence,]] nonpartisan coverage, government influence of media coverage, involvement of women and minorities, free expression in works of literature, and other cultural expressions. #'''Are individuals free to practice and express their religious faith or nonbelief in public and private?''' Considerations include [[w:Freedom of religion|freedom of religious]] institutions to function, freedom from harassment of minority faith members, lack of government involvement in appointing religious leaders, freedom to distribute religious writings, freedom to construct and occupy religious buildings, lack of government involvement in religious education, and freedom to eschew religious beliefs and practices. #'''Is there academic freedom, and is the educational system free from extensive political indoctrination?''' Considerations include [[w:Academic freedom|freedom of educators]] to pursue political activities, non-interference in school [[w:Curriculum|curriculums]], fair allocation of funding, freedom of student associations to pursue political activities, and freedom of students to support candidates of their choice. #'''Are individuals free to express their personal views on political or other sensitive topics without fear of surveillance or retribution?''' Considerations include the ability to engage in discussions, including [[w:Political criticism|political discussions]], in public, or private places, including online communications, and lack of surveillance of antigovernment conversations. ==== Associational and organizational rights ==== #I'''s there [[w:Freedom of assembly|freedom of assembly]]?''' Considerations include freedom to protest peacefully, lack of intimidation or harassment of peaceful protesters, censorship of peaceful protester’s communications, and freedom to petition the public, #'''Is there freedom for nongovernmental organizations, particularly those that are engaged in human rights– and governance-related work?''' Considerations include ease of creating [[w:Non-governmental organization|nongovernment organizations]], fair rules for financing the work, and freedom from government intimidation or harassment. #'''Is there freedom for trade unions and similar professional or labor organizations?''' Considerations include unfettered formation and operation of [[w:Trade union|trade unions]], lack of pressure to join or not join certain trade unions, ability to [[w:Strike action|strike]] without reprisals, [[w:Collective bargaining|collective bargaining]], and free operation of professional organizations. ==== Rule of Law ==== #'''Is there an independent judiciary?''' Considerations include noninterference by the executive branch or other influences, fair appointment of judges, impartial rulings by judges, compliance with judicial decisions, and the absence of powerful influences over judicial decisions. #'''Does due process prevail in civil and criminal matters?''' Considerations include [[w:Presumption of innocence|presumption of innocence]], access to effective [[w:Counsel|counsel]], fair [[w:Trial|trial]], fair access to the [[w:Judiciary|court system]], independent [[w:Prosecutor|prosecutors]], fair and effective law enforcement, and upholding of [[w:Due process|due process]] without interference. #'''Is there protection from the illegitimate use of physical force and freedom from war and insurgencies?''' Considerations include absence of excessive force during arrest and detainment, humane conditions in pretrial detention facilities and prisons, effective redress of abuse, absence of [[w:Corporal punishment|corporal punishment]], minimal application of [[w:Corporal punishment|capital punishment]], lack of violent crime, and safety for the population. #'''Do laws, policies, and practices guarantee equal treatment of various segments of the population?''' Considerations include the ability of distinctive or minority groups to exercise their [[w:Human rights|human rights]], lack of violence against such groups, lack of discrimination against such groups, granting of [[w:Right of asylum|asylum]], and protection of [[w:Human rights|human rights]]. ==== Personal autonomy and individual rights ==== #'''Do individuals enjoy freedom of movement, including the ability to change their place of residence, employment, or education?''' Considerations include freedom of foreign travel, freedom of movement within the country, lack of bribery and other corruption, safe travel, and equal rights for women. #'''Are individuals able to exercise the right to own property and establish private businesses without undue interference from state or nonstate actors?''' Considerations include the ability to purchase or sell land and other property, equal [[w:Women'27s rights|rights for women]], lack of favoritism, [[w:Cronyism|cronyism]], [[w:Bribery|bribery]], [[w:Extortion|extortion]], and other forms of [[w:Political corruption|corruption]], and ease of doing business, #'''Do individuals enjoy personal social freedoms, including choice of marriage partner and size of family, protection from domestic violence, and control over appearance?''' Considerations include lack of personal and domestic violence, freedom to [[w:Same-sex marriage|marry your chosen partner]], fair divorce and child custody decisions, and free choice of dress and appearance. #'''Do individuals enjoy equality of opportunity and freedom from economic exploitation?''' Considerations include lack of worker exploitation, economic opportunity, fair competition, and absence of [[w:Human trafficking|human trafficking]]. While the Freedom House characteristics of democracy criteria are extensive, a more extensive set of criteria is used by the [[w:V-Dem Institute|V-Dem institute]] to evaluate democracies around the world. Their document “V-Dem Methodology v11.1”<ref>V-Dem Methodology v11.1 See: <nowiki>https://www.v-dem.net/static/website/img/refs/methodologyv111.pdf</nowiki></ref> describes their methodology in detail. Interested students can study that document for more detail. Other authors advocate for additional characteristics including increasing [[w:Human capital|human capital]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Uncontrolled: The Surprising Payoff of Trial-and-Error for Business, Politics, and Society  |last=Manzi|first=Jim  |date=May 1, 2012|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0465023240|pages=320|author-link=w:Jim_Manzi_(software_entrepreneur)}} Chapter 15.</ref> through more effective and relevant education<ref>The Relevant Education Project. See: <nowiki>https://relevant.education</nowiki></ref>, improving our shared knowledge base, increasing [[Emotional Competency|emotional intelligence]], and increasing our [[w:Collective intelligence|collective intelligence]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The Listening Society: A Metamodern Guide to Politics|last=Freinacht  |first=Hanzi  |date=March 10, 2017|publisher=Metamoderna ApS|isbn=978-8799973903|pages=414}} Page 91 of 405</ref>^,<ref>See, for example the MIT Center for Collective Intelligence. <nowiki>https://cci.mit.edu</nowiki></ref> === Assignment === # Study the above criteria used to evaluate democracies. # Find where your country ranks on the Freedom House Freedom in the world report. # Identify areas for improvement. # Advocate for policies that improve attainment of these criteria within your government. === Results-based selections === Better governance systems attain better results. A governance system can be evaluated by the contribution it makes toward helping the governed organization reach its goals. If the governed organization is a corporation, then the best governance system is the one that results in the most profits, along with consideration of customer satisfaction, employee satisfaction, relevant regulations, and social responsibility. For other organizations, the effectiveness of a governance system can be judged by how well the governed organization meets its stated mission. In the case of international, national, state, regional, or local governments the mission will be assumed to be the [[w:Well-being|well-being]] of the people. One attractive option recognizes that “There are powerful arguments for making happiness a focal point for government policy.”<ref>{{cite book|title=The Politics of Happiness: What Government Can Learn from the New Research on Well-Being|last=Bok|first=Derek  |date=February 21, 2010|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691144894|pages=272|author-link=w:Derek_Bok}}</ref> Because happiness is often fleeting, we propose a more substantial and enduring basis for evaluating and selecting government systems. [[File:Evaluating Good Government.jpg|thumb|Better governments allow more people to meet more of their needs.]] Here we suggest that <blockquote> '''The government that meets more of the needs of more of the people is the better system.'''<ref>Good Government, Substack Article, Leland Beaumont, July 17, 2022</ref> </blockquote> To be specific, in this definition we use [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow’s hierarchy of needs]]<ref>Researchers continue to refine and extend Maslow’s original thesis. It may be wise to use these updated views rather than Maslow’s original thesis.  </ref> as our reference standard for defining the needs of the people. A population where more people are meeting more of their higher-level needs is benefiting from the better governance system. The fewer people who have unmet needs the better. The more people who have high level needs met the better.<ref>It may be wise to consider it unacceptable to leave the basic needs of anyone unmet. Therefore, it may be important to meet everyone’s basic needs before turning attention to meeting the higher-level needs of the few. This suggests a [[w:Minimax#Maximin|Maximin]] approach and is consistent with the doctrine of sufficiency.</ref> Alternative standards might include measures of: * Adherence to the [[w:Universal Declaration of Human Rights|Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], * [[w:Well-being|Well-being]], * [[w:Subjective well-being|Subjective well-being]], or * Some blend, weighing, or aggregation of these. In any case, the question of “what is the better government system?” can be answered [[w:Empiricism|empirically]] rather than hypothetically or speculatively. Evaluating results would require an independent rating agency, such as the [[w:Government Accountability Office|Government Accountability Office]], a [[w:Nationally recognized statistical rating organization|nationally recognized statistical rating organization]], or other organizations, such as [[w:Freedom House|Freedom House]], to study, analyze, and publish results. === Assignment === # Read the essay [[/Good Government/]]. # Estimate where you are now on Maslow’s needs hierarchy. # Use your estimate of the well-being of the population of your country or region to draw a diagram like the one shown above on the right. == Selection Forces == [[File:Vote Carefully.jpg|thumb|Vote conscientiously to evolve governments.]] Selection forces—actions that select for the preferred outcome—are the engine of evolution. Within a nation with a functioning democracy, selection forces include: * Voting. There are good arguments supporting the conclusion that citizens in a democracy have a moral duty to vote.<ref>Christiano, Tom and Sameer Bajaj, "Democracy", ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Spring 2022 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <<nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2022/entries/democracy/</nowiki>>. Section 4.3.1.</ref> Register to vote, study the candidates and the issues, and vote in every election you are eligible to vote in. * Campaigning; * supporting desirable candidates; * Supporting desirable policy and legislation; * Communicating with elected officials; * Financial contributions; * influencing public opinion, and * running for office. Options are more difficult in non-democratic nations. In this case, read the book ''From Dictatorship to Democracy: A Conceptual Framework for Liberation''<ref>{{cite book|title=From Dictatorship to Democracy: A Conceptual Framework for Liberation|last=Sharp|first=Gene|date=September 4, 2012|publisher=The New Press|isbn=978-1595588500|pages=160|author-link=w:Gene_Sharp}}</ref> and complete the [[Intentional Evolution#Assignment 18|final assignment]] in the [[Intentional Evolution]] course. The Wikiversity course [[Confronting Tyranny]] may also be helpful. == Possibilities == Imagine how it can be! === Assignment === This assignment is entirely optional, and it is likely that most students will skip it. The assignment is provided here to stimulate the imagination of interested students. # Read the book ''The Listening Society: A Metamodern Guide to Politics''.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Listening Society: A Metamodern Guide to Politics|last=Freinacht  |first=Hanzi  |date=March 10, 2017|publisher=Metamoderna ApS|isbn=978-8799973903|pages=414}}</ref> # Read the book ''Nordic Ideology: A Metamodern Guide to Politics''.<ref>[1] {{cite book|title=Nordic Ideology: A Metamodern Guide to Politics|last=Freinacht  |first=Hanzi  |date=May 29, 2019|publisher=Metamoderna ApS|isbn=978-8799973927|pages=495}}</ref> # Study the work of the [[Level 5 Research Center]]. # Study the work of the [[Wisdom Research|Wisdom and the Future Research Center]]. # Study the course [[A Journey to GameB]]. # Participate in the research project to [[Living Wisely/Improving our Social Operating Systems|improve our social operating systems]]. # Read the essay “3 Design principles for Protopian Governance".<ref>3 Design principles for Protopian Governance, Hanzi Freinacht, May 22, 2022, See: <nowiki>https://medium.com/@hanzifreinacht/3-design-principles-for-protopian-governance-bc2bfa7faa9a</nowiki></ref> # Study courses in the [[Unleashing Creativity/possibilities curriculum|possibilities curriculum]]. # Read the essay [[Assessing Human Rights/Beyond Olympic Gold|Beyond Olympic gold]]. ## Work to [[Assessing Human Rights|advance human rights worldwide]]. # Read the [[w:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] article on Global Democracy.<ref>Kuyper, Jonathan, "Global Democracy", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <<nowiki>https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2016/entries/global-democracy/</nowiki>>.</ref> # Complete the Wikiversity course [[Intentional Evolution|Intentional evolution]]. ##Complete the [[Intentional Evolution#Assignment 18|final assignment]] in the [[Intentional Evolution]] course. # Complete the Wikiversity course [[Envisioning Our Future]]. ## Write down [[Envisioning Our Future#Write Down Your Vision of Our Future|your vision of our future]]. ## Use the essay you wrote as a guide toward action. ## Act to make the future you envision a reality. == Assignment == # [[Living Wisely|Live wisely]]. # Read the essay [[Exploring Worldviews/Aligning worldviews|Aligning Worldviews]]. ## Align your worldview with reality. # Complete the course [[Intentional Evolution]]. ## Apply the principles taught in the Intentional Evolution course to accelerate the evolution of governments. # Become an informed and engaged citizen. # Practice [[Level 5 Research Center#Values|pro-social values]]. # Collaborate with others who practice [[Level 5 Research Center#Values|pro-social values]]. # Without compromising your values, [[Finding Common Ground|seek common ground]] with those who do not practice [[Level 5 Research Center#Values|pro-social values]]. ## Complete the Wikiversity course [[Transcending Conflict|Transcending conflict]]. ### Work to transcend conflict. ## Complete the Wikiversity course [[Finding Common Ground|Finding common ground]]. ### Seek common ground # Challenge, confront, and [[w:Persuasion|persuade]] those who do not practice [[Level 5 Research Center#Values|pro-social values]]. ## [[w:The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People#Habit%205:%20%22Seek%20first%20to%20understand%2C%20then%20to%20be%20understood%22|Seek first to understand, then to be understood]]. ## As a gentle starting point, become comfortable using [[w:The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People#Habit%205:%20%22Seek%20first%20to%20understand%2C%20then%20to%20be%20understood%22|these phrases]] in [[Practicing Dialogue|dialogue]] to encourage the participants to act in good faith. ## Support and vote for political leaders who support values and policies that advance this evolutionary worldview. ## Protect your own safety. ## Complete the Wikiversity course [[Finding Courage]]. ###Find the moral courage to act according to your well-chosen values and confront antagonists. ## Apply suitable techniques discussed in the book ''From Dictatorship to Democracy: A Conceptual Framework for Liberation''.<ref>Sharp, Gene (September 4, 2012). From Dictatorship to Democracy: A Conceptual Framework for Liberation. The New Press. pp. 160. ISBN 978-1595588500.</ref> ## Complete the Wikiversity course on [[Confronting Tyranny]]. ###Confront tyranny # Unleash [[w:Collaboration|collaboration]]. # [[Living Wisely/Seeking Real Good|Seek real good]]. == Further Reading == Students who are interested in learning more about evolving governments may wish to read these books: * {{cite book |last=Bevir |first=Mark |author-link= |date=October 25, 2012 |title=Governance: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=OUP Oxford |pages=147 |isbn=978-0199606412}} * {{cite book |last=Crick |first=Bernard |author-link= |date=October 10, 2002 | title=Democracy: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=OUP Oxford |pages=145 |isbn=978-0192802507}} * {{cite book |last=Snyder |first=Timothy |author-link=w:Timothy_D._Snyder |date=February 28, 2017 |title=On Tyranny: Twenty Lessons from the Twentieth Century |publisher=Crown |pages=128 |isbn=978-0804190114}} * {{cite book |last=Freinacht |first=Hanzi |date=March 10, 2017 |title=The Listening Society: A Metamodern Guide to Politics |publisher=Metamoderna ApS |pages=414 |isbn=978-8799973903}} * {{cite book |last=Freinacht |first=Hanzi |date=May 29, 2019 |title=Nordic Ideology: A Metamodern Guide to Politics |publisher=Metamoderna ApS |pages=495 |isbn=978-8799973927}} Nordic Ideology * {{cite book |last=Sharp |first=Gene |author-link=w:Gene_Sharp |date=September 4, 2012 |title=From Dictatorship to Democracy: A Conceptual Framework for Liberation |publisher=The New Press |pages=160 |isbn=978-1595588500}} * {{cite book |last=Manzi |first=Jim |author-link=w:Jim_Manzi_(software_entrepreneur) |date=May 1, 2012 |title=Uncontrolled: The Surprising Payoff of Trial-and-Error for Business, Politics, and Society |publisher=Basic Books |pages=320 |isbn=978-0465023240}} * {{cite book |last1=Gehl |first1=Katherine M. |last2=Porter |first2=Michael E. |author-link=w:Michael_Porter |date=June 23, 2020 |title=The Politics Industry: How Political Innovation Can Break Partisan Gridlock and Save Our Democracy |publisher=Harvard Business Review Press |pages=272 |isbn=978-1633699236}} * {{cite book |last=Bok |first=Derek |author-link=w:Derek_Bok |date=February 21, 2010 |title=The Politics of Happiness: What Government Can Learn from the New Research on Well-Being |publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=272 |isbn=978-0691144894}} * {{cite book |last=Reich |first=Robert B. |date=February 20, 2018 |title=The Common Good |publisher=Knopf |pages=208 |isbn=978-0525520498 |author-link=w:Robert_Reich }} * {{cite book |last=Christakis |first=Nicholas A. |author-link=w:Nicholas_Christakis |date=March 26, 2019 |title=Blueprint: The Evolutionary Origins of a Good Society |publisher=Little, Brown Spark |pages=441 |isbn=978-0316230032}} * {{cite book |last=Ridley |first=Matt |author-link=w:Matt_Ridley |date=October 25, 2016 |title=The Evolution of Everything: How New Ideas Emerge |publisher=Harper Perennial |pages=368 |isbn=978-0062296016}} *{{cite book |last=Diamond |first=Jared |author-link=w:Jared_Diamond |date=January 4, 2011 |title=Collapse: How Societies Choose to Fail or Succeed |publisher=Penguin Books |pages=608 |isbn=978-0143117001}} * {{cite book |last=Camp |first=Robert C. |date=May 1, 1989 |title=Benchmarking: The Search for Industry Best Practices That Lead to Superior Performance |publisher=Amer Society for Quality |pages=299 |isbn=978-0873890588}} * The Modern Political Traditions: Hobbes to Habermas, Wondrium I have not yet read the following books, but they seem interesting and relevant. They are listed here to invite further research. *{{cite book |last1=Gneezy |first1=Uri |last2=List |first2=John |date=January 1, 2015 |title=The Why Axis: Hidden Motives and the Undiscovered Economics of Everyday Life |publisher=Cornerstone |pages= |isbn=978-1847946751}} *{{cite book |last=Bremmer |first=Ian |author-link=w:Ian_Bremmer |date=September 11, 2007 |title=The J Curve: A New Way to Understand Why Nations Rise and Fall |publisher=Simon & Schuster|pages=336|isbn=978-0743274722}} *{{cite book |last=MacAskill |first=William |author-link=w:William_MacAskill |date=August 16, 2022 |title=What We Owe the Future Hardcover |publisher=Basic Books |pages=352 |isbn=978-1541618626}} *{{cite book |last=Borders |first=Max |date=May 2, 2022|title=The Decentralist: Mission, Morality, and Meaning in the Age of Crypto |publisher=Social Evolution |pages=214 |isbn=978-1732039421}} == References == <references/> [[Category:Government]] [[Category:Applied Wisdom]] [[Category:Philosophy]] [[Category:Courses]] {{Possibilities}} bm465j7zbg2cb3xyu2z5rd78padl9q6 0 286380 2415694 2414485 2022-08-17T04:02:15Z JackBot 238563 Bot: Fixing double redirect to [[3-bit Walsh permutation/matrix columns]] wikitext text/x-wiki #REDIRECT [[3-bit Walsh permutation/matrix columns]] d95hxfkl8d9g15b4o2ka6t520xt3so0 10 286391 2415592 2414572 2022-08-16T15:21:13Z Watchduck 137431 wikitext text/x-wiki <templatestyles src="3-bit Walsh permutation/matrix columns/comp pattern overview/style.css" /> {| |<!--START--> {| class="wikitable comp-pattern-overview" |+ weight 1 |- class="top-row" ! ! <small>2+2</small><br>''Rome'' !colspan="2"| <small>2+4</small><br>''Buenos&nbsp;Aires''&nbsp;5 ! <small>7a</small><br>''Santiago&nbsp;+'' |- ! [[c:Category:Single 3-bit Walsh permutations; RGB balls; complement pattern 1|1]] | {{WalshPermMatInv|724}} | {{WalshPermMatInv|526}} | {{WalshPermMatInv|364}} | {{WalshPermMatInv|753}} |- ! [[c:Category:Single 3-bit Walsh permutations; RGB balls; complement pattern 2|2]] | {{WalshPermMatInv|174}} | {{WalshPermMatInv|165}} | {{WalshPermMatInv|534}} | {{WalshPermMatInv|673}} |- ! [[c:Category:Single 3-bit Walsh permutations; RGB balls; complement pattern 4|4]] | {{WalshPermMatInv|127}} | {{WalshPermMatInv|136}} | {{WalshPermMatInv|325}} | {{WalshPermMatInv|657}} |}<!--END--> |<!--START--> {| class="wikitable comp-pattern-overview" |+ weight 2 |- class="top-row" ! !colspan="2"| <small>2+2</small><br>''Paris'' !colspan="2"| <small>2+4</small><br>''Buenos&nbsp;Aires''&nbsp;6 |- ! [[c:Category:Single 3-bit Walsh permutations; RGB balls; complement pattern 3|3]] | {{WalshPermMatInv|524}} | {{WalshPermMatInv|164}} | {{WalshPermMatInv|175}} | {{WalshPermMatInv|726}} |- ! [[c:Category:Single 3-bit Walsh permutations; RGB balls; complement pattern 5|5]] | {{WalshPermMatInv|324}} | {{WalshPermMatInv|126}} | {{WalshPermMatInv|137}} | {{WalshPermMatInv|764}} |- ! [[c:Category:Single 3-bit Walsh permutations; RGB balls; complement pattern 6|6]] | {{WalshPermMatInv|134}} | {{WalshPermMatInv|125}} | {{WalshPermMatInv|327}} | {{WalshPermMatInv|574}} |}<!--END--> |<!--START--> {| class="wikitable comp-pattern-overview" |+ weight 3 |- class="top-row" ! ! <small>&nbsp;</small><br>neut. !colspan="3"| <small>2+2</small><br>''Florence'' |- ! [[c:Category:Single 3-bit Walsh permutations; RGB balls; complement pattern 7|7]] | {{WalshPermMatInv|124}} | {{WalshPermMatInv|135}} | {{WalshPermMatInv|326}} | {{WalshPermMatInv|564}} |}<!--END--> |} m9npy3beu8erfdrah1f7desb8h84g0m 0 286394 2415676 2415525 2022-08-17T02:28:29Z Hamish84 1362807 Moved text wikitext text/x-wiki Aristotle: “Give me the child until he is seven, and I will give you the man” The presumption is that all humans at seven years of age have embedded their so-called' “individual” personality. We develop and mature with personality intact. Living with the accepted concept of evolution, can we presume also that we evolve accordingly to our “individual” lifestyle. Human consciousness exerts its own definitive laws that are inescapable – never to destroy. The greatest form of communication that has evolved with human beings is speech. No matter what language you speak, it is a gift you have acquired along the way. You will pay a price, or gain a dividend, depending on how you use the consciousness gift we all have acquired. Which begs the question. Is there any such thing as “free speech”. My initial intention in searching for some clues to delay the onset of dementia arrived at the concept of semantics. There seemed to be some ancient wisdom that has already explored their existence. Namely one Heraclitus (The Weeping Philosopher) and his “Unity of Opposites”. [[File:Heraclitus, Johannes Moreelse.jpg|center|thumb]] Also the ancient Chinese symbol of the unity of opposites Yin and Yang: [[File:Traditional yin and yang with dots.png|center|thumb]] Both images above are repeats to earlier documents but quite appropriate to use again. Such unity applies to a reality which is absolute and confined only to understanding, beyond question. This is where I found contemporary scientific wisdom coming into play, and the development of The Semantic Template. The mistaken concept that any form of free speech provides anyone the right to use it to harm innocent people. So, “Never send to know for whom the bell tolls; it tolls for thee.” John Donne. Not censorship, but civilized restraint. Any form of civilized dialogue has its own benefits for both the recipient and the messenger. There is a moribund stupidity about so-called free speech. Stupidiy is at the bottom of the scale where Intelligence prevails. Perhaps with evolution it will die a natural death. Dung beetle and free speech retribution if by any chance you qualify for reincarnation! Given that we are supposed to be what we eat, can you imagine what these two “dung” beetles are calling each other over whose property it belongs to? [[File:Large Copper Dung Beetles (Kheper nigroaeneus) (6040799657).jpg|center|thumb]] The founder’s of social media communication on the Internet may well pay due regard to their office. No censorship, but the easy simplicity of civilized constructive debate, preferably sourced from the product of each semantic template. “The greatest form of knowledge you can ever have is your own” Whatever construction our brain imposes, its determinate need is to express its functional being. Everything that is awaits the arrival of its past. Everything that ever was, and always is, is always proclaimed, by its existence. Nothing is ever lost in the universal unity of Space-Time – Energy – Matter. Historically we have evolved towards the Jungian concept of collective human consciousness. ecbhsnalnmpd40iavehw83pono2b20o 10 286404 2415572 2414913 2022-08-16T14:10:09Z Sophivorus 85690 sanitized-css text/css .wikidebate { background: #fbfbfb; border: 1px solid #1e90ff; border-left: 10px solid #1e90ff; margin: 1em 5%; padding: .5em; } .wikidebate-image { float: left; margin: 0 .5em .5em 0; } .wikidebate-content { overflow: hidden; } /** * Elements added by [[MediaWiki:TemplateScript-Wikidebate.js]] */ .wikidebate-argument { position: relative; } .wikidebate-arrow { cursor: pointer; position: absolute; left: -1em; } .wikidebate-sustained { background: #afa; } .wikidebate-refuted { background: #faa; } .wikidebate-add-objection-button { color: #54595d; font-size: small; margin-left: .5em; } .wikidebate-add-objection-button a { color: #0645ad; margin: 0 .25em; } .wikidebate-objection-form { overflow: hidden; } .wikidebate-objection-form-input { border: 1px solid #aaa; box-sizing: border-box; display: block; margin-bottom: 5px; min-height: 3em; padding: .5em; width: 100%; } .wikidebate-objection-form-submit { float: right; } /** * Mobile and small screens */ @media screen and ( max-width: 800px ) { .wikidebate { margin: 5px 0; } .wikidebate-image { float: right; margin: 0 0 .5em .5em; } .wikidebate-content { overflow: visible; } .wikidebate-buttons { text-align: center; } .wikidebate .mw-ui-button { display: block; margin: .5em 0; max-width: 100%; } .wikidebate-objection-form-input { min-height: 6em; } } 9tqmq3r44u8a5xk9nixbf3y1rn2hwxq 0 286422 2415575 2414976 2022-08-16T14:44:52Z Saltrabook 1417466 /* The objectives */ wikitext text/x-wiki [https://es.wikiversity.org/wiki/El_Consorcio_Europeo_para_la_investigaci%C3%B3n_y_la_educaci%C3%B3n_en_salud_mar%C3%ADtima Spanish version] [https://fr.wikiversity.org/wiki/Le_Consortium_de_l%27UE_pour_la_recherche_et_l%27%C3%A9ducation_en_sant%C3%A9_maritime French version] [https://de.wikiversity.org/wiki/Europ%C3%A4isches_Konsortium_f%C3%BCr_maritime_Gesundheitsforschung_und_-erziehung German version] == Introduction == The EU Consortium for Maritime Health research and education is a non-profit, international network of maritime research and educational '''institutions''' to collaborate on promoting health research and education for the benefit of maritime and transport workers. It is a brick-free center that unites interested institutions with activities in maritime- occupational- and public health research and education to apply for fundings. == The objectives == * Create a network of researchers to develop scientific research and education in maritime health and safety and apply for fundings * Establish research and educational groups and apply for fundings * The main focus is on Hypertension and Diabetes Type 2, early diagnosis and prevention * Collaborate with the workers organisations and the shipping companies * Organise public meetings to present the research and educational activities to a wider audience * Educate maritime students, seafarers and transport workers in Diabetes type 2 and Hypertension selfcontrol and health promotion == Purpose == The objectives are to educate and to deliver research results at a high quality by the use of standardised methods for the benefit of all workers and citizens. == Ethical requirements == The ethical rules for database research in the respective Universities and other centers.[http://www.icohweb.org/site_new/multimedia/core_documents/pdf/code_ethics_eng_2012.pdf ICOH Code of ethics]are complied with. Confidentiality in handling personal information is done according to the rules set out by the national Data Protection Agencies. Normally there is no personal sensitive information included so approval from the Ethics Committee is not necessary. All questionnaires ask for informed consent as the first question. The supervisors take care to secure that the data is processed under the Act on medical confidentiality as guidelines for good epidemiological practice. The participants' anonymity will be protected in every way and this will be indicated in the project description. It will be ensured that the electronic table is locked so that the information can not be seen by anyone other than the researchers. The researchers respect individual ownership of the data and share publications and the data where this is convenient and keep always good partnerships. [https://allea.org/code-of-conduct/#toggle-id-18 The European Code of Conduct for Research Integrity for self-regulation in all research ] == Board of Directors == The Consortium's main decision-making authority is the Board. The Board is made up of representatives from the associate institutions == Center coordinator == * The Board of Directors selects a Coordinator of the Consortium for 1 year to be reelected at the annual meeting of the Board in August * OneBoard meetings is held annually * The Coordinator is responsible for convening Board meetings == Advisory Committee == Representatives of partners in Unions, Ministries, Universities and State Authorities are invited == Goals == In collaboration with the Coordinator, the Board establishes objectives for which research and educational areas and applications for fundings should be prioritized and what results are expected to be obtained from research in these areas. == Evaluation of the activities of the center == The Board of Directors understands every year an evaluation of the activities of the Consortium. The Coordinator presents an annual report to the Board in late December. Financial Accounting. There are no separate accounts for the center since the economy is placed with each of the participants. == Financial Resources == The main financial resource for the Consortium's activity is the existing resources of individual participants and national and international research foundations. == Indication of publications == The publications from the are listed below: Own institution, EU Consortium Center in ... == Annual status report == The Coordinator is responsible for preparing an annual status report that is approved by the Board of Directors. The progress report should include a brief overview of last year's results with signatures and dates ==[[/Statutes/]]== == Funds and Organisations == European Foundation Study of Diabetes (EFSD)- http://www.europeandiabetesfoundation.org/<br> ITF Seafarers Trust https://www.seafarerstrust.org/ <br> [https://novonordiskfonden.dk/en/ Novo Nordisk Found]<br> https://www.eshonline.org/online-education/teaching-seminars/ <br> Hypertension Research Foundation<br> http://www.hypertensionresearchfoundation.ch/EN/projets.html <br> https://research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/research-area/health/diabetes_en<br> [https://ec.europa.eu/esf/main.jsp?catId=67&langId=en&newsId=9691 The European Social Fund]<br> [https://www.danishdiabetesacademy.dk/grants Danish Diabetes Academy]<br> The European Society of Hypertension https://www.eshonline.org/<br> [https://www.norden.org/en/funding-opportunities/nordic-council-ministers-funding-programme-ngo-co-operation-baltic-sea-region Nordic Council Ministers Funding NGO Co-Operation Baltic Sea Region] <br> [https://www.norden.org/en/information/about-funding-nordic-council-ministers Funding Nordic Council Ministers]<br> [https://www.norden.org/en/funding-opportunities/nordic-council-ministers-open-call-funding-opportunity-nordic-russian-co Nordic Council Ministers Funding-opportunity Nordic-Russian Co-Operation] <br> [https://terravivagrants.org/grant-makers/cross-cutting/nippon-foundation/ Nippon Foundation]<br> == Literature == [https://omeganetcohorts.eu/resources/scientific-publications/ Omeganet Publications] h43e6ppsln9upwqwzn44ysb3qz0ik3t 2415578 2415575 2022-08-16T14:48:43Z Saltrabook 1417466 wikitext text/x-wiki [https://es.wikiversity.org/wiki/El_Consorcio_Europeo_para_la_investigaci%C3%B3n_y_la_educaci%C3%B3n_en_salud_mar%C3%ADtima Spanish version] [https://fr.wikiversity.org/wiki/Le_Consortium_de_l%27UE_pour_la_recherche_et_l%27%C3%A9ducation_en_sant%C3%A9_maritime French version] [https://de.wikiversity.org/wiki/Europ%C3%A4isches_Konsortium_f%C3%BCr_maritime_Gesundheitsforschung_und_-erziehung German version] [https://de.wikiversity.org/wiki/Europ%C3%A4isches_Konsortium_f%C3%BCr_maritime_Gesundheitsforschung_und_-erziehung Danish version] == Introduction == The EU Consortium for Maritime Health research and education is a non-profit, international network of maritime research and educational '''institutions''' to collaborate on promoting health research and education for the benefit of maritime and transport workers. It is a brick-free center that unites interested institutions with activities in maritime- occupational- and public health research and education to apply for fundings. == The objectives == * Create a network of researchers to develop scientific research and education in maritime health and safety and apply for fundings * Establish research and educational groups and apply for fundings * The main focus is on Hypertension and Diabetes Type 2, early diagnosis and prevention * Collaborate with the workers organisations and the shipping companies * Organise public meetings to present the research and educational activities to a wider audience * Educate maritime students, seafarers and transport workers in Diabetes type 2 and Hypertension selfcontrol and health promotion == Purpose == The objectives are to educate and to deliver research results at a high quality by the use of standardised methods for the benefit of all workers and citizens. == Ethical requirements == The ethical rules for database research in the respective Universities and other centers.[http://www.icohweb.org/site_new/multimedia/core_documents/pdf/code_ethics_eng_2012.pdf ICOH Code of ethics]are complied with. Confidentiality in handling personal information is done according to the rules set out by the national Data Protection Agencies. Normally there is no personal sensitive information included so approval from the Ethics Committee is not necessary. All questionnaires ask for informed consent as the first question. The supervisors take care to secure that the data is processed under the Act on medical confidentiality as guidelines for good epidemiological practice. The participants' anonymity will be protected in every way and this will be indicated in the project description. It will be ensured that the electronic table is locked so that the information can not be seen by anyone other than the researchers. The researchers respect individual ownership of the data and share publications and the data where this is convenient and keep always good partnerships. [https://allea.org/code-of-conduct/#toggle-id-18 The European Code of Conduct for Research Integrity for self-regulation in all research ] == Board of Directors == The Consortium's main decision-making authority is the Board. The Board is made up of representatives from the associate institutions == Center coordinator == * The Board of Directors selects a Coordinator of the Consortium for 1 year to be reelected at the annual meeting of the Board in August * OneBoard meetings is held annually * The Coordinator is responsible for convening Board meetings == Advisory Committee == Representatives of partners in Unions, Ministries, Universities and State Authorities are invited == Goals == In collaboration with the Coordinator, the Board establishes objectives for which research and educational areas and applications for fundings should be prioritized and what results are expected to be obtained from research in these areas. == Evaluation of the activities of the center == The Board of Directors understands every year an evaluation of the activities of the Consortium. The Coordinator presents an annual report to the Board in late December. Financial Accounting. There are no separate accounts for the center since the economy is placed with each of the participants. == Financial Resources == The main financial resource for the Consortium's activity is the existing resources of individual participants and national and international research foundations. == Indication of publications == The publications from the are listed below: Own institution, EU Consortium Center in ... == Annual status report == The Coordinator is responsible for preparing an annual status report that is approved by the Board of Directors. The progress report should include a brief overview of last year's results with signatures and dates ==[[/Statutes/]]== == Funds and Organisations == European Foundation Study of Diabetes (EFSD)- http://www.europeandiabetesfoundation.org/<br> ITF Seafarers Trust https://www.seafarerstrust.org/ <br> [https://novonordiskfonden.dk/en/ Novo Nordisk Found]<br> https://www.eshonline.org/online-education/teaching-seminars/ <br> Hypertension Research Foundation<br> http://www.hypertensionresearchfoundation.ch/EN/projets.html <br> https://research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/research-area/health/diabetes_en<br> [https://ec.europa.eu/esf/main.jsp?catId=67&langId=en&newsId=9691 The European Social Fund]<br> [https://www.danishdiabetesacademy.dk/grants Danish Diabetes Academy]<br> The European Society of Hypertension https://www.eshonline.org/<br> [https://www.norden.org/en/funding-opportunities/nordic-council-ministers-funding-programme-ngo-co-operation-baltic-sea-region Nordic Council Ministers Funding NGO Co-Operation Baltic Sea Region] <br> [https://www.norden.org/en/information/about-funding-nordic-council-ministers Funding Nordic Council Ministers]<br> [https://www.norden.org/en/funding-opportunities/nordic-council-ministers-open-call-funding-opportunity-nordic-russian-co Nordic Council Ministers Funding-opportunity Nordic-Russian Co-Operation] <br> [https://terravivagrants.org/grant-makers/cross-cutting/nippon-foundation/ Nippon Foundation]<br> == Literature == [https://omeganetcohorts.eu/resources/scientific-publications/ Omeganet Publications] gtf7pjfq83s79hp2oty2jkqd2m5iu15 2415585 2415578 2022-08-16T14:56:10Z Saltrabook 1417466 wikitext text/x-wiki [https://es.wikiversity.org/wiki/El_Consorcio_Europeo_para_la_investigaci%C3%B3n_y_la_educaci%C3%B3n_en_salud_mar%C3%ADtima Spanish version] [https://fr.wikiversity.org/wiki/Le_Consortium_de_l%27UE_pour_la_recherche_et_l%27%C3%A9ducation_en_sant%C3%A9_maritime French version] [https://de.wikiversity.org/wiki/Europ%C3%A4isches_Konsortium_f%C3%BCr_maritime_Gesundheitsforschung_und_-erziehung German version] [https://beta.wikiversity.org/wiki/EU-konsortium_for_maritim_sundhedsforskning_og_-uddannelse Danish version] == Introduction == The EU Consortium for Maritime Health research and education is a non-profit, international network of maritime research and educational '''institutions''' to collaborate on promoting health research and education for the benefit of maritime and transport workers. It is a brick-free center that unites interested institutions with activities in maritime- occupational- and public health research and education to apply for fundings. == The objectives == * Create a network of researchers to develop scientific research and education in maritime health and safety and apply for fundings * Establish research and educational groups and apply for fundings * The main focus is on Hypertension and Diabetes Type 2, early diagnosis and prevention * Collaborate with the workers organisations and the shipping companies * Organise public meetings to present the research and educational activities to a wider audience * Educate maritime students, seafarers and transport workers in Diabetes type 2 and Hypertension selfcontrol and health promotion == Purpose == The objectives are to educate and to deliver research results at a high quality by the use of standardised methods for the benefit of all workers and citizens. == Ethical requirements == The ethical rules for database research in the respective Universities and other centers.[http://www.icohweb.org/site_new/multimedia/core_documents/pdf/code_ethics_eng_2012.pdf ICOH Code of ethics]are complied with. Confidentiality in handling personal information is done according to the rules set out by the national Data Protection Agencies. Normally there is no personal sensitive information included so approval from the Ethics Committee is not necessary. All questionnaires ask for informed consent as the first question. The supervisors take care to secure that the data is processed under the Act on medical confidentiality as guidelines for good epidemiological practice. The participants' anonymity will be protected in every way and this will be indicated in the project description. It will be ensured that the electronic table is locked so that the information can not be seen by anyone other than the researchers. The researchers respect individual ownership of the data and share publications and the data where this is convenient and keep always good partnerships. [https://allea.org/code-of-conduct/#toggle-id-18 The European Code of Conduct for Research Integrity for self-regulation in all research ] == Board of Directors == The Consortium's main decision-making authority is the Board. The Board is made up of representatives from the associate institutions == Center coordinator == * The Board of Directors selects a Coordinator of the Consortium for 1 year to be reelected at the annual meeting of the Board in August * OneBoard meetings is held annually * The Coordinator is responsible for convening Board meetings == Advisory Committee == Representatives of partners in Unions, Ministries, Universities and State Authorities are invited == Goals == In collaboration with the Coordinator, the Board establishes objectives for which research and educational areas and applications for fundings should be prioritized and what results are expected to be obtained from research in these areas. == Evaluation of the activities of the center == The Board of Directors understands every year an evaluation of the activities of the Consortium. The Coordinator presents an annual report to the Board in late December. Financial Accounting. There are no separate accounts for the center since the economy is placed with each of the participants. == Financial Resources == The main financial resource for the Consortium's activity is the existing resources of individual participants and national and international research foundations. == Indication of publications == The publications from the are listed below: Own institution, EU Consortium Center in ... == Annual status report == The Coordinator is responsible for preparing an annual status report that is approved by the Board of Directors. The progress report should include a brief overview of last year's results with signatures and dates ==[[/Statutes/]]== == Funds and Organisations == European Foundation Study of Diabetes (EFSD)- http://www.europeandiabetesfoundation.org/<br> ITF Seafarers Trust https://www.seafarerstrust.org/ <br> [https://novonordiskfonden.dk/en/ Novo Nordisk Found]<br> https://www.eshonline.org/online-education/teaching-seminars/ <br> Hypertension Research Foundation<br> http://www.hypertensionresearchfoundation.ch/EN/projets.html <br> https://research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/research-area/health/diabetes_en<br> [https://ec.europa.eu/esf/main.jsp?catId=67&langId=en&newsId=9691 The European Social Fund]<br> [https://www.danishdiabetesacademy.dk/grants Danish Diabetes Academy]<br> The European Society of Hypertension https://www.eshonline.org/<br> [https://www.norden.org/en/funding-opportunities/nordic-council-ministers-funding-programme-ngo-co-operation-baltic-sea-region Nordic Council Ministers Funding NGO Co-Operation Baltic Sea Region] <br> [https://www.norden.org/en/information/about-funding-nordic-council-ministers Funding Nordic Council Ministers]<br> [https://www.norden.org/en/funding-opportunities/nordic-council-ministers-open-call-funding-opportunity-nordic-russian-co Nordic Council Ministers Funding-opportunity Nordic-Russian Co-Operation] <br> [https://terravivagrants.org/grant-makers/cross-cutting/nippon-foundation/ Nippon Foundation]<br> == Literature == [https://omeganetcohorts.eu/resources/scientific-publications/ Omeganet Publications] svb3vrvu0poojl4gl7clew934u4x0zj 2415586 2415585 2022-08-16T14:58:46Z Saltrabook 1417466 wikitext text/x-wiki [https://es.wikiversity.org/wiki/El_Consorcio_Europeo_para_la_investigaci%C3%B3n_y_la_educaci%C3%B3n_en_salud_mar%C3%ADtima Spanish version] [https://fr.wikiversity.org/wiki/Le_Consortium_de_l%27UE_pour_la_recherche_et_l%27%C3%A9ducation_en_sant%C3%A9_maritime French version] [https://de.wikiversity.org/wiki/Europ%C3%A4isches_Konsortium_f%C3%BCr_maritime_Gesundheitsforschung_und_-erziehung German version] [https://beta.wikiversity.org/wiki/EU-konsortium_for_maritim_sundhedsforskning_og_-uddannelse Danish version] == Introduction == The EU Consortium for Maritime Health research and education is a non-profit, international network of maritime research and educational '''institutions''' to collaborate on promoting health research and education for the benefit of maritime and transport workers. It is a brick-free center that unites interested institutions with activities in maritime- occupational- and public health research and education to apply for fundings. == The objectives == * Create a network of researchers to develop scientific research and education in maritime health and safety and apply for fundings * Establish research and educational groups and apply for fundings * The main focus is on Hypertension and Diabetes Type 2, early diagnosis and prevention * Collaborate with the workers organisations and the shipping companies * Organise public meetings to present the research and educational activities to a wider audience * Educate maritime students, seafarers and transport workers in Diabetes type 2 and Hypertension selfcontrol and health promotion == Purpose == The objectives are to educate and to deliver research results at a high quality by the use of standardised methods for the benefit of all workers and citizens. == Ethical requirements == The ethical rules for database research in the respective Universities and other centers.[http://www.icohweb.org/site_new/multimedia/core_documents/pdf/code_ethics_eng_2012.pdf ICOH Code of ethics]are complied with. Confidentiality in handling personal information is done according to the rules set out by the national Data Protection Agencies. Normally there is no personal sensitive information included so approval from the Ethics Committee is not necessary. All questionnaires ask for informed consent as the first question. The supervisors take care to secure that the data is processed under the Act on medical confidentiality as guidelines for good epidemiological practice. The participants' anonymity will be protected in every way and this will be indicated in the project description. It will be ensured that the electronic table is locked so that the information can not be seen by anyone other than the researchers. The researchers respect individual ownership of the data and share publications and the data where this is convenient and keep always good partnerships. [https://allea.org/code-of-conduct/#toggle-id-18 The European Code of Conduct for Research Integrity for self-regulation in all research ] == Board of Directors == The Consortium's main decision-making authority is the Board. The Board is made up of representatives from the associate institutions == Center coordinator == * The Board of Directors selects a Coordinator of the Consortium for 1 year to be reelected at the annual meeting of the Board in August * OneBoard meetings is held annually * The Coordinator is responsible for convening Board meetings == Advisory Committee == Representatives of partners in Unions, Ministries, Universities and State Authorities are invited == Goals == In collaboration with the Coordinator, the Board establishes objectives for which research and educational areas and applications for fundings should be prioritized and what results are expected to be obtained from research in these areas. == Evaluation of the activities of the center == The Board of Directors understands every year an evaluation of the activities of the Consortium. The Coordinator presents an annual report to the Board in late December. Financial Accounting. There are no separate accounts for the center since the economy is placed with each of the participants. == Financial Resources == The main financial resource for the Consortium's activity is the existing resources of individual participants and national and international research foundations. == Indication of publications == The publications from the are listed below: Own institution, EU Consortium Center in ... == Annual status report == The Coordinator is responsible for preparing an annual status report that is approved by the Board of Directors. The progress report should include a brief overview of last year's results with signatures and dates ==[[/Statutes/]]== == Funds and Organisations == European Foundation Study of Diabetes (EFSD)- http://www.europeandiabetesfoundation.org/<br> ITF Seafarers Trust https://www.seafarerstrust.org/ <br> [https://novonordiskfonden.dk/en/ Novo Nordisk Found]<br> https://www.eshonline.org/online-education/teaching-seminars/ <br> Hypertension Research Foundation<br> http://www.hypertensionresearchfoundation.ch/EN/projets.html <br> https://research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/research-area/health/diabetes_en<br> [https://ec.europa.eu/esf/main.jsp?catId=67&langId=en&newsId=9691 The European Social Fund]<br> [https://www.danishdiabetesacademy.dk/grants Danish Diabetes Academy]<br> The European Society of Hypertension https://www.eshonline.org/<br> [https://www.norden.org/en/funding-opportunities/nordic-council-ministers-funding-programme-ngo-co-operation-baltic-sea-region Nordic Council Ministers Funding NGO Co-Operation Baltic Sea Region] <br> [https://www.norden.org/en/information/about-funding-nordic-council-ministers Funding Nordic Council Ministers]<br> [https://www.norden.org/en/funding-opportunities/nordic-council-ministers-open-call-funding-opportunity-nordic-russian-co Nordic Council Ministers Funding-opportunity Nordic-Russian Co-Operation] <br> [https://terravivagrants.org/grant-makers/cross-cutting/nippon-foundation/ Nippon Foundation]<br> == Literature == [https://omeganetcohorts.eu/resources/scientific-publications/ Omeganet Publications] mih6lljpzrfx8lq4n1n25faes5i62hj 2415588 2415586 2022-08-16T14:59:36Z Saltrabook 1417466 wikitext text/x-wiki [https://es.wikiversity.org/wiki/El_Consorcio_Europeo_para_la_investigaci%C3%B3n_y_la_educaci%C3%B3n_en_salud_mar%C3%ADtima Spanish version] [[:fr:Le_Consortium_de_l'UE_pour_la_recherche_et_l'éducation_en_santé_maritime|French version]] [[:de:Europäisches_Konsortium_für_maritime_Gesundheitsforschung_und_-erziehung|German version]] [[betawikiversity:EU-konsortium_for_maritim_sundhedsforskning_og_-uddannelse|Danish version]] == Introduction == The EU Consortium for Maritime Health research and education is a non-profit, international network of maritime research and educational '''institutions''' to collaborate on promoting health research and education for the benefit of maritime and transport workers. It is a brick-free center that unites interested institutions with activities in maritime- occupational- and public health research and education to apply for fundings. == The objectives == * Create a network of researchers to develop scientific research and education in maritime health and safety and apply for fundings * Establish research and educational groups and apply for fundings * The main focus is on Hypertension and Diabetes Type 2, early diagnosis and prevention * Collaborate with the workers organisations and the shipping companies * Organise public meetings to present the research and educational activities to a wider audience * Educate maritime students, seafarers and transport workers in Diabetes type 2 and Hypertension selfcontrol and health promotion == Purpose == The objectives are to educate and to deliver research results at a high quality by the use of standardised methods for the benefit of all workers and citizens. == Ethical requirements == The ethical rules for database research in the respective Universities and other centers.[http://www.icohweb.org/site_new/multimedia/core_documents/pdf/code_ethics_eng_2012.pdf ICOH Code of ethics]are complied with. Confidentiality in handling personal information is done according to the rules set out by the national Data Protection Agencies. Normally there is no personal sensitive information included so approval from the Ethics Committee is not necessary. All questionnaires ask for informed consent as the first question. The supervisors take care to secure that the data is processed under the Act on medical confidentiality as guidelines for good epidemiological practice. The participants' anonymity will be protected in every way and this will be indicated in the project description. It will be ensured that the electronic table is locked so that the information can not be seen by anyone other than the researchers. The researchers respect individual ownership of the data and share publications and the data where this is convenient and keep always good partnerships. [https://allea.org/code-of-conduct/#toggle-id-18 The European Code of Conduct for Research Integrity for self-regulation in all research ] == Board of Directors == The Consortium's main decision-making authority is the Board. The Board is made up of representatives from the associate institutions == Center coordinator == * The Board of Directors selects a Coordinator of the Consortium for 1 year to be reelected at the annual meeting of the Board in August * OneBoard meetings is held annually * The Coordinator is responsible for convening Board meetings == Advisory Committee == Representatives of partners in Unions, Ministries, Universities and State Authorities are invited == Goals == In collaboration with the Coordinator, the Board establishes objectives for which research and educational areas and applications for fundings should be prioritized and what results are expected to be obtained from research in these areas. == Evaluation of the activities of the center == The Board of Directors understands every year an evaluation of the activities of the Consortium. The Coordinator presents an annual report to the Board in late December. Financial Accounting. There are no separate accounts for the center since the economy is placed with each of the participants. == Financial Resources == The main financial resource for the Consortium's activity is the existing resources of individual participants and national and international research foundations. == Indication of publications == The publications from the are listed below: Own institution, EU Consortium Center in ... == Annual status report == The Coordinator is responsible for preparing an annual status report that is approved by the Board of Directors. The progress report should include a brief overview of last year's results with signatures and dates ==[[/Statutes/]]== == Funds and Organisations == European Foundation Study of Diabetes (EFSD)- http://www.europeandiabetesfoundation.org/<br> ITF Seafarers Trust https://www.seafarerstrust.org/ <br> [https://novonordiskfonden.dk/en/ Novo Nordisk Found]<br> https://www.eshonline.org/online-education/teaching-seminars/ <br> Hypertension Research Foundation<br> http://www.hypertensionresearchfoundation.ch/EN/projets.html <br> https://research-and-innovation.ec.europa.eu/research-area/health/diabetes_en<br> [https://ec.europa.eu/esf/main.jsp?catId=67&langId=en&newsId=9691 The European Social Fund]<br> [https://www.danishdiabetesacademy.dk/grants Danish Diabetes Academy]<br> The European Society of Hypertension https://www.eshonline.org/<br> [https://www.norden.org/en/funding-opportunities/nordic-council-ministers-funding-programme-ngo-co-operation-baltic-sea-region Nordic Council Ministers Funding NGO Co-Operation Baltic Sea Region] <br> [https://www.norden.org/en/information/about-funding-nordic-council-ministers Funding Nordic Council Ministers]<br> [https://www.norden.org/en/funding-opportunities/nordic-council-ministers-open-call-funding-opportunity-nordic-russian-co Nordic Council Ministers Funding-opportunity Nordic-Russian Co-Operation] <br> [https://terravivagrants.org/grant-makers/cross-cutting/nippon-foundation/ Nippon Foundation]<br> == Literature == [https://omeganetcohorts.eu/resources/scientific-publications/ Omeganet Publications] rg9vctdecsulzm5wm4ww7lwc6saonu3 0 286426 2415652 2415555 2022-08-17T00:14:42Z Nafindix 2919441 /* 34.1 int */ wikitext text/x-wiki Fearing the wrath of Caesar, Cicero takes it easy on his father-in-law Piso. The Latin quotes are selected for interest (int), language (lan), and beauty (bea), and are translated into English. The line numbers are from the Loeb edition, and start counting from line 1 of the section. All translations are by Gus Wiseman (Nafindix), with the exception of any contributions from other users. The public domain sources of the Latin quotes are: * Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, vol. XIV, 1931; Latin text with facing English translation by N. H. Watts. * M. TVLLI CICERONIS IN L. CALPVRNIVM PISONEM ORATIO, <nowiki>https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/piso.shtml</nowiki> * M. Tullius Cicero, Against Piso. Albert Clark, Ed., <nowiki>http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0013:text=Pis</nowiki>. ===== 1.2 int ===== ''Nemo queritur Syrum nescio quem de grege noviciorum factum esse consulem. Non enim nos color iste servilis, non pilosae genae, non dentes putridi deceperunt; oculi, supercilia, frons, voltus denique totus, qui sermo quidam tacitus mentis est, hic in fraudem homines impulit, hic eos quibus erat ignotus decepit, fefellit, induxit.'' Nobody complains some Syran from a flock of newbies was made consul. For it is not your slavish color, your hairy cheeks, your rotten teeth that deceived us; it was your eyes, your eyebrows, your forehead, your entire face, a silent betrayer of your mind, that impelled men into fraud; it was these which deceived, defrauded, and dissuaded those who were unprepared for you. ===== 2.9 bea ===== ''Noti erant illi mortui, te vivum nondum noverat quisquam.'' Though they were well-known, even in death, still nobody knew you, even in life. ===== 10.5 bea ===== ''An potest ulla esse excusatio non dicam male sentienti, sed sedenti, cunctanti, dormienti in maximo rei publicae motu consuli?'' Or is there any excuse for a consul not just thinking of mischief but sitting, delaying, sleeping through the greatest uprising of the state? ===== 10.7 lan ===== ''Centum prope annos legem Aeliam et Fufiam tenueramus, quadringentos iudicium notionemque censoriam, quas leges ausus est non nemo improbus, potuit quidem nemo convellere; quam potestatem minuere, quo minus de moribus nostris quinto quoque anno iudicaretur, nemo tam effuse petulans conatus est. Haec sunt, o carnifex! in prooemio sepulta consulatus tui.'' For 100 years we preserved the law of Aelius and Fufius, for 400 the censor's right to criticize and censure. Some bold characters tried to oppose these laws, but nobody could ever overturn them. None had shown such gawking impudence as, by diminishing these institutions, to avoid being judged every five years according to our traditions; that is, until your nascent consulship proved their death. ===== 12.6 lan ===== ''nihil esse quod praesidium consulum implorarem; sibi quemque consulere oportere.'' The consular protection I sought was nothing; each should be his own. ===== 13.1 int ===== ''Meministine, caenum, cum ad te quinta fere hora cum C. Pisone venissem, nescio quo e gurgustio te prodire involuto capite soleatum, et, cum isto ore foetido taeterrimam nobis popinam inhalasses, excusatione te uti valetudinis, quod diceres vinulentis te quibusdam medicaminibus solere curari?'' Do you, made of mud, remember, when around the fifth hour I had come to you with Gaius Piso, and you had emerged from some mean dwelling with your head covered and wearing sandals, and from your stinking mouth you had emitted the hovel's offensive odor, you apologized to us for your ill-health, which you were accustomed to cure using certain medicinal wines? ===== 25.12 lan ===== ''Me inaurata statua donarant, me patronum unum asciverant, a me se habere vitam, fortunas, liberos arbitrabantur, me et praesentem contra latrocinium tuum suis decretis legatisque defenderant et absentem principe Cn. Pompeio referente et de corpore rei publicae tuorum scelerum tela revellente revocarant.'' They had rewarded me with a gilded statue and recognized me as sole patron, thinking that because of me they had retained their lives, their fortunes, and their children; they had defended me against your brigandage in my presence by decrees and delegations and in my absence by the singular Gnaeus Pompeius, who brought the motion to recall me, thus removing from the commonwealth the missiles of your misdeeds. ===== 26.5 int/bea ===== ''At tu illo ipso tempore apud socrum tuam prope a meis aedibus, cuius domum ad meam domum exhauriendam patefeceras, sedebas non exstinctor sed auctor incendi et ardentis faces furiis Clodianis paene ipse consul ministrabas.'' At that very time you with your mother were sitting near my home, and you had thrown open her home for mine to be emptied; you, consul, not extinguishing but stoking the fire, were all but handing flaming torches to the Clodian gang. ===== 26.13 lan ===== ''Numerandus est ille annus denique in re publica, cum obmutuisset senatus, iudicia conticuissent, maererent boni, vis latrocini vestri tota urbe volitaret neque civis unus ex civitate sed ipsa civitas tuo et Gabini sceleri furorique cessisset?'' Is that year to be counted in history at all, when the senate was dumb, the courts silent, good men mourning, the violence of your piracy flying throughout the city, and not just one citizen, but society itself had yielded under your and Gabinius's raving furor? ===== 27.13 (28.-4) lan ===== ''Uter eorum perisset, tamquam lanista in eius modi pari lucrum fieri putabat, immortalem vero quaestum, si uterque cecidisset.'' Like a trainer, the people thought that, whichever of men such as these should have died, it would be a happy outcome, and indeed a godsend if both should fall. ===== 28.10 bea ===== ''Itaque in illo tumultu fracti fasces, ictus ipse, cotidie tela, lapides, fugae, deprehensus denique cum ferro ad senatum is quem ad Cn. Pompeium interimendum conlocatum fuisse constabat.'' So in that rioting the fasces were broken, he was himself was wounded, and weapons, stonings, and flights were a daily occurrence; even someone with a weapon was apprehended at the senate, where he had been installed to kill Gnaeus Pompeius. ===== 29.7 int ===== ''An tum eratis consules cum, quacumque de re verbum facere coeperatis aut referre ad senatum, cunctus ordo reclamabat ostendebatque nihil esse vos acturos, nisi prius de me rettulissetis?'' Were you then consuls when, whatever you had began to address or carry in the senate, the whole order protested and showed that you could do nothing without first taking up my case? ===== 30.1 int/lan ===== ''Quae lex privatis hominibus esse lex non videbatur, inusta per servos, incisa per vim, imposita per latrocinium, sublato senatu, pulsis e foro bonis omnibus, capta re publica, contra omnis leges nullo scripta more, hanc qui se metuere dicerent, consules non dicam animi hominum, sed fasti ulli ferre possunt?'' That law [of Clodius against Cicero] which seemed not a law to private men, branded through slaves, engraved through violence, imposed by brigandry, with the senate suppressed, all good men repulsed from the forum, and the government overtaken, was written against all laws and without precedent. Could those who said they feared to assail it be consuls, not in the memory of men, but in any record at all? ===== 30.7 int ===== ''Nam si illam legem non putabatis, quae erat contra omnis leges indemnati civis atque integri capitis bonorumque tribunicia proscriptio, ac tamen obstricti pactione tenebamini, quis vos non modo consules sed liberos fuisse putet, quorum mens fuerit oppressa praemio, lingua astricta mercede?'' For if you did not think it was a real law, which was, in fact, contrary to all lows, a tribunal proscription of a citizen in good standing, of his civil rights, and of his property, but were constricted by your agreement, who would call you consuls, or even free men, with your will suppressed by a fee and your words tied up in a bribe? ===== 31.3 int/lan ===== ''Itaque, credo, si minus frequentia sua vestrum egressum ornando atque celebrando, at ominibus saltem bonis ut consules, non tristissimis ut hostes aut proditores prosequebantur.'' So if your departure had less of a crowd for cheering and celebrating, at least it was filled with goodwill, as one would expect for consuls, and not with curses, as if you were enemies or traitors. ===== 33.7 bea ===== ''Mihi me dius fidius in tanto omnium mortalium odio, iusto praesertim et debito, quaevis fuga quam ulla provincia esset optatior.'' God knowns in such universal condemnations, especially just and due, it seems to me that any expulsion at all would be more desirable than a province. ===== 34.1 int ===== ''Me Kalendis Ianuariis, qui dies post obitum occasumque nostrum rei publicae primus inluxit, frequentissimus senatus, concursu Italiae, referente clarissimo ac fortissimo viro, P. Lentulo, consentiente atque una voce revocavit;'' On the 15th of January, which day after your assembling and demise first shed light on the republic, by an extremely crowded senate, by the gathering of Italy, and by P. Lentulus, a most distinguished and courageous man, bringing the motion, and with every voice in agreement, recalled me. ===== 39.9 lan ===== ''Atque haud scio an malim te videri nullo pudore fuisse in litteris mittendis, at amicos tuos plus habuisse et pudoris et consili, quam aut te videri pudentiorem fuisse quam soles, aut tuum factum non esse condemnatum iudicio amicorum.'' I suppose I should prefer you to seem shameless in not sending letters, and your friends to have had more shame and advisement, than for you to seem more ashamed than is your custom, or for your conduct not to be condemned in the judgment of your friends. ===== 43.10 bea ===== ''Supplicium autem est poena peccati.'' Meanwhile punishment pays the debt of sin. ===== 45.8 int/bea ===== ''His ego rebus pascor, his delector, his perfruor, quod de vobis hic ordo opinatur non secus ac de acerrimis hostibus, quod vos equites Romani, quod ceteri ordines, quod cuncta civitas odit, quod nemo bonus, nemo denique civis est, qui modo se civem esse meminerit, qui vos non oculis fugiat, auribus respuat, animo aspernetur, recordatione denique ipsa consulatus vestri perhorrescat.'' This I indulge, this I love, this I enjoy: (1) our order thinks about you not differently from a bitterest enemy, (2) the Roman knights, other orders, and indeed the entire society detests you, (3) no good man and citizen, who only remembers he is a citizen, is not haunted by the very recollection of your consulship, avoids your eyes, covers his ears, and scorns you in his heart. ===== 52.1 bea ===== ''Unus ille dies mihi quidem immortalitatis instar fuit quo in patriam redii, cum senatum egressum vidi populumque Romanum universum, cum mihi ipsa Roma prope convolsa sedibus suis ad complectendum conservatorem suum progredi visa est; quae me ita accepit ut non modo omnium generum, aetatum, ordinum omnes viri ac mulieres omnis fortunae ac loci, sed etiam moenia ipsa viderentur et tecta urbis ac templa laetari; me consequentibus diebus in ea ipsa domo qua tu me expuleras, quam expilaras, quam incenderas, pontifices, consules, patres conscripti conlocaverunt mihique, quod ante me nemini, pecunia publica aedificandam domum censuerunt.'' That one day indeed was to me the image of immortality, when I returned to my country, and saw gathered outside the city the senate and the entire Roman people, when for me Rome herself was nearly uprooted and seemed to go forth to embrace her conservator; which thus received me as to cause to rejoice not only men and women of all classes, races, ages, ranks, and places, but nearly the very walls and houses and temples of the city; in following days, in the very home from which you had expelled me, which you had pillaged and burned, pontifices, consuls, conscript fathers placed me and decreed my home to be erected with public money, which before me had been given to none. ===== 54.1 lan ===== ''Mecum enim L. Flaccus, vir tua legatione indignissimus atque eis consiliis quibus mecum in consulatu meo coniunctus fuit ad conservandam rem publicam dignior, mecum fuit tum cum te quidam non longe a porta cum lictoribus errantem visum esse narraret; scio item virum fortem in primis, belli ac rei militaris peritum, familiarem meum, Q. Marcium, quorum tu legatorum opera in proelio imperator appellatus eras cum longe afuisses, adventu isto tuo domi fuisse otiosum.'' For Lucius Flaccus, a man of whom your legation was unworthy, and who was worthier of the measures taken for the preservation of the constitution which allied us in my consulship, was with me when a certain person said you were seen loitering not far from the gate with your lictors; I also know that a man braver than all, skilled in war and military affairs, my friend, Quintus Marcius, on account of whose work with Flaccus in battle you, though far away, were called Imperator, was at leisure at home when you arrived. ===== 56.-2 bea ===== ''Tu inventus es qui consulari imperio praeditus ex Macedonia non triumphares.'' You were found to be the only one given consular command who did not receive a triumph coming out of Macedonia. ===== 56.3 int ===== ''Cum exstinguebas senatum, vendebas auctoritatem huius ordinis, addicebas tribuno pl. consulatum tuum, rem publicam evertebas, prodebas caput et salutem meam una mercede provinciae, si triumphum non cupiebas, cuius tandem te rei cupiditate arsisse defendes?'' When you were stifling the senate, selling the authority of this order, assigning your consulship to a tribune of the people, undermining the constitution, giving up my rights and safety for the price of a province, if you did not yearn for a triumph, how do you explain such burning desire? ===== 57.1 lan ===== ''Quod si te senatus populusque Romanus aut non appetentem aut etiam recusantem bellum suscipere, exercitum ducere coegisset, tamen erat angusti animi atque demissi iusti triumphi honorem dignitatemque contemnere; nam ut levitatis est inanem aucupari rumorem et omnis umbras etiam falsae gloriae consectari, sic est animi lucem splendoremque fugientis iustam gloriam, qui est fructus verae virtutis honestissimus, repudiare;'' But if the senate and Roman people compelled you to undertake war, though you may have been not seeking it or even avoiding it, it was of narrow and low contemplation to decry the honor and dignity of a just triumph; for, as it is of levity to hunt after vulgar rumor and chase after all the shadows of false glory, it is the mark of a soul fleeing from light and splendor to repudiate true glory, which is the most honest fruit of true virtue. ===== 57.9 lan ===== ''cum vero non modo non postulante atque cogente sed invito atque oppresso senatu, non modo nullo populi Romani studio sed nullo ferente suffragium libero, provincia tibi ista manupretium fuerit eversae per te et perditae civitatis, cumque omnium tuorum scelerum haec pactio exstiterit ut, si tu totam rem publicam nefariis latronibus tradidisses, Macedonia tibi ob eam rem quibus tu velles finibus traderetur: cum exhauriebas aerarium, cum orbabas Italiam iuventute, cum mare vastissimum hieme transibas, si triumphum contemnebas, quae te, praedo amentissime, nisi praedae ac rapinarum cupiditas tam caeca rapiebat?'' But with the senate not only not demanding and compelling, but unwilling and oppressed, not only with no intention of the Roman people, but with no free man's vote at all, your price to overturn the state by your own means and those of a wasted state was that (and this holds for all your misdeeds), should you have handed over the entire government to evil workers, Macedonia would be handed over to you along whatever boundaries you wish: so while you were exhausting the treasury, corrupting Italy's youth, crossing the most vast sea in winter, if you despised a triumph, what blind infatuation except for booty and pillage possessed you? ===== 58.1 lan/bea ===== ''Non est integrum Cn. Pompeio consilio iam uti tuo; erravit enim; non gustarat istam tuam philosophiam; ter iam homo stultus triumphavit.'' I suppose not for the first time Pompeius has used your council; for he has erred in not consuming that philosophy of yours [sarcasm]; thrice already the fool has triumphed. ===== 59.1 int ===== ''Sed quoniam praeterita mutare non possumus, quid cessat hic homullus, ex argilla et luto fictus Epicurus, dare haec praeclara praecepta sapientiae clarissimo et summo imperatori genero suo?'' But now that we cannot change the past, why does this little man hesitate, Epicurean of mud and clay, to give these great precepts of wisdom to the most distinguished and highest general of all, his own son-in-law [Caesar]? ===== 59.4 int ===== ''Fertur ille vir, mihi crede, gloria; flagrat, ardet cupiditate iusti et magni triumphi; non didicit eadem ista quae tu.'' That man, trust me, is carried by glory; he burns, is ignited by lust of a great and due triumph, unlike yourself. ===== 63.9 bea ===== ''Iam vides, quoniam quidem ita egomet fui inimicus, ut me tecum compararem, et digressum meum et absentiam et reditum ita longe tuo praestitisse, ut mihi illa omnia immortalem gloriam dederint, tibi sempiternam turpitudinem inflixerint.'' Now you see, considering I am my own enemy by comparing myself to you, that my departure, my absence, and my return were so far above yours that they brought me immortal glory, while yours wrought eternal disgrace. ===== 64.6 lan ===== ''Age, senatus odit te, quod eum tu facere iure concedis, adflictorem ac perditorem non modo dignitatis et auctoritatis sed omnino ordinis ac nominis sui;'' See how the senate abhors you, which you admit is deserved, assailer and annihilator not only of its honor and authority, but of its very existence and name. ===== 68.2 lan ===== ''Non me hercules contumeliae causa describam quemquam, praesertim ingeniosum hominem atque eruditum, cui generi esse ego iratus, ne si cupiam quidem, possum.'' To be sure, I do not talk about anyone in order to insult him, especially a clever and educated man, with which kind I could not be angry even if I wished. ===== 68.14 int/bea ===== ''Audistis profecto dici philosophos Epicureos omnis res quae sint homini expetendae voluptate metiri.'' No doubt you have heard it said that Epicurean philosophers measure all things which men pursue by their capacity to please. ===== 70.4 int ===== ''Est autem hic de quo loquor non philosophia solum sed etiam ceteris studiis quae fere Epicureos neglegere dicunt perpolitus; poema porro facit ita festivum, ita concinnum, ita elegans, ut nihil fieri possit argutius.'' The one I am talking about, not only polished by philosophy, but also by other studies the Epicureans are said to neglect, wrote such a clever, such a fine, such an elegant poem, that nothing could be more expressive. ===== 70.11 bea ===== ''Devenit autem seu potius incidit in istum eodem deceptus supercilio Graecus atque advena quo tot sapientes et tanta civitas.'' The Greek stranger came upon him, or rather fell in with him, swayed by the same brow as so many wise men and so great a state. ===== 74.6 int/lan ===== ''Nam, cum tu timidus ac tremens tuis ipse furacissimis manibus detractam e cruentis fascibus lauream ad portam Esquilinam abiecisti, iudicasti non modo amplissimae sed etiam minimae laudi lauream concessisse.'' When you fearfully with your own trembling thievish hands tore the bays from your bloody fasces and threw them away at the Esquiline Gate, you demonstrated the laurel had yielded not only to the greatest but even to the meanest reputation. ===== 75.9 bea ===== ''in hominis caput ille tam crudelis propter versum fuisset?'' Would he really have been so cruel against the rights of a man because of a line of poetry? ===== 76.10 int/lan/bea ===== ''vestrae cupiditates provinciarum effecerunt ut ego excluderer omnesque qui me, qui illius gloriam, qui rem publicam salvam esse cupiebant, sermone atque aditu prohiberentur;'' Your desire for provinces brought about my exclusion, while all who supported myself, his glory, and the constitution were held back from discussion or engagement with Pompeius. ===== 75.16 (76.-3) bea ===== ''Quorum quidem—quis enim non intellegit quos dicas?—quamquam non est causa una omnium, tamen est omnium mihi probata.'' The cases of whom (for who does not know to whom you refer?), though not all the same, do all meet my approval. ===== 78.10 (79.-2) bea ===== ''Hic tu hostis ac proditor aliis me inimiciorem quam tibi debere esse dicis?'' Dare you, a public enemy and traitor, say I ought to be a greater enemy to others than to you? ===== 81.1 bea ===== ''Deinde hoc ita fit ut viri fortes, etiam si ferro inter se comminus decertarint, tamen illud contentionis odium simul cum ipsa pugna armisque deponant. Neque me ille odisse potuit umquam, ne tum quidem cum dissidebamus. Habet hoc virtus, quam tu ne de facie quidem nosti, ut viros fortis species eius et pulchritudo etiam in hoste posita delectet.'' So it happens that brave men, even after physical combat, yet put aside that odium of contention along with the very battle and weapons. In particular, Caesar was never able to hate me, even when we disagreed. Virtue, to which you are utterly blind, is such an aspect that brave men adore her splendor and beauty even in an enemy. ===== 81.9 int/lan ===== ''Equidem dicam ex animo, patres conscripti, quod sentio, et quod vobis audientibus saepe iam dixi: si mihi numquam amicus C. Caesar fuisset, si semper iratus, si semper aspernaretur amicitiam meam seque mihi implacabilem inexpiabilemque praeberet, tamen ei, cum tantas res gessisset gereretque cotidie, non amicus esse non possem; cuius ego imperium, non Alpium vallum contra ascensum transgressionemque Gallorum, non Rheni fossam gurgitibus illis redundantem Germanorum immanissimis gentibus obicio et oppono; perfecit ille ut, si montes resedissent, amnes exaruissent, non naturae praesidio sed victoria sua rebusque gestis Italiam munitam haberemus.'' Indeed I shall say sincerely what I think, Conscript Fathers, which in your hearing I have often said already. If Gaius Caesar had never been my friend, if always he was angry, if always he rejected my friendship, if he had shown himself implacable and inexorable, still to him, when he had waged such great wars and was waging them every day, I could not fail to be a friend; by whose command it is not entrenchment of the Alps against ascent and transgression of the Gauls, nor flooding of the Rhine redounding in a foaming torrent, that I check and oppose the barbarous tribes of Germany. Indeed, if the mountains were flattened and the rivers dried up, still Italy should have a garrison, not of nature, but of his victories and exploits. ===== 82.22 (83.-3) bea ===== ''qui te ita gesseris ut timeres ne indignus beneficio videreris, nisi eius a quo missus eras simillimus exstitisses.'' You carried yourself as if afraid to seem unworthy of favor if you did not turn out a perfect counterpart to the one who sent you [Clodius]. ===== 86.19 (87.-3) int ===== ''Unus tu dominus, unus aestimator, unus venditor tota in provincia per triennium frumenti omnis fuisti.'' You alone were owner, appraiser, and vendor of all the province's corn for three years. ===== 90.1 bea ===== ''Mitto aurum coronarium quod te diutissime torsit, cum modo velles, modo nolles. Lex enim generi tui et decerni et te accipere vetabat nisi decreto triumpho. In quo tu acceptam iam et devoratam pecuniam, ut in Achaeorum centum talentis, evomere non poteras, vocabula tantum pecuniarum et genera mutabas.'' I pass over the gold for the crown which tormented you so interminably, whether to accept or refuse. For your own son-in-law's law forbade it to be decreed or accepted in the absence of a triumph. Once you had already accepted and consumed the money, as with the hundred talents of the Achaeans, you could not regurgitate it, so you merely edited the language and kinds of the sums awarded. ===== 90.7 int/lan ===== ''Mitto diplomata tota in provincia passim data, mitto numerum navium summamque praedae, mitto rationem exacti imperatique frumenti, mitto ereptam libertatem populis ac singulis qui erant adfecti praemiis nominatim, quorum nihil est quod non sit lege Iulia ne fieri liceat sanctum diligenter.'' I pass over the licenses casually given throughout the province; I pass over the number of your ships and the sum of your booty; I pass over your method of exacting and demanding corn; I pass over the liberties stolen from peoples and individuals who nominally received them as rewards. All of these are expressly forbidden by the law of Julius. ===== 91.12 (92.-4) bea ===== ''neque ullam poenam, quae tanto facinori deberetur, non maluisti subire quam quemquam numerum tuorum militum reliquiasque recognoscere.'' No other punishment for such great crimes did you prefer to avoid more than to review the number of your soldiers and the remnants of your army. ===== 94.8 bea ===== ''Ecquid vides, ecquid sentis, lege iudiciaria lata, quos posthac iudices simus habituri?'' Do you anticipate, do you perceive, what jurors we are likely to have, now that the judicial law has passed? ===== 95.1 int ===== ''Equidem, ut paulo ante dixi, non eadem supplicia esse in hominibus existimo quae fortasse plerique, damnationes, expulsiones, neces; denique nullam mihi poenam videtur habere id quod accidere innocenti, quod forti, quod sapienti, quod bono viro et civi potest.'' Indeed, as I said just before, I do not consider the usual penalties of censure, expulsion, or death to be punishments at all; more, I see no punishment in what could happen to the innocent, to the brave, to the wise, or to a good man and citizen. ===== 95.6 lan ===== ''Damnatio ista quae in te flagitatur obtigit P. Rutilio, quod specimen habuit haec civitas innocentiae: maior mihi iudicum et rei publicae poena illa visa est quam Rutili.'' The punishment demanded from your trial also touched Publius Rutilius, whom the state held up as a paragon of innocence. This seems to me a greater condemnation of his jury and the government than of Rutilius himself. ===== 97.14 (98.-7) lan ===== ''Sin autem aliquid speraveras, si cogitaras id quod imperatoris nomen, quod laureati fasces, quod illa tropaea plena dedecoris et risus te commentatum esse declarant, quis te miserior, quis te damnatior, qui neque scribere ad senatum a te bene rem publicam esse gestam neque praesens dicere ausus es?'' But if you had hoped for something, if you had aspired for that which the name of Imperator, your laureled fasces, and those trophies full disgrace and mockery prove you dreamed of, then who is more abominable, who more utterly condemned than yourself, who dared not write the senate to say you had managed the republic well, nor to say so in person? ===== 99.10 lan ===== ''Qua re si tibi evenerit quod metuis ne accidat, equidem non moleste feram; sin id tardius forte fiet, fruar tamen tua indignitate, nec te minus libenter metuentem videbo ne reus fias quam reum, nec minus laetabor cum te semper sordidum, quam si paulisper sordidatum viderem.'' If what you fear actually happens to you, I can live with that; but if by chance justice is delayed, still I should celebrate your indignity; no less happily will I see you in fear of impeachment than if it actually comes to be; no less will I rejoice to see you always pitiful than to see you pretending for a while. nb7fsvbxqspms24ybpfsbwr0zpshm4i 2415664 2415652 2022-08-17T00:44:13Z Nafindix 2919441 /* 10.7 lan */ wikitext text/x-wiki Fearing the wrath of Caesar, Cicero takes it easy on his father-in-law Piso. The Latin quotes are selected for interest (int), language (lan), and beauty (bea), and are translated into English. The line numbers are from the Loeb edition, and start counting from line 1 of the section. All translations are by Gus Wiseman (Nafindix), with the exception of any contributions from other users. The public domain sources of the Latin quotes are: * Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, vol. XIV, 1931; Latin text with facing English translation by N. H. Watts. * M. TVLLI CICERONIS IN L. CALPVRNIVM PISONEM ORATIO, <nowiki>https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/piso.shtml</nowiki> * M. Tullius Cicero, Against Piso. Albert Clark, Ed., <nowiki>http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0013:text=Pis</nowiki>. ===== 1.2 int ===== ''Nemo queritur Syrum nescio quem de grege noviciorum factum esse consulem. Non enim nos color iste servilis, non pilosae genae, non dentes putridi deceperunt; oculi, supercilia, frons, voltus denique totus, qui sermo quidam tacitus mentis est, hic in fraudem homines impulit, hic eos quibus erat ignotus decepit, fefellit, induxit.'' Nobody complains some Syran from a flock of newbies was made consul. For it is not your slavish color, your hairy cheeks, your rotten teeth that deceived us; it was your eyes, your eyebrows, your forehead, your entire face, a silent betrayer of your mind, that impelled men into fraud; it was these which deceived, defrauded, and dissuaded those who were unprepared for you. ===== 2.9 bea ===== ''Noti erant illi mortui, te vivum nondum noverat quisquam.'' Though they were well-known, even in death, still nobody knew you, even in life. ===== 10.5 bea ===== ''An potest ulla esse excusatio non dicam male sentienti, sed sedenti, cunctanti, dormienti in maximo rei publicae motu consuli?'' Or is there any excuse for a consul not just thinking of mischief but sitting, delaying, sleeping through the greatest uprising of the state? ===== 10.7 lan ===== ''Centum prope annos legem Aeliam et Fufiam tenueramus, quadringentos iudicium notionemque censoriam, quas leges ausus est non nemo improbus, potuit quidem nemo convellere; quam potestatem minuere, quo minus de moribus nostris quinto quoque anno iudicaretur, nemo tam effuse petulans conatus est. Haec sunt, o carnifex! in prooemio sepulta consulatus tui.'' For 100 years we preserved the law of Aelius and Fufius, for 400 the censor's right to criticize and censure. Some bold characters tried to oppose these laws, but nobody could ever overturn them. None had shown such gawking impudence as, by diminishing them, to avoid being judged every five years according to our traditions; that is, until your nascent consulship ended these institutions for good. ===== 12.6 lan ===== ''nihil esse quod praesidium consulum implorarem; sibi quemque consulere oportere.'' The consular protection I sought was nothing; each should be his own. ===== 13.1 int ===== ''Meministine, caenum, cum ad te quinta fere hora cum C. Pisone venissem, nescio quo e gurgustio te prodire involuto capite soleatum, et, cum isto ore foetido taeterrimam nobis popinam inhalasses, excusatione te uti valetudinis, quod diceres vinulentis te quibusdam medicaminibus solere curari?'' Do you, made of mud, remember, when around the fifth hour I had come to you with Gaius Piso, and you had emerged from some mean dwelling with your head covered and wearing sandals, and from your stinking mouth you had emitted the hovel's offensive odor, you apologized to us for your ill-health, which you were accustomed to cure using certain medicinal wines? ===== 25.12 lan ===== ''Me inaurata statua donarant, me patronum unum asciverant, a me se habere vitam, fortunas, liberos arbitrabantur, me et praesentem contra latrocinium tuum suis decretis legatisque defenderant et absentem principe Cn. Pompeio referente et de corpore rei publicae tuorum scelerum tela revellente revocarant.'' They had rewarded me with a gilded statue and recognized me as sole patron, thinking that because of me they had retained their lives, their fortunes, and their children; they had defended me against your brigandage in my presence by decrees and delegations and in my absence by the singular Gnaeus Pompeius, who brought the motion to recall me, thus removing from the commonwealth the missiles of your misdeeds. ===== 26.5 int/bea ===== ''At tu illo ipso tempore apud socrum tuam prope a meis aedibus, cuius domum ad meam domum exhauriendam patefeceras, sedebas non exstinctor sed auctor incendi et ardentis faces furiis Clodianis paene ipse consul ministrabas.'' At that very time you with your mother were sitting near my home, and you had thrown open her home for mine to be emptied; you, consul, not extinguishing but stoking the fire, were all but handing flaming torches to the Clodian gang. ===== 26.13 lan ===== ''Numerandus est ille annus denique in re publica, cum obmutuisset senatus, iudicia conticuissent, maererent boni, vis latrocini vestri tota urbe volitaret neque civis unus ex civitate sed ipsa civitas tuo et Gabini sceleri furorique cessisset?'' Is that year to be counted in history at all, when the senate was dumb, the courts silent, good men mourning, the violence of your piracy flying throughout the city, and not just one citizen, but society itself had yielded under your and Gabinius's raving furor? ===== 27.13 (28.-4) lan ===== ''Uter eorum perisset, tamquam lanista in eius modi pari lucrum fieri putabat, immortalem vero quaestum, si uterque cecidisset.'' Like a trainer, the people thought that, whichever of men such as these should have died, it would be a happy outcome, and indeed a godsend if both should fall. ===== 28.10 bea ===== ''Itaque in illo tumultu fracti fasces, ictus ipse, cotidie tela, lapides, fugae, deprehensus denique cum ferro ad senatum is quem ad Cn. Pompeium interimendum conlocatum fuisse constabat.'' So in that rioting the fasces were broken, he was himself was wounded, and weapons, stonings, and flights were a daily occurrence; even someone with a weapon was apprehended at the senate, where he had been installed to kill Gnaeus Pompeius. ===== 29.7 int ===== ''An tum eratis consules cum, quacumque de re verbum facere coeperatis aut referre ad senatum, cunctus ordo reclamabat ostendebatque nihil esse vos acturos, nisi prius de me rettulissetis?'' Were you then consuls when, whatever you had began to address or carry in the senate, the whole order protested and showed that you could do nothing without first taking up my case? ===== 30.1 int/lan ===== ''Quae lex privatis hominibus esse lex non videbatur, inusta per servos, incisa per vim, imposita per latrocinium, sublato senatu, pulsis e foro bonis omnibus, capta re publica, contra omnis leges nullo scripta more, hanc qui se metuere dicerent, consules non dicam animi hominum, sed fasti ulli ferre possunt?'' That law [of Clodius against Cicero] which seemed not a law to private men, branded through slaves, engraved through violence, imposed by brigandry, with the senate suppressed, all good men repulsed from the forum, and the government overtaken, was written against all laws and without precedent. Could those who said they feared to assail it be consuls, not in the memory of men, but in any record at all? ===== 30.7 int ===== ''Nam si illam legem non putabatis, quae erat contra omnis leges indemnati civis atque integri capitis bonorumque tribunicia proscriptio, ac tamen obstricti pactione tenebamini, quis vos non modo consules sed liberos fuisse putet, quorum mens fuerit oppressa praemio, lingua astricta mercede?'' For if you did not think it was a real law, which was, in fact, contrary to all lows, a tribunal proscription of a citizen in good standing, of his civil rights, and of his property, but were constricted by your agreement, who would call you consuls, or even free men, with your will suppressed by a fee and your words tied up in a bribe? ===== 31.3 int/lan ===== ''Itaque, credo, si minus frequentia sua vestrum egressum ornando atque celebrando, at ominibus saltem bonis ut consules, non tristissimis ut hostes aut proditores prosequebantur.'' So if your departure had less of a crowd for cheering and celebrating, at least it was filled with goodwill, as one would expect for consuls, and not with curses, as if you were enemies or traitors. ===== 33.7 bea ===== ''Mihi me dius fidius in tanto omnium mortalium odio, iusto praesertim et debito, quaevis fuga quam ulla provincia esset optatior.'' God knowns in such universal condemnations, especially just and due, it seems to me that any expulsion at all would be more desirable than a province. ===== 34.1 int ===== ''Me Kalendis Ianuariis, qui dies post obitum occasumque nostrum rei publicae primus inluxit, frequentissimus senatus, concursu Italiae, referente clarissimo ac fortissimo viro, P. Lentulo, consentiente atque una voce revocavit;'' On the 15th of January, which day after your assembling and demise first shed light on the republic, by an extremely crowded senate, by the gathering of Italy, and by P. Lentulus, a most distinguished and courageous man, bringing the motion, and with every voice in agreement, recalled me. ===== 39.9 lan ===== ''Atque haud scio an malim te videri nullo pudore fuisse in litteris mittendis, at amicos tuos plus habuisse et pudoris et consili, quam aut te videri pudentiorem fuisse quam soles, aut tuum factum non esse condemnatum iudicio amicorum.'' I suppose I should prefer you to seem shameless in not sending letters, and your friends to have had more shame and advisement, than for you to seem more ashamed than is your custom, or for your conduct not to be condemned in the judgment of your friends. ===== 43.10 bea ===== ''Supplicium autem est poena peccati.'' Meanwhile punishment pays the debt of sin. ===== 45.8 int/bea ===== ''His ego rebus pascor, his delector, his perfruor, quod de vobis hic ordo opinatur non secus ac de acerrimis hostibus, quod vos equites Romani, quod ceteri ordines, quod cuncta civitas odit, quod nemo bonus, nemo denique civis est, qui modo se civem esse meminerit, qui vos non oculis fugiat, auribus respuat, animo aspernetur, recordatione denique ipsa consulatus vestri perhorrescat.'' This I indulge, this I love, this I enjoy: (1) our order thinks about you not differently from a bitterest enemy, (2) the Roman knights, other orders, and indeed the entire society detests you, (3) no good man and citizen, who only remembers he is a citizen, is not haunted by the very recollection of your consulship, avoids your eyes, covers his ears, and scorns you in his heart. ===== 52.1 bea ===== ''Unus ille dies mihi quidem immortalitatis instar fuit quo in patriam redii, cum senatum egressum vidi populumque Romanum universum, cum mihi ipsa Roma prope convolsa sedibus suis ad complectendum conservatorem suum progredi visa est; quae me ita accepit ut non modo omnium generum, aetatum, ordinum omnes viri ac mulieres omnis fortunae ac loci, sed etiam moenia ipsa viderentur et tecta urbis ac templa laetari; me consequentibus diebus in ea ipsa domo qua tu me expuleras, quam expilaras, quam incenderas, pontifices, consules, patres conscripti conlocaverunt mihique, quod ante me nemini, pecunia publica aedificandam domum censuerunt.'' That one day indeed was to me the image of immortality, when I returned to my country, and saw gathered outside the city the senate and the entire Roman people, when for me Rome herself was nearly uprooted and seemed to go forth to embrace her conservator; which thus received me as to cause to rejoice not only men and women of all classes, races, ages, ranks, and places, but nearly the very walls and houses and temples of the city; in following days, in the very home from which you had expelled me, which you had pillaged and burned, pontifices, consuls, conscript fathers placed me and decreed my home to be erected with public money, which before me had been given to none. ===== 54.1 lan ===== ''Mecum enim L. Flaccus, vir tua legatione indignissimus atque eis consiliis quibus mecum in consulatu meo coniunctus fuit ad conservandam rem publicam dignior, mecum fuit tum cum te quidam non longe a porta cum lictoribus errantem visum esse narraret; scio item virum fortem in primis, belli ac rei militaris peritum, familiarem meum, Q. Marcium, quorum tu legatorum opera in proelio imperator appellatus eras cum longe afuisses, adventu isto tuo domi fuisse otiosum.'' For Lucius Flaccus, a man of whom your legation was unworthy, and who was worthier of the measures taken for the preservation of the constitution which allied us in my consulship, was with me when a certain person said you were seen loitering not far from the gate with your lictors; I also know that a man braver than all, skilled in war and military affairs, my friend, Quintus Marcius, on account of whose work with Flaccus in battle you, though far away, were called Imperator, was at leisure at home when you arrived. ===== 56.-2 bea ===== ''Tu inventus es qui consulari imperio praeditus ex Macedonia non triumphares.'' You were found to be the only one given consular command who did not receive a triumph coming out of Macedonia. ===== 56.3 int ===== ''Cum exstinguebas senatum, vendebas auctoritatem huius ordinis, addicebas tribuno pl. consulatum tuum, rem publicam evertebas, prodebas caput et salutem meam una mercede provinciae, si triumphum non cupiebas, cuius tandem te rei cupiditate arsisse defendes?'' When you were stifling the senate, selling the authority of this order, assigning your consulship to a tribune of the people, undermining the constitution, giving up my rights and safety for the price of a province, if you did not yearn for a triumph, how do you explain such burning desire? ===== 57.1 lan ===== ''Quod si te senatus populusque Romanus aut non appetentem aut etiam recusantem bellum suscipere, exercitum ducere coegisset, tamen erat angusti animi atque demissi iusti triumphi honorem dignitatemque contemnere; nam ut levitatis est inanem aucupari rumorem et omnis umbras etiam falsae gloriae consectari, sic est animi lucem splendoremque fugientis iustam gloriam, qui est fructus verae virtutis honestissimus, repudiare;'' But if the senate and Roman people compelled you to undertake war, though you may have been not seeking it or even avoiding it, it was of narrow and low contemplation to decry the honor and dignity of a just triumph; for, as it is of levity to hunt after vulgar rumor and chase after all the shadows of false glory, it is the mark of a soul fleeing from light and splendor to repudiate true glory, which is the most honest fruit of true virtue. ===== 57.9 lan ===== ''cum vero non modo non postulante atque cogente sed invito atque oppresso senatu, non modo nullo populi Romani studio sed nullo ferente suffragium libero, provincia tibi ista manupretium fuerit eversae per te et perditae civitatis, cumque omnium tuorum scelerum haec pactio exstiterit ut, si tu totam rem publicam nefariis latronibus tradidisses, Macedonia tibi ob eam rem quibus tu velles finibus traderetur: cum exhauriebas aerarium, cum orbabas Italiam iuventute, cum mare vastissimum hieme transibas, si triumphum contemnebas, quae te, praedo amentissime, nisi praedae ac rapinarum cupiditas tam caeca rapiebat?'' But with the senate not only not demanding and compelling, but unwilling and oppressed, not only with no intention of the Roman people, but with no free man's vote at all, your price to overturn the state by your own means and those of a wasted state was that (and this holds for all your misdeeds), should you have handed over the entire government to evil workers, Macedonia would be handed over to you along whatever boundaries you wish: so while you were exhausting the treasury, corrupting Italy's youth, crossing the most vast sea in winter, if you despised a triumph, what blind infatuation except for booty and pillage possessed you? ===== 58.1 lan/bea ===== ''Non est integrum Cn. Pompeio consilio iam uti tuo; erravit enim; non gustarat istam tuam philosophiam; ter iam homo stultus triumphavit.'' I suppose not for the first time Pompeius has used your council; for he has erred in not consuming that philosophy of yours [sarcasm]; thrice already the fool has triumphed. ===== 59.1 int ===== ''Sed quoniam praeterita mutare non possumus, quid cessat hic homullus, ex argilla et luto fictus Epicurus, dare haec praeclara praecepta sapientiae clarissimo et summo imperatori genero suo?'' But now that we cannot change the past, why does this little man hesitate, Epicurean of mud and clay, to give these great precepts of wisdom to the most distinguished and highest general of all, his own son-in-law [Caesar]? ===== 59.4 int ===== ''Fertur ille vir, mihi crede, gloria; flagrat, ardet cupiditate iusti et magni triumphi; non didicit eadem ista quae tu.'' That man, trust me, is carried by glory; he burns, is ignited by lust of a great and due triumph, unlike yourself. ===== 63.9 bea ===== ''Iam vides, quoniam quidem ita egomet fui inimicus, ut me tecum compararem, et digressum meum et absentiam et reditum ita longe tuo praestitisse, ut mihi illa omnia immortalem gloriam dederint, tibi sempiternam turpitudinem inflixerint.'' Now you see, considering I am my own enemy by comparing myself to you, that my departure, my absence, and my return were so far above yours that they brought me immortal glory, while yours wrought eternal disgrace. ===== 64.6 lan ===== ''Age, senatus odit te, quod eum tu facere iure concedis, adflictorem ac perditorem non modo dignitatis et auctoritatis sed omnino ordinis ac nominis sui;'' See how the senate abhors you, which you admit is deserved, assailer and annihilator not only of its honor and authority, but of its very existence and name. ===== 68.2 lan ===== ''Non me hercules contumeliae causa describam quemquam, praesertim ingeniosum hominem atque eruditum, cui generi esse ego iratus, ne si cupiam quidem, possum.'' To be sure, I do not talk about anyone in order to insult him, especially a clever and educated man, with which kind I could not be angry even if I wished. ===== 68.14 int/bea ===== ''Audistis profecto dici philosophos Epicureos omnis res quae sint homini expetendae voluptate metiri.'' No doubt you have heard it said that Epicurean philosophers measure all things which men pursue by their capacity to please. ===== 70.4 int ===== ''Est autem hic de quo loquor non philosophia solum sed etiam ceteris studiis quae fere Epicureos neglegere dicunt perpolitus; poema porro facit ita festivum, ita concinnum, ita elegans, ut nihil fieri possit argutius.'' The one I am talking about, not only polished by philosophy, but also by other studies the Epicureans are said to neglect, wrote such a clever, such a fine, such an elegant poem, that nothing could be more expressive. ===== 70.11 bea ===== ''Devenit autem seu potius incidit in istum eodem deceptus supercilio Graecus atque advena quo tot sapientes et tanta civitas.'' The Greek stranger came upon him, or rather fell in with him, swayed by the same brow as so many wise men and so great a state. ===== 74.6 int/lan ===== ''Nam, cum tu timidus ac tremens tuis ipse furacissimis manibus detractam e cruentis fascibus lauream ad portam Esquilinam abiecisti, iudicasti non modo amplissimae sed etiam minimae laudi lauream concessisse.'' When you fearfully with your own trembling thievish hands tore the bays from your bloody fasces and threw them away at the Esquiline Gate, you demonstrated the laurel had yielded not only to the greatest but even to the meanest reputation. ===== 75.9 bea ===== ''in hominis caput ille tam crudelis propter versum fuisset?'' Would he really have been so cruel against the rights of a man because of a line of poetry? ===== 76.10 int/lan/bea ===== ''vestrae cupiditates provinciarum effecerunt ut ego excluderer omnesque qui me, qui illius gloriam, qui rem publicam salvam esse cupiebant, sermone atque aditu prohiberentur;'' Your desire for provinces brought about my exclusion, while all who supported myself, his glory, and the constitution were held back from discussion or engagement with Pompeius. ===== 75.16 (76.-3) bea ===== ''Quorum quidem—quis enim non intellegit quos dicas?—quamquam non est causa una omnium, tamen est omnium mihi probata.'' The cases of whom (for who does not know to whom you refer?), though not all the same, do all meet my approval. ===== 78.10 (79.-2) bea ===== ''Hic tu hostis ac proditor aliis me inimiciorem quam tibi debere esse dicis?'' Dare you, a public enemy and traitor, say I ought to be a greater enemy to others than to you? ===== 81.1 bea ===== ''Deinde hoc ita fit ut viri fortes, etiam si ferro inter se comminus decertarint, tamen illud contentionis odium simul cum ipsa pugna armisque deponant. Neque me ille odisse potuit umquam, ne tum quidem cum dissidebamus. Habet hoc virtus, quam tu ne de facie quidem nosti, ut viros fortis species eius et pulchritudo etiam in hoste posita delectet.'' So it happens that brave men, even after physical combat, yet put aside that odium of contention along with the very battle and weapons. In particular, Caesar was never able to hate me, even when we disagreed. Virtue, to which you are utterly blind, is such an aspect that brave men adore her splendor and beauty even in an enemy. ===== 81.9 int/lan ===== ''Equidem dicam ex animo, patres conscripti, quod sentio, et quod vobis audientibus saepe iam dixi: si mihi numquam amicus C. Caesar fuisset, si semper iratus, si semper aspernaretur amicitiam meam seque mihi implacabilem inexpiabilemque praeberet, tamen ei, cum tantas res gessisset gereretque cotidie, non amicus esse non possem; cuius ego imperium, non Alpium vallum contra ascensum transgressionemque Gallorum, non Rheni fossam gurgitibus illis redundantem Germanorum immanissimis gentibus obicio et oppono; perfecit ille ut, si montes resedissent, amnes exaruissent, non naturae praesidio sed victoria sua rebusque gestis Italiam munitam haberemus.'' Indeed I shall say sincerely what I think, Conscript Fathers, which in your hearing I have often said already. If Gaius Caesar had never been my friend, if always he was angry, if always he rejected my friendship, if he had shown himself implacable and inexorable, still to him, when he had waged such great wars and was waging them every day, I could not fail to be a friend; by whose command it is not entrenchment of the Alps against ascent and transgression of the Gauls, nor flooding of the Rhine redounding in a foaming torrent, that I check and oppose the barbarous tribes of Germany. Indeed, if the mountains were flattened and the rivers dried up, still Italy should have a garrison, not of nature, but of his victories and exploits. ===== 82.22 (83.-3) bea ===== ''qui te ita gesseris ut timeres ne indignus beneficio videreris, nisi eius a quo missus eras simillimus exstitisses.'' You carried yourself as if afraid to seem unworthy of favor if you did not turn out a perfect counterpart to the one who sent you [Clodius]. ===== 86.19 (87.-3) int ===== ''Unus tu dominus, unus aestimator, unus venditor tota in provincia per triennium frumenti omnis fuisti.'' You alone were owner, appraiser, and vendor of all the province's corn for three years. ===== 90.1 bea ===== ''Mitto aurum coronarium quod te diutissime torsit, cum modo velles, modo nolles. Lex enim generi tui et decerni et te accipere vetabat nisi decreto triumpho. In quo tu acceptam iam et devoratam pecuniam, ut in Achaeorum centum talentis, evomere non poteras, vocabula tantum pecuniarum et genera mutabas.'' I pass over the gold for the crown which tormented you so interminably, whether to accept or refuse. For your own son-in-law's law forbade it to be decreed or accepted in the absence of a triumph. Once you had already accepted and consumed the money, as with the hundred talents of the Achaeans, you could not regurgitate it, so you merely edited the language and kinds of the sums awarded. ===== 90.7 int/lan ===== ''Mitto diplomata tota in provincia passim data, mitto numerum navium summamque praedae, mitto rationem exacti imperatique frumenti, mitto ereptam libertatem populis ac singulis qui erant adfecti praemiis nominatim, quorum nihil est quod non sit lege Iulia ne fieri liceat sanctum diligenter.'' I pass over the licenses casually given throughout the province; I pass over the number of your ships and the sum of your booty; I pass over your method of exacting and demanding corn; I pass over the liberties stolen from peoples and individuals who nominally received them as rewards. All of these are expressly forbidden by the law of Julius. ===== 91.12 (92.-4) bea ===== ''neque ullam poenam, quae tanto facinori deberetur, non maluisti subire quam quemquam numerum tuorum militum reliquiasque recognoscere.'' No other punishment for such great crimes did you prefer to avoid more than to review the number of your soldiers and the remnants of your army. ===== 94.8 bea ===== ''Ecquid vides, ecquid sentis, lege iudiciaria lata, quos posthac iudices simus habituri?'' Do you anticipate, do you perceive, what jurors we are likely to have, now that the judicial law has passed? ===== 95.1 int ===== ''Equidem, ut paulo ante dixi, non eadem supplicia esse in hominibus existimo quae fortasse plerique, damnationes, expulsiones, neces; denique nullam mihi poenam videtur habere id quod accidere innocenti, quod forti, quod sapienti, quod bono viro et civi potest.'' Indeed, as I said just before, I do not consider the usual penalties of censure, expulsion, or death to be punishments at all; more, I see no punishment in what could happen to the innocent, to the brave, to the wise, or to a good man and citizen. ===== 95.6 lan ===== ''Damnatio ista quae in te flagitatur obtigit P. Rutilio, quod specimen habuit haec civitas innocentiae: maior mihi iudicum et rei publicae poena illa visa est quam Rutili.'' The punishment demanded from your trial also touched Publius Rutilius, whom the state held up as a paragon of innocence. This seems to me a greater condemnation of his jury and the government than of Rutilius himself. ===== 97.14 (98.-7) lan ===== ''Sin autem aliquid speraveras, si cogitaras id quod imperatoris nomen, quod laureati fasces, quod illa tropaea plena dedecoris et risus te commentatum esse declarant, quis te miserior, quis te damnatior, qui neque scribere ad senatum a te bene rem publicam esse gestam neque praesens dicere ausus es?'' But if you had hoped for something, if you had aspired for that which the name of Imperator, your laureled fasces, and those trophies full disgrace and mockery prove you dreamed of, then who is more abominable, who more utterly condemned than yourself, who dared not write the senate to say you had managed the republic well, nor to say so in person? ===== 99.10 lan ===== ''Qua re si tibi evenerit quod metuis ne accidat, equidem non moleste feram; sin id tardius forte fiet, fruar tamen tua indignitate, nec te minus libenter metuentem videbo ne reus fias quam reum, nec minus laetabor cum te semper sordidum, quam si paulisper sordidatum viderem.'' If what you fear actually happens to you, I can live with that; but if by chance justice is delayed, still I should celebrate your indignity; no less happily will I see you in fear of impeachment than if it actually comes to be; no less will I rejoice to see you always pitiful than to see you pretending for a while. 2ees9irqutr3rfbho3z6qi3rr8842gr 828 286441 2415560 2022-08-16T12:26:14Z Sophivorus 85690 Created blank page sanitized-css text/css phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 6 286442 2415580 2022-08-16T14:49:50Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=Laurent.5: Applications 6A (20220816 - 20220815) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-16 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=Laurent.5: Applications 6A (20220816 - 20220815) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-16 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} ssflyzvorrmmahmwot6kjjj270ijms1 6 286443 2415581 2022-08-16T14:50:40Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=C04.Series.1: Arrays 1A (20220816 - 20220815) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-16 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{GFDL}} }} wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=C04.Series.1: Arrays 1A (20220816 - 20220815) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-16 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{GFDL}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} ddugx5etac4kywwmm2j53qycck8bxm7 6 286444 2415582 2022-08-16T14:51:40Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=C04.Series.3: Array Pointers 1A (20220816 - 20220815) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-16 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{GFDL}} }} wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=C04.Series.3: Array Pointers 1A (20220816 - 20220815) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-16 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{GFDL}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 1vlu12uxmge6eckrys6w9x855w728c8 6 286445 2415583 2022-08-16T14:52:40Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=C04.Series.1App: Applications of Arrays 1A (20220816 - 20220815) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-16 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{GFDL}} }} wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=C04.Series.1App: Applications of Arrays 1A (20220816 - 20220815) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-16 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{GFDL}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 89wqvs0l8bcfibnh3tfcii8xl9mjw0a 6 286446 2415584 2022-08-16T14:53:23Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=VLSI.Arith.1.A: Variable Block Adders (20220816 - 20220815) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-16 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{GFDL}} }} wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=VLSI.Arith.1.A: Variable Block Adders (20220816 - 20220815) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-16 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{GFDL}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} o98le5adb8fchb0oaixlcvmiym0qzau 828 286447 2415591 2022-08-16T15:15:17Z Dave Braunschweig 426084 Create sanitized-css text/css phoiac9h4m842xq45sp7s6u21eteeq1 2 286448 2415593 2022-08-16T15:25:48Z Ifesinachi daniel ogbodo 2948345 New resource with "I am ifesinachi daniel ogbodo I was born on the 30th June 1998 at the primary health care center NDIAGU OBUNO AKPUGO NKANU WEST LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA ENUGU STATE. I am the son of HIS EMPERIAL MAJESTY SIR NNAEMEKA FRANCIS OGBODO AND LADY UKAMAKA CECILIA LOVETH OGBODO OF ENENGENE UMUAGU CLAN OF EZE UBA ugwuagba . I have only one biological sister CHIEMERIE FAVOUR ANASTASIA OGBODO, and plenty cousins,nephews,uncles,aunt greatgrand mother great grandfather,grandmother and g..." wikitext text/x-wiki I am ifesinachi daniel ogbodo I was born on the 30th June 1998 at the primary health care center NDIAGU OBUNO AKPUGO NKANU WEST LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA ENUGU STATE. I am the son of HIS EMPERIAL MAJESTY SIR NNAEMEKA FRANCIS OGBODO AND LADY UKAMAKA CECILIA LOVETH OGBODO OF ENENGENE UMUAGU CLAN OF EZE UBA ugwuagba . I have only one biological sister CHIEMERIE FAVOUR ANASTASIA OGBODO, and plenty cousins,nephews,uncles,aunt greatgrand mother great grandfather,grandmother and grandfather. I am a gifted footballer with name diggy11 and also a singer,instrumentalist know as istar papa and a doctor and engineer an artisan,drama actor,knight server,priest,pastor,prophet,father ,apprentice and master,philosopher,pyschologist,scientist,I am also a chef,well let say am GIFTED HANDS FROM ABOVE. I thank god for everything mostly for my life, I schooled at central school nassarawa tootoo nassarawa state, st. Kizito nursery,primary and secondary school nassarawa state, BISHOP LAWSON NURSERY,primary and secondary school oyigbo river state,mountain top education center Kom-kom oyigbo rivers state,best brains academy oyigbo river state,jopack academy umuebelu etche rivers state, I did my apprenticeship on medicine and pharmacy in ekeson medical mile3 bayelsa line,and apprenticeship in painting cars and gas welding for a short period of 18months in Uga aguata before switching into finishing aspects of engineering work ,at nwokike concern consolidated company for space of 42 months and during those period going to cultural performance with United brothers club, hi star music club , egede and so forth for music rehearsals. I love creation, children etc and am planning to explore the world round 3kl940vdbp6am1ejmr56lfe3jx1segg 2415594 2415593 2022-08-16T15:27:30Z Dave Braunschweig 426084 Dave Braunschweig moved page [[User talk:Ifesinachi daniel ogbodo]] to [[User:Ifesinachi daniel ogbodo]] without leaving a redirect wikitext text/x-wiki I am ifesinachi daniel ogbodo I was born on the 30th June 1998 at the primary health care center NDIAGU OBUNO AKPUGO NKANU WEST LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA ENUGU STATE. I am the son of HIS EMPERIAL MAJESTY SIR NNAEMEKA FRANCIS OGBODO AND LADY UKAMAKA CECILIA LOVETH OGBODO OF ENENGENE UMUAGU CLAN OF EZE UBA ugwuagba . I have only one biological sister CHIEMERIE FAVOUR ANASTASIA OGBODO, and plenty cousins,nephews,uncles,aunt greatgrand mother great grandfather,grandmother and grandfather. I am a gifted footballer with name diggy11 and also a singer,instrumentalist know as istar papa and a doctor and engineer an artisan,drama actor,knight server,priest,pastor,prophet,father ,apprentice and master,philosopher,pyschologist,scientist,I am also a chef,well let say am GIFTED HANDS FROM ABOVE. I thank god for everything mostly for my life, I schooled at central school nassarawa tootoo nassarawa state, st. Kizito nursery,primary and secondary school nassarawa state, BISHOP LAWSON NURSERY,primary and secondary school oyigbo river state,mountain top education center Kom-kom oyigbo rivers state,best brains academy oyigbo river state,jopack academy umuebelu etche rivers state, I did my apprenticeship on medicine and pharmacy in ekeson medical mile3 bayelsa line,and apprenticeship in painting cars and gas welding for a short period of 18months in Uga aguata before switching into finishing aspects of engineering work ,at nwokike concern consolidated company for space of 42 months and during those period going to cultural performance with United brothers club, hi star music club , egede and so forth for music rehearsals. I love creation, children etc and am planning to explore the world round 3kl940vdbp6am1ejmr56lfe3jx1segg 3 286449 2415597 2022-08-16T15:35:07Z Dave Braunschweig 426084 Welcome wikitext text/x-wiki {{Robelbox|theme=9|title=Welcome!|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> '''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] Ady8822!!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity. To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may <!-- The Left column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * [[Help:guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|to edit]]. * Visit a (kind of) [[Wikiversity:Random|random project]]. * [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: [[Portal: Pre-school Education|pre-school]], [[Portal: Primary Education|primary]], [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]], [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]], [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal education]]. * Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities on Wikiversity. * [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] Wikiversity with the links to your left. </div> <!-- The Right column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * Enable VisualEditor under [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta]] settings to make article editing easier. * Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] and find out [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] for Wikiversity. * Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your initial observations. * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]]. * [[Wikiversity:Chat|Chat]] with other Wikiversitans on [[:freenode:wikiversity|<kbd>#wikiversity</kbd>]]. </div> <br clear="both"/> You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 15:35, 16 August 2022 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} 08ehfu0z9agp6fwv2lkdoz9ajx4u70h 2 286450 2415598 2022-08-16T15:36:04Z Dave Braunschweig 426084 Student template wikitext text/x-wiki {{Student|Spanish}} dnoh8hyk4qqan5pfxz24xqka1hwvsp0 3 286451 2415600 2022-08-16T15:37:37Z Dave Braunschweig 426084 Welcome wikitext text/x-wiki {{Robelbox|theme=9|title=Welcome!|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> '''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] Chasedubois99!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity. To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may <!-- The Left column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * [[Help:guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|to edit]]. * Visit a (kind of) [[Wikiversity:Random|random project]]. * [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: [[Portal: Pre-school Education|pre-school]], [[Portal: Primary Education|primary]], [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]], [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]], [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal education]]. * Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities on Wikiversity. * [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] Wikiversity with the links to your left. </div> <!-- The Right column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * Enable VisualEditor under [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta]] settings to make article editing easier. * Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] and find out [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] for Wikiversity. * Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your initial observations. * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]]. * [[Wikiversity:Chat|Chat]] with other Wikiversitans on [[:freenode:wikiversity|<kbd>#wikiversity</kbd>]]. </div> <br clear="both"/> You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 15:37, 16 August 2022 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} 8rguwjqy7t9in76vkk2h6f51e5tyji6 3 286452 2415601 2022-08-16T15:38:14Z Dave Braunschweig 426084 Welcome wikitext text/x-wiki {{Robelbox|theme=9|title=Welcome!|width=100%}} <div style="{{Robelbox/pad}}"> '''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] Islam2022!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity. To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may <!-- The Left column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * [[Help:guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|to edit]]. * Visit a (kind of) [[Wikiversity:Random|random project]]. * [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: [[Portal: Pre-school Education|pre-school]], [[Portal: Primary Education|primary]], [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]], [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]], [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal education]]. * Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities on Wikiversity. * [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] Wikiversity with the links to your left. </div> <!-- The Right column --> <div style="width:50.0%; float:left"> * Enable VisualEditor under [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta]] settings to make article editing easier. * Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] and find out [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] for Wikiversity. * Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your initial observations. * Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]]. * [[Wikiversity:Chat|Chat]] with other Wikiversitans on [[:freenode:wikiversity|<kbd>#wikiversity</kbd>]]. </div> <br clear="both"/> You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 15:38, 16 August 2022 (UTC)</div> <!-- Template:Welcome --> {{Robelbox/close}} 8igk62tpuuvnu7yf1m106fz35fxefme 0 286453 2415645 2022-08-17T00:06:04Z U3216256 2942574 New resource with "{{subst:ME/BCS}} ~~~~" wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Chapter title:<br>Subtitle?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 00:06, 17 August 2022 (UTC) 7r0odiqxrgmao9qqv5mbxc3sda0af8m 1 286454 2415653 2022-08-17T00:15:14Z U3216256 2942574 /* Peer-reviewed references to look at */ new section wikitext text/x-wiki == Peer-reviewed references to look at == Hi, I have found some references through the UC library that may be of use in developing this chapter. Cox, J., Nguyen, T., & Kang, S. M. (2018). The Kindness of Strangers? An Investigation into the Interaction of Funder Motivations in Online Crowdfunding Campaigns. Kyklos (Basel), 71(2), 187–212. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/kykl.12167</nowiki> Kirby, J. N., Gerrish, R., Sherwell, C., & Gilbert, P. (2022). The Role of Likeability in Discriminating Between Kindness and Compassion. Mindfulness, 13(6), 1555–1564. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-022-01900-z</nowiki> Cotney, J. L., & Banerjee, R. (2019). Adolescents’ Conceptualizations of Kindness and its Links with Well-being: A Focus Group Study. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 36(2), 599–617. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407517738584</nowiki> Otake, K., Shimai, S., Tanaka-Matsumi, J., Otsui, K., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2006). HAPPY PEOPLE BECOME HAPPIER THROUGH KINDNESS: A COUNTING KINDNESSES INTERVENTION. Journal of Happiness Studies, 7(3), 361–375. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-005-3650-z</nowiki> [[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 00:15, 17 August 2022 (UTC) d1jb2t0zigj7rqp5iyrcvhorgxz519v 6 286455 2415680 2022-08-17T03:06:10Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=MP3.1F: Mutability - Lambda Calculus (20220815 - 20220813) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-17 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{GFDL}} }} wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=MP3.1F: Mutability - Lambda Calculus (20220815 - 20220813) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-17 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{GFDL}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} caze0s41rif9ntgeef4jmistjccb0w1 6 286456 2415684 2022-08-17T03:09:05Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=MP3.1F: Mutability - Lambda Calculus (20220816 - 20220815) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-17 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{GFDL}} }} wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=MP3.1F: Mutability - Lambda Calculus (20220816 - 20220815) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-17 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{GFDL}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} pbhxyr1du8r5tf6w013memvrsqcqph5 6 286457 2415695 2022-08-17T04:02:24Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=ARM.2ASM: Vectored Interrupt Controller (20220815 - 20220813) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-17 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{GFDL}} }} wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=ARM.2ASM: Vectored Interrupt Controller (20220815 - 20220813) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-17 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{GFDL}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} sap5dbo1jld9nx9esfnmwa7k4gjuuqm 6 286458 2415697 2022-08-17T04:06:05Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=ARM.2ASM: Vectored Interrupt Controller (20220816 - 20220815) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-17 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{GFDL}} }} wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=ARM.2ASM: Vectored Interrupt Controller (20220816 - 20220815) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-17 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{GFDL}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} r92sc6grq73ooj8mbibvcyfbk08mf32 0 286459 2415707 2022-08-17T04:44:17Z Jtneill 10242 New resource with "{{title|Chapter title:<br>Subtitle?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as show..." wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Chapter title:<br>Subtitle?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] thp5r91aziue2l80cis4wxipwwn2uzy 2415709 2415707 2022-08-17T05:07:04Z ArtOfHappiness 2947543 Chapter title wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Workplace Mental Health Training}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] mqcvwg3qq2tarxd9r63rm2kr5pcnizv 2415717 2415709 2022-08-17T05:33:56Z ArtOfHappiness 2947543 Outline wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Workplace Mental Health Training}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Workplace mental health== ==== Workplace mental health ==== ==== How does it affect the workforce? ==== ===== Health cost ===== ===== Economic cost ===== ==== Risk factors ==== ==== Productivity and workplace mental health ==== ==== Workplace mental health training ==== ===== How to train people for mental health toughness/resilience? ===== ====== Individual factors ====== Individual competence Intervention Training Building knowledge and skills Self-improvements Mindfulness Yoga Meditation How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ovn7vs3crdpwcyywj0gehbz39ixy65a 2415718 2415717 2022-08-17T05:35:35Z ArtOfHappiness 2947543 outline v1 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Workplace Mental Health Training}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Workplace mental health== ==== Workplace mental health ==== ==== How does it affect the workforce? ==== ===== Health cost ===== ===== Economic cost ===== ==== Risk factors ==== ==== Productivity and workplace mental health ==== == Workplace mental health training == === How to train people for mental health toughness/resilience? === ====== Individual factors ====== Individual competence Intervention Training Building knowledge and skills Self-improvements Mindfulness Yoga Meditation How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 2zp9fauam0znyf85i7khgw8ubfdjmfa 2415719 2415718 2022-08-17T05:39:21Z ArtOfHappiness 2947543 Outlive v2 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Workplace Mental Health Training}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Workplace mental health== ==== Workplace mental health ==== ==== How does it affect the workforce? ==== ===== Health cost ===== ===== Economic cost ===== ==== Risk factors ==== ==== Productivity and workplace mental health ==== == Workplace mental health training == === How to train people for mental health toughness/resilience? === ==== Individual factors ==== ===== Individual competence ===== ===== Intervention ===== ===== Training ===== Building knowledge and skills ===== Self-improvements ===== Mindfulness Yoga Meditation === Corporate responsibilities === ===== Staff training ===== ===== Ergonomics ===== ===== Ongoing support ===== ===== Meantal health warden ===== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] iajz07m7wesfnl1esga23r14pao6so3 2415722 2415719 2022-08-17T05:59:19Z ArtOfHappiness 2947543 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Workplace Mental Health Training}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Workplace mental health== ==== Workplace mental health ==== ==== How does it affect the workforce? ==== ===== Health cost ===== ===== Economic cost ===== ==== Risk factors ==== ==== Productivity and workplace mental health ==== == Workplace mental health training == === How to train people for mental health toughness/resilience? === ==== Individual factors ==== ===== Individual competence ===== ===== Intervention ===== ===== Training ===== Building knowledge and skills ===== Self-improvements ===== Mindfulness Yoga Meditation === Corporate responsibilities === ===== Staff training ===== ===== Ergonomics ===== ===== Ongoing support ===== ===== Cultural competency ===== ===== Mental health warden ===== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 8y07xeffk97hlszshppeuu6neq4h3st 2415724 2415722 2022-08-17T06:02:59Z ArtOfHappiness 2947543 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Workplace Mental Health Training}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Workplace mental health== ==== Workplace mental health ==== ==== How does it affect the workforce? ==== ===== Health cost ===== ===== Economic cost ===== ==== Risk factors ==== ==== Productivity and workplace mental health ==== == Workplace mental health training == === How to train people for mental health toughness/resilience? === ==== Individual factors ==== ===== Individual competence ===== ===== Intervention ===== ===== Training ===== Building knowledge and skills ===== Self-improvements ===== Mindfulness Yoga Meditation === Corporate responsibilities === ===== Staff training ===== ===== Ergonomics ===== ===== Ongoing support ===== ===== Cultural competency ===== ===== Mental health warden ===== == Psychological theories and their influence on workplace mental health training == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] jl1ct38ybxsichaa8q31sj5y5zc9btc 2415739 2415724 2022-08-17T06:23:26Z ArtOfHappiness 2947543 wikitext text/x-wiki {{{1}}} {{title|Workplace Mental Health Training (WMHT) Techniques in use to address WMHT and their impacts}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Workplace mental health== ==== Workplace mental health ==== ==== How does it affect the workforce? ==== ===== Health cost ===== ===== Economic cost ===== ==== Risk factors ==== ==== Productivity and workplace mental health ==== == Workplace mental health training == === How to train people for mental health toughness/resilience? === ==== Individual factors ==== ===== Individual competence ===== ===== Intervention ===== ===== Training ===== Building knowledge and skills ===== Self-improvements ===== Mindfulness Yoga Meditation === Corporate responsibilities === ===== Staff training ===== ===== Ergonomics ===== ===== Ongoing support ===== ===== Cultural competency ===== ===== Mental health warden ===== == Psychological theories and their influence on workplace mental health training == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 4x3td7k7gea9j5ocpbix28urighdsum 2415740 2415739 2022-08-17T06:24:18Z ArtOfHappiness 2947543 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Workplace Mental Health Training (WMHT)}} {{Techniques in use to address WMHT and their impacts}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Workplace mental health== ==== Workplace mental health ==== ==== How does it affect the workforce? ==== ===== Health cost ===== ===== Economic cost ===== ==== Risk factors ==== ==== Productivity and workplace mental health ==== == Workplace mental health training == === How to train people for mental health toughness/resilience? === ==== Individual factors ==== ===== Individual competence ===== ===== Intervention ===== ===== Training ===== Building knowledge and skills ===== Self-improvements ===== Mindfulness Yoga Meditation === Corporate responsibilities === ===== Staff training ===== ===== Ergonomics ===== ===== Ongoing support ===== ===== Cultural competency ===== ===== Mental health warden ===== == Psychological theories and their influence on workplace mental health training == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] b1cqvrukfev3uqtkwylyq6t2m3pczsx 2415741 2415740 2022-08-17T06:25:53Z ArtOfHappiness 2947543 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Workplace Mental Health Training (WMHT)}} {{subtitle|Techniques in use to address WMHT and their impacts}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Workplace mental health== ==== Workplace mental health ==== ==== How does it affect the workforce? ==== ===== Health cost ===== ===== Economic cost ===== ==== Risk factors ==== ==== Productivity and workplace mental health ==== == Workplace mental health training == === How to train people for mental health toughness/resilience? === ==== Individual factors ==== ===== Individual competence ===== ===== Intervention ===== ===== Training ===== Building knowledge and skills ===== Self-improvements ===== Mindfulness Yoga Meditation === Corporate responsibilities === ===== Staff training ===== ===== Ergonomics ===== ===== Ongoing support ===== ===== Cultural competency ===== ===== Mental health warden ===== == Psychological theories and their influence on workplace mental health training == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] m5ie4509p47a7xckbfpt0aii5k4r88w 2415743 2415741 2022-08-17T06:27:50Z ArtOfHappiness 2947543 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Workplace Mental Health Training (WMHT)}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ {{title|Techniques used for WMHT and their impact}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Workplace mental health== ==== Workplace mental health ==== ==== How does it affect the workforce? ==== ===== Health cost ===== ===== Economic cost ===== ==== Risk factors ==== ==== Productivity and workplace mental health ==== == Workplace mental health training == === How to train people for mental health toughness/resilience? === ==== Individual factors ==== ===== Individual competence ===== ===== Intervention ===== ===== Training ===== Building knowledge and skills ===== Self-improvements ===== Mindfulness Yoga Meditation === Corporate responsibilities === ===== Staff training ===== ===== Ergonomics ===== ===== Ongoing support ===== ===== Cultural competency ===== ===== Mental health warden ===== == Psychological theories and their influence on workplace mental health training == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] tnizv4hwd5xpp1jpocqkf32kx49bi9b 2415745 2415743 2022-08-17T06:28:26Z ArtOfHappiness 2947543 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Workplace Mental Health Training (WMHT)}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ {{title|Techniques used for WMHT and their impact}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Workplace mental health== ==== Workplace mental health ==== ==== How does it affect the workforce? ==== ===== Health cost ===== ===== Economic cost ===== ==== Risk factors ==== ==== Productivity and workplace mental health ==== == Workplace mental health training == === How to train people for mental health toughness/resilience? === ==== Individual factors ==== ===== Individual competence ===== ===== Intervention ===== ===== Training ===== Building knowledge and skills ===== Self-improvements ===== Mindfulness Yoga Meditation === Corporate responsibilities === ===== Staff training ===== ===== Ergonomics ===== ===== Ongoing support ===== ===== Cultural competency ===== ===== Mental health warden ===== == Psychological theories and their influence on workplace mental health training == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] nvq5s6k2attboif27xm3g5qcz8ymzx0 2415748 2415745 2022-08-17T06:30:13Z ArtOfHappiness 2947543 Undo revision 2415745 by [[Special:Contributions/ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]] ([[User talk:ArtOfHappiness|talk]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Workplace Mental Health Training (WMHT)}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ {{title|Techniques used for WMHT and their impact}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Workplace mental health== ==== Workplace mental health ==== ==== How does it affect the workforce? ==== ===== Health cost ===== ===== Economic cost ===== ==== Risk factors ==== ==== Productivity and workplace mental health ==== == Workplace mental health training == === How to train people for mental health toughness/resilience? === ==== Individual factors ==== ===== Individual competence ===== ===== Intervention ===== ===== Training ===== Building knowledge and skills ===== Self-improvements ===== Mindfulness Yoga Meditation === Corporate responsibilities === ===== Staff training ===== ===== Ergonomics ===== ===== Ongoing support ===== ===== Cultural competency ===== ===== Mental health warden ===== == Psychological theories and their influence on workplace mental health training == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] tnizv4hwd5xpp1jpocqkf32kx49bi9b 2415749 2415748 2022-08-17T06:31:00Z ArtOfHappiness 2947543 Undo revision 2415743 by [[Special:Contributions/ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]] ([[User talk:ArtOfHappiness|talk]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Workplace Mental Health Training (WMHT)}} {{subtitle|Techniques in use to address WMHT and their impacts}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Workplace mental health== ==== Workplace mental health ==== ==== How does it affect the workforce? ==== ===== Health cost ===== ===== Economic cost ===== ==== Risk factors ==== ==== Productivity and workplace mental health ==== == Workplace mental health training == === How to train people for mental health toughness/resilience? === ==== Individual factors ==== ===== Individual competence ===== ===== Intervention ===== ===== Training ===== Building knowledge and skills ===== Self-improvements ===== Mindfulness Yoga Meditation === Corporate responsibilities === ===== Staff training ===== ===== Ergonomics ===== ===== Ongoing support ===== ===== Cultural competency ===== ===== Mental health warden ===== == Psychological theories and their influence on workplace mental health training == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] m5ie4509p47a7xckbfpt0aii5k4r88w 2415751 2415749 2022-08-17T06:31:39Z ArtOfHappiness 2947543 Undo revision 2415741 by [[Special:Contributions/ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]] ([[User talk:ArtOfHappiness|talk]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Workplace Mental Health Training (WMHT)}} {{Techniques in use to address WMHT and their impacts}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Workplace mental health== ==== Workplace mental health ==== ==== How does it affect the workforce? ==== ===== Health cost ===== ===== Economic cost ===== ==== Risk factors ==== ==== Productivity and workplace mental health ==== == Workplace mental health training == === How to train people for mental health toughness/resilience? === ==== Individual factors ==== ===== Individual competence ===== ===== Intervention ===== ===== Training ===== Building knowledge and skills ===== Self-improvements ===== Mindfulness Yoga Meditation === Corporate responsibilities === ===== Staff training ===== ===== Ergonomics ===== ===== Ongoing support ===== ===== Cultural competency ===== ===== Mental health warden ===== == Psychological theories and their influence on workplace mental health training == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] b1cqvrukfev3uqtkwylyq6t2m3pczsx 2415752 2415751 2022-08-17T06:32:11Z ArtOfHappiness 2947543 Undo revision 2415740 by [[Special:Contributions/ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]] ([[User talk:ArtOfHappiness|talk]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{{1}}} {{title|Workplace Mental Health Training (WMHT) Techniques in use to address WMHT and their impacts}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Workplace mental health== ==== Workplace mental health ==== ==== How does it affect the workforce? ==== ===== Health cost ===== ===== Economic cost ===== ==== Risk factors ==== ==== Productivity and workplace mental health ==== == Workplace mental health training == === How to train people for mental health toughness/resilience? === ==== Individual factors ==== ===== Individual competence ===== ===== Intervention ===== ===== Training ===== Building knowledge and skills ===== Self-improvements ===== Mindfulness Yoga Meditation === Corporate responsibilities === ===== Staff training ===== ===== Ergonomics ===== ===== Ongoing support ===== ===== Cultural competency ===== ===== Mental health warden ===== == Psychological theories and their influence on workplace mental health training == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 4x3td7k7gea9j5ocpbix28urighdsum 2415753 2415752 2022-08-17T06:33:01Z ArtOfHappiness 2947543 Undo revision 2415739 by [[Special:Contributions/ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]] ([[User talk:ArtOfHappiness|talk]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Workplace Mental Health Training}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Workplace mental health== ==== Workplace mental health ==== ==== How does it affect the workforce? ==== ===== Health cost ===== ===== Economic cost ===== ==== Risk factors ==== ==== Productivity and workplace mental health ==== == Workplace mental health training == === How to train people for mental health toughness/resilience? === ==== Individual factors ==== ===== Individual competence ===== ===== Intervention ===== ===== Training ===== Building knowledge and skills ===== Self-improvements ===== Mindfulness Yoga Meditation === Corporate responsibilities === ===== Staff training ===== ===== Ergonomics ===== ===== Ongoing support ===== ===== Cultural competency ===== ===== Mental health warden ===== == Psychological theories and their influence on workplace mental health training == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] jl1ct38ybxsichaa8q31sj5y5zc9btc 2415756 2415753 2022-08-17T06:34:14Z ArtOfHappiness 2947543 Undo revision 2415709 by [[Special:Contributions/ArtOfHappiness|ArtOfHappiness]] ([[User talk:ArtOfHappiness|talk]]) wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Chapter title:<br>Subtitle?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Workplace mental health== ==== Workplace mental health ==== ==== How does it affect the workforce? ==== ===== Health cost ===== ===== Economic cost ===== ==== Risk factors ==== ==== Productivity and workplace mental health ==== == Workplace mental health training == === How to train people for mental health toughness/resilience? === ==== Individual factors ==== ===== Individual competence ===== ===== Intervention ===== ===== Training ===== Building knowledge and skills ===== Self-improvements ===== Mindfulness Yoga Meditation === Corporate responsibilities === ===== Staff training ===== ===== Ergonomics ===== ===== Ongoing support ===== ===== Cultural competency ===== ===== Mental health warden ===== == Psychological theories and their influence on workplace mental health training == How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 5uc80a6kkkzxqecsarpdcnfzsgl3zew 2 286460 2415710 2022-08-17T05:14:41Z ArtOfHappiness 2947543 About me test wikitext text/x-wiki About me Hi I am Manav. I am studying at the '''University of Canberra'''. I volunteer with '''MIEACT''', '''Reach Out Canberra''' and '''Lifeline'''. 3v5pobhbz7pkv5tdqiuavkl5ey36nfe 2415713 2415710 2022-08-17T05:17:48Z ArtOfHappiness 2947543 About, external links wikitext text/x-wiki About me Hi I am Manav. I am studying at the '''University of Canberra'''. I volunteer with '''[https://mieact.org.au/ MIEACT]''', '''[https://reachoutcanberra.com.au/ Reach Out Canberra]''' and '''[https://www.lifeline.org.au/ Lifeline]'''. szmyyu3kqgo6j7bt2zh4vpuewxe19t1 2415715 2415713 2022-08-17T05:23:34Z ArtOfHappiness 2947543 About me, interest and qualifications wikitext text/x-wiki == About me == Hi I am Manav. I am studying at the '''University of Canberra'''. I volunteer with '''[https://mieact.org.au/ MIEACT]''', '''[https://reachoutcanberra.com.au/ Reach Out Canberra]''' and '''[https://www.lifeline.org.au/ Lifeline]'''. === Interests === ==== Cooking ==== ==== Painting ==== ==== Woodworking ==== ==== Photography ==== === Qualification === * Bachelor of Engineering - Chemical (1996) * Master of International Business (2000) * Bachelor of Science in Psychology (2022) * Certificate IV in Mental Health (2022) ==== Work Experience ==== g3moemyv1vdvdxjhly7eyc8kggy2w52 6 286461 2415712 2022-08-17T05:17:45Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=ARM.4ASM: UART Architecture (20220815 - 20220813) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-17 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{GFDL}} }} wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=ARM.4ASM: UART Architecture (20220815 - 20220813) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-17 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{GFDL}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} t0wpdmjo0v5tza2grsb1e1jm6562pl4 6 286462 2415716 2022-08-17T05:25:07Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=ARM.4ASM: UART Architecture (20220816 - 20220815) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-17 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{GFDL}} }} wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=ARM.4ASM: UART Architecture (20220816 - 20220815) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-17 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{GFDL}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} 7vuewcnlflkx8uz85h79ljvmz9423gs 0 286463 2415720 2022-08-17T05:47:37Z Hanarose123 2946863 New resource with "{{title|Chapter title:<br>Subtitle?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as show..." wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Chapter title:<br>Subtitle?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is the first focus question? * What is the second focus question? * What is the third focus question? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] thp5r91aziue2l80cis4wxipwwn2uzy 2415721 2415720 2022-08-17T05:51:26Z Hanarose123 2946863 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Courage }} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== You are underway {{smile}}! This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]]. At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark. This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help. {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is courage? * What are the different types of courage? * How can courage be motivated? * How can courage be enhanced? {{RoundBoxBottom}} {{tip| Suggestions for this section: * What is the problem? Why is it important? * How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help? * Provide an example or case study. * Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter. }} ==Main headings== How you are going to structure the chapter? Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]]. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations. * For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs. * If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading. }} ==Learning features== What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter. ===Case studies=== Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]]. ===Boxes=== Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include: * Focus questions * Case studies or examples * Quiz questions * Take-home messages {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} ;Feature box example * Shaded background * Coloured border {{RoundBoxBottom}} ===Figures=== [[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]] Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). ===Links=== Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?). ===Tables=== Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2). Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted. ===Quizzes=== Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia. Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click "Submit": <quiz display=simple> {Quizzes are an interactive learning feature: |type="()"} + True - False {Long quizzes are a good idea: |type="()"} - True + False </quiz> To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]]. ==Conclusion== The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic. {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)? * What are the answers to the focus questions? * What are the practical, take-home messages? }} ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example: * [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne) * [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] m909vyn8if71lvktqg7x0cjvqe5pyv8 2415729 2415721 2022-08-17T06:16:12Z Hanarose123 2946863 /* Overview */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Courage: How is it motivated and how can it be enhanced?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== #* Define courage from a emotion perspective #* Define different types of courage #* Explain how courage can be expressed and how this differs between certain individuals #* Explain how courage can be motivated #* Explain how courage can be enhanced - physiologically and psychologically {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is courage? * What are the different types of courage? * How can courage be motivated? * How can courage be enhanced? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is courage == * The three dimensions of courage (Gould, 2011) * Implicit theories of courage (Rate, Clarke, Lindsay, & Sternberg, 2007) ==What are the different types of courage?== * General v Personal courage (Pury, Kowalski, & Spearman, 2007) * Civil courage (Greitemeyer, Osswald, Fischer, & Frey, 2007) * Physical v Moral courage (Olsthoorn, 2007) == How can courage be expressed? == * The subjective act and experience of courage (Hannah, Sweeney, & Lester, 2007) * Theoretical and empirical evaluation of courage measure (Howard & Alipour, 2014) * Courage in nursing practices (Lindh, Barbosa da Silva, Berg, & Severinsson, 2010) == What motivates courage? == == How can courage be enhanced? == ==Conclusion == * summarising key points - answer focus question; what is courage, what motivates it and what enhances it * final message 1 - everyone has different levels of courage in different situations - do not be discouraged if you feel limited. * final message 2 - courage can be enhanced, as shown above so do not panic or feel helpless if you currently have little courage ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== * https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BuLBmE0OvuY<nowiki/>(Aristotle's Courage - Youtube) * https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P5H0rDWgEeU (How to Build Your Courage - TEDtalk) * https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/courage<nowiki/>(Courage - Merriam-Webster) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] cyh3c9g48yiyelaywc5nlgkpn61lzzw 2415731 2415729 2022-08-17T06:17:03Z Hanarose123 2946863 /* How can courage be enhanced? */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Courage: How is it motivated and how can it be enhanced?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== #* Define courage from a emotion perspective #* Define different types of courage #* Explain how courage can be expressed and how this differs between certain individuals #* Explain how courage can be motivated #* Explain how courage can be enhanced - physiologically and psychologically {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is courage? * What are the different types of courage? * How can courage be motivated? * How can courage be enhanced? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is courage == * The three dimensions of courage (Gould, 2011) * Implicit theories of courage (Rate, Clarke, Lindsay, & Sternberg, 2007) ==What are the different types of courage?== * General v Personal courage (Pury, Kowalski, & Spearman, 2007) * Civil courage (Greitemeyer, Osswald, Fischer, & Frey, 2007) * Physical v Moral courage (Olsthoorn, 2007) == How can courage be expressed? == * The subjective act and experience of courage (Hannah, Sweeney, & Lester, 2007) * Theoretical and empirical evaluation of courage measure (Howard & Alipour, 2014) * Courage in nursing practices (Lindh, Barbosa da Silva, Berg, & Severinsson, 2010) == What motivates courage? == == How can courage be enhanced? == * Skills to develop courage (Gould, 2011)<br /> ==Conclusion == * Summarising key points - answer focus question; what is courage, what motivates it and what enhances it * Final message 1 - everyone has different levels of courage in different situations - do not be discouraged if you feel limited. * Final message 2 - courage can be enhanced, as shown above so do not panic or feel helpless if you currently have little courage ==See also== Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example: * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016) * [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia) * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018) * [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example: {{Hanging indent|1= Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8 Buckholtz, J. W., & Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006 Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., & Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x }} {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== * https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BuLBmE0OvuY<nowiki/>(Aristotle's Courage - Youtube) * https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P5H0rDWgEeU (How to Build Your Courage - TEDtalk) * https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/courage<nowiki/>(Courage - Merriam-Webster) {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Only select links to major external resources about the topic * Present in alphabetical order * Include the source in parentheses after the link }} [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 8bman29uc53l5y34e2y5epg0jagifom 2415742 2415731 2022-08-17T06:27:41Z Hanarose123 2946863 /* References */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Courage: How is it motivated and how can it be enhanced?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== This chapter focuses on defining [[wikipedia:Laziness]], the causes of laziness and how to become less lazy. In order to know how to become less lazy, an understanding of what laziness is and the causes are required. Knowing the psychological definition of laziness, and the cause of individual laziness, allows for each individual to apply theory to their experience, and ultimately become less lazy. Also important is the distinction between laziness and procrastination, as they are often misconceived as the same. ==Overview== #* Define courage from an emotion perspective #* Define different types of courage #* Explain how courage can be expressed and how this differs between certain individuals #* Explain how courage can be motivated #* Explain how courage can be enhanced - physiologically and psychologically {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is courage? * What are the different types of courage? * How can courage be motivated? * How can courage be enhanced? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is courage == * The three dimensions of courage (Gould, 2011) * Implicit theories of courage (Rate, Clarke, Lindsay, & Sternberg, 2007) ==What are the different types of courage?== * General v Personal courage (Pury, Kowalski, & Spearman, 2007) * Civil courage (Greitemeyer, Osswald, Fischer, & Frey, 2007) * Physical v Moral courage (Olsthoorn, 2007) == How can courage be expressed? == * The subjective act and experience of courage (Hannah, Sweeney, & Lester, 2007) * Theoretical and empirical evaluation of courage measure (Howard & Alipour, 2014) * Courage in nursing practices (Lindh, Barbosa da Silva, Berg, & Severinsson, 2010) == What motivates courage? == == How can courage be enhanced? == * Skills to develop courage (Gould, 2011)<br /> ==Conclusion == * Summarising key points - answer focus question; what is courage, what motivates it and what enhances it * Final message 1 - everyone has different levels of courage in different situations - do not be discouraged if you feel limited. * Final message 2 - courage can be enhanced, as shown above so do not panic or feel helpless if you currently have little courage ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Courage|Courage]] (Wikipedia) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== * https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BuLBmE0OvuY<nowiki/>(Aristotle's Courage - Youtube) * https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P5H0rDWgEeU (How to Build Your Courage - TEDtalk) * https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/courage<nowiki/>(Courage - Merriam-Webster) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] kjbpmo5jgf02s1a0czai3hcqr2hjhrs 2415750 2415742 2022-08-17T06:31:35Z Hanarose123 2946863 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Courage: How is it motivated and how can it be enhanced?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== This chapter focuses on defining [[wikipedia:Laziness]], the causes of laziness and how to become less lazy. In order to know how to become less lazy, an understanding of what laziness is and the causes are required. Knowing the psychological definition of laziness, and the cause of individual laziness, allows for each individual to apply theory to their experience, and ultimately become less lazy. Also important is the distinction between laziness and procrastination, as they are often misconceived as the same. ==Overview== #* Define courage from an emotion perspective #* Define different types of courage #* Explain how courage can be expressed and how this differs between certain individuals #* Explain how courage can be motivated #* Explain how courage can be enhanced - physiologically and psychologically {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is courage? * What are the different types of courage? * How can courage be motivated? * How can courage be enhanced? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is courage == * The three dimensions of courage (Gould, 2011) * Implicit theories of courage (Rate, Clarke, Lindsay, & Sternberg, 2007) ==What are the different types of courage?== * General v Personal courage (Pury, Kowalski, & Spearman, 2007) * Civil courage (Greitemeyer, Osswald, Fischer, & Frey, 2007) * Physical v Moral courage (Olsthoorn, 2007) == How can courage be expressed? == * The subjective act and experience of courage (Hannah, Sweeney, & Lester, 2007) * Theoretical and empirical evaluation of courage measure (Howard & Alipour, 2014) * Courage in nursing practices (Lindh, Barbosa da Silva, Berg, & Severinsson, 2010) == What motivates courage? == == How can courage be enhanced? == * Skills to develop courage (Gould, 2011)<br /> ==Conclusion == * Summarising key points - answer focus question; what is courage, what motivates it and what enhances it * Final message 1 - everyone has different levels of courage in different situations - do not be discouraged if you feel limited. * Final message 2 - courage can be enhanced, as shown above so do not panic or feel helpless if you currently have little courage ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Courage|Courage]] (Wikipedia) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== * https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BuLBmE0OvuY<nowiki/>(Aristotle's Courage - Youtube) * https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P5H0rDWgEeU (How to Build Your Courage - TEDtalk) * https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/courage<nowiki/>(Courage - Merriam-Webster) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 54hu3jp27yf2kprmv3175jiva5txnwr 2415754 2415750 2022-08-17T06:33:05Z Hanarose123 2946863 /* Overview */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Courage: How is it motivated and how can it be enhanced?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== #* Define courage from an emotion perspective #* Define different types of courage #* Explain how courage can be expressed and how this differs between certain individuals #* Explain how courage can be motivated #* Explain how courage can be enhanced - physiologically and psychologically {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is courage? * What are the different types of courage? * How can courage be motivated? * How can courage be enhanced? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is courage == * The three dimensions of courage (Gould, 2011) * Implicit theories of courage (Rate, Clarke, Lindsay, & Sternberg, 2007) ==What are the different types of courage?== * General v Personal courage (Pury, Kowalski, & Spearman, 2007) * Civil courage (Greitemeyer, Osswald, Fischer, & Frey, 2007) * Physical v Moral courage (Olsthoorn, 2007) == How can courage be expressed? == * The subjective act and experience of courage (Hannah, Sweeney, & Lester, 2007) * Theoretical and empirical evaluation of courage measure (Howard & Alipour, 2014) * Courage in nursing practices (Lindh, Barbosa da Silva, Berg, & Severinsson, 2010) == What motivates courage? == == How can courage be enhanced? == * Skills to develop courage (Gould, 2011)<br /> ==Conclusion == * Summarising key points - answer focus question; what is courage, what motivates it and what enhances it * Final message 1 - everyone has different levels of courage in different situations - do not be discouraged if you feel limited. * Final message 2 - courage can be enhanced, as shown above so do not panic or feel helpless if you currently have little courage ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Courage|Courage]] (Wikipedia) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== * https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BuLBmE0OvuY<nowiki/>(Aristotle's Courage - Youtube) * https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P5H0rDWgEeU (How to Build Your Courage - TEDtalk) * https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/courage<nowiki/>(Courage - Merriam-Webster) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] trnu5nbvo2hss5rvq1vemjiq0tepgb8 2415767 2415754 2022-08-17T07:04:42Z Hanarose123 2946863 /* Overview */ wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Courage: How is it motivated and how can it be enhanced?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== #* Define courage from an emotion perspective #* Define different types of courage #* Explain how courage can be expressed and how this differs between certain individuals #* Explain how courage can be motivated #* Explain how courage can be enhanced - physiologically and psychologically {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is courage? * What are the different types of courage? * How can courage be expressed? * How can courage be motivated? * How can courage be enhanced? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is courage == * The three dimensions of courage (Gould, 2011) * Implicit theories of courage (Rate, Clarke, Lindsay, & Sternberg, 2007) ==What are the different types of courage?== * General v Personal courage (Pury, Kowalski, & Spearman, 2007) * Civil courage (Greitemeyer, Osswald, Fischer, & Frey, 2007) * Physical v Moral courage (Olsthoorn, 2007) == How can courage be expressed? == * The subjective act and experience of courage (Hannah, Sweeney, & Lester, 2007) * Theoretical and empirical evaluation of courage measure (Howard & Alipour, 2014) * Courage in nursing practices (Lindh, Barbosa da Silva, Berg, & Severinsson, 2010) == What motivates courage? == * Having the courage to make the right decision in medical ethics (Malik, Conroy, & Turner, 2020) == How can courage be enhanced? == * Skills to develop courage (Gould, 2011)<br /> ==Conclusion == * Summarising key points - answer focus question; what is courage, what motivates it and what enhances it * Final message 1 - everyone has different levels of courage in different situations - do not be discouraged if you feel limited. * Final message 2 - courage can be enhanced, as shown above so do not panic or feel helpless if you currently have little courage ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Courage|Courage]] (Wikipedia) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== * https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BuLBmE0OvuY<nowiki/>(Aristotle's Courage - Youtube) * https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P5H0rDWgEeU (How to Build Your Courage - TEDtalk) * https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/courage<nowiki/>(Courage - Merriam-Webster) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] hmpqdvoor3s4vme155izftxxoreycqe 2415770 2415767 2022-08-17T07:21:58Z Hanarose123 2946863 wikitext text/x-wiki {{title|Courage: How is it motivated and how can it be enhanced?}} {{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}} __TOC__ ==Overview== #* Define courage from an emotion perspective #* Define different types of courage #* Explain how courage can be expressed and how this differs between certain individuals #* Explain how courage can be motivated #* Explain how courage can be enhanced - physiologically and psychologically {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} '''Focus questions:''' * What is courage? * What are the different types of courage? * How can courage be expressed? * How can courage be motivated? * How can courage be enhanced? {{RoundBoxBottom}} ==What is courage == * The three dimensions of courage (Gould, 2011) * Implicit theories of courage (Rate, Clarke, Lindsay, & Sternberg, 2007) ==What are the different types of courage?== * General v Personal courage (Pury, Kowalski, & Spearman, 2007) * Civil courage (Greitemeyer, Osswald, Fischer, & Frey, 2007) * Physical v Moral courage (Olsthoorn, 2007) * Courage in the military (Olsthoorn, 2007) == How can courage be expressed? == * The subjective act and experience of courage (Hannah, Sweeney, & Lester, 2007) * Theoretical and empirical evaluation of courage measure (Howard & Alipour, 2014) * Courage in nursing practices (Lindh, Barbosa da Silva, Berg, & Severinsson, 2010 * Courage expression through Locke and Latham’s Legacy (Oettingen, 2019) == What motivates courage? == * Having the courage to make the right decision in medical ethics (Malik, Conroy, & Turner, 2020) * Determinants of courage (Ozkaptan, 1994) == How can courage be enhanced? == * Skills to develop courage (Gould, 2011)<br /> ==Conclusion == * Summarising key points - answer focus question; what is courage, what motivates it and what enhances it * Final message 1 - everyone has different levels of courage in different situations - do not be discouraged if you feel limited. * Final message 2 - courage can be enhanced, as shown above so do not panic or feel helpless if you currently have little courage ==See also== * [[wikipedia:Courage|Courage]] (Wikipedia) * {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Present in alphabetical order. * Include the source in parentheses. }} ==References== {{tip|Suggestions for this section: * Important aspects for APA style include: ** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using "Edit source": <nowiki>{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}</nowiki> ** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces ** Year of publication in parentheses ** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop. ** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop. ** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink * Common mistakes include: ** incorrect capitalisation ** incorrect italicisation ** providing a "retrieved from" date (not part of APA 7th ed. style). ** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted }} ==External links== * https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BuLBmE0OvuY<nowiki/>(Aristotle's Courage - Youtube) * https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P5H0rDWgEeU (How to Build Your Courage - TEDtalk) * https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/courage<nowiki/>(Courage - Merriam-Webster) [[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 1fg485qxk2oxkdv5jhtft47ia8iyfav 6 286464 2415735 2022-08-17T06:22:21Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=ELF1.1E: Weak and Common Symbols (20220815 - 20220813) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-17 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=ELF1.1E: Weak and Common Symbols (20220815 - 20220813) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-17 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} o1bv4nksdw3foc7lzh8ngpfzmvmnbhc 6 286465 2415738 2022-08-17T06:23:14Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=ELF1.1E: Weak and Common Symbols (20220816 - 20220815) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-17 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=ELF1.1E: Weak and Common Symbols (20220816 - 20220815) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-17 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} py216cet2yafvrm8na5hk2egnnd98h1 14 286466 2415765 2022-08-17T07:02:56Z Jtneill 10242 New resource with "[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Hypothalamus]]" wikitext text/x-wiki [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Hypothalamus]] 794annmvgl22tuawrktjlqnt12kgidc 2415766 2415765 2022-08-17T07:03:19Z Jtneill 10242 wikitext text/x-wiki [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book]] el9qvhucy3r3wr6hsy1s5wiw7gf7i80 6 286467 2415769 2022-08-17T07:12:06Z Marshallsumter 311529 {{Information1 |Description = High-titanium lunar basalt is shown near Apollo 11 landing site. |Source = The image appears on a website entitled, "Map the Chemical Composition of the Moon" at https://makezine.com/article/science/map-the-chemical-composition-of-the-moon/. |Date = 26 October 2010 |Author = Michael A. Covington |Rationale = No free licensed or public domain alternatives known to exist to show high-titanium blue lunar basalt near the Apollo 11 landing site with cyan tinted lunar... wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information1 |Description = High-titanium lunar basalt is shown near Apollo 11 landing site. |Source = The image appears on a website entitled, "Map the Chemical Composition of the Moon" at https://makezine.com/article/science/map-the-chemical-composition-of-the-moon/. |Date = 26 October 2010 |Author = Michael A. Covington |Rationale = No free licensed or public domain alternatives known to exist to show high-titanium blue lunar basalt near the Apollo 11 landing site with cyan tinted lunar soil nearby. |Permission = Fair Use }} {{Fairuse}} [[Category:Moon images]] pqj4eyehs1j92ynisqnbdvuyn0w6fqf 6 286468 2415772 2022-08-17T07:29:13Z Marshallsumter 311529 {{Information1 |Description = Products of the ancient volcanic activity on the Moon include the submillimeter-sized orange glass beads from a trench dug at the rim of Shorty Crater at the Apollo 17 site.. |Source = The image appears on a website entitled, "Lunar Orange Glass Beads" at http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/CosmoSparks/Jan19/lunar-orange-glass-beads.html. |Date = 20 July 1969 |Author = Astronaut Harrison H. "Jack" Schmitt, Apollo 17, NASA |Rationale = No free licensed or public domain alt... wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information1 |Description = Products of the ancient volcanic activity on the Moon include the submillimeter-sized orange glass beads from a trench dug at the rim of Shorty Crater at the Apollo 17 site.. |Source = The image appears on a website entitled, "Lunar Orange Glass Beads" at http://www.psrd.hawaii.edu/CosmoSparks/Jan19/lunar-orange-glass-beads.html. |Date = 20 July 1969 |Author = Astronaut Harrison H. "Jack" Schmitt, Apollo 17, NASA |Rationale = No free licensed or public domain alternatives known to exist to show products of the ancient volcanic activity on the Moon including the submillimeter-sized orange glass beads which supplied the orange color to the soil exposed from a trench dug at the rim of Shorty Crater at the Apollo 17 site. |Permission = Fair Use }} {{Fairuse}} [[Category:Moon images]] sy5n4nh1sr3yf8vm6o06cm8o5zmn4kg 1 286471 2415780 2022-08-17T08:27:23Z Jtneill 10242 /* SSRIs */ new section wikitext text/x-wiki == SSRIs == It might be helpful to discuss SSRIs. -- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - <small>[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]</small> 08:27, 17 August 2022 (UTC) ceaj30t7449teuyndp04y4qvcls68mp 6 286473 2415786 2022-08-17T08:55:12Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=5MRV.3B: Stationary Random Process Examples (20220815 - 20220813) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-17 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=5MRV.3B: Stationary Random Process Examples (20220815 - 20220813) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-17 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} mrqnw1cjr9s6totulmu3ktcef8w2kwg 6 286474 2415788 2022-08-17T08:56:04Z Young1lim 21186 {{Information |Description=5MRV.3B: Stationary Random Process Examples (20220816 - 20220815) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-17 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} wikitext text/x-wiki == Summary == {{Information |Description=5MRV.3B: Stationary Random Process Examples (20220816 - 20220815) |Source={{own|Young1lim}} |Date=2022-08-17 |Author=Young W. Lim |Permission={{cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} }} == Licensing == {{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}} q6j8l9hrl8m02amb5qdt40y0sfipsla